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1
Kristiansen, Eirik, Stian Larsen, Markus E. Haugen, Eric Helms, and Roland van den Tillaar. "A Biomechanical Comparison of the Safety-Bar, High-Bar and Low-Bar Squat around the Sticking Region among Recreationally Resistance-Trained Men and Women." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 16 (August 6, 2021): 8351. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18168351.
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Barbell placement can affect squat performance around the sticking region. This study compared kinematics, kinetics, and myoelectric activity of the safety-bar squat with the high-bar, and low-bar squat around the sticking region. Six recreationally resistance-trained men (26.3 ± 3.1 years, body mass: 81 ± 7.7 kg) and eight women (22.1 ± 2.2 years, body mass: 65.7 ± 10.5 kg) performed three repetition maximums in all three squat conditions. The participants lifted the least load with the safety bar followed by the high-bar and then the low-bar squat. Greater myoelectric activity of the gluteus maximus was observed during safety-bar squats than high-bar squats. Also, larger knee extension moments were observed for the safety bar compared with low-bar squat. Men had higher myoelectric activity in the safety-bar condition for the gluteus maximus during all regions in comparison with women, and greater knee valgus at the second occurrence of peak barbell velocity. Our findings suggest that the more upright torso inclination during the safety-bar could allow greater gluteus maximus contribution to the hip extensor moment. Moreover, low-bar squats allowed the greatest loads to be lifted, followed by the high-bar and safety-bar squats, possibly due to the larger hip moments and similar knee moments compared to the other squat conditions. Therefore, when the goal is to lift the greatest load possible among recreationally trained men and women, they should first attempt squatting with a low-bar technique, and if the goal is to increase myoelectric activity in the gluteus maximus, a safety-bar squat may be the more effective than the high- bar squat.
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Talarico, Maria K., Robert C. Lynall, Timothy C. Mauntel, Erin B. Wasserman, Darin A. Padua, and Jason P. Mihalik. "Effect of Single-Leg Squat Speed and Depth on Dynamic Postural Control Under Single-Task and Dual-Task Paradigms." Journal of Applied Biomechanics 35, no. 4 (August 1, 2019): 272–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jab.2018-0327.
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Although single-leg squats are a common dynamic balance clinical assessment, little is known about the relationship between parameters that influence squat movement and postural control performance. The objective of this study was to determine the relationships between squat parameters (speed and depth) and postural control under single task and dual task. A total of 30 healthy college students performed single-leg squats under single task and dual task with Stroop. Random-intercepts generalized linear mixed models determined the effect of squat parameters on center of pressure (CoP) parameters. For each 1-cm·s−1 increase in squat speed, sway range (mediolateral: β = −0.03; anteroposterior: β = −0.05) and area (β = −0.25) decreased, whereas sway speed (mediolateral: β = 0.05; anteroposterior: β = 0.29; total: β = 0.29) increased. For each 1-cm increase in squat depth, sway range (mediolateral: β = 0.05; anteroposterior: β = 0.20) and area (β = 0.72) increased, whereas sway speed (anteroposterior: β = −0.14; total: β = −0.14) decreased. Compared with single task, the association between total and anteroposterior sway speed and squat speed was stronger under dual task. Clinicians and researchers should consider monitoring squat speed and depth when assessing dynamic balance during single-leg squats, as these parameters influence postural control, especially under dual task.
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Schaub, Peter A., and Teddy W. Worrell. "EMG Activity of Six Muscles and VMO:VL Ratio Determination during a Maximal Squat Exercise." Journal of Sport Rehabilitation 4, no. 3 (August 1995): 195–202. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jsr.4.3.195.
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During knee rehabilitation, squats are a commonly used closed kinetic chain exercise. We have been unable to locate data reporting electromyographic (EMG) activity of lower extremity musculature during maximal effort squats and the contribution of gastrocnemius and gluteus maximus muscles. Therefore, the purposes of this study were (a) to quantify EMG activity of selected lower extremity muscles during a maximal isometric squat and during a maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC), and (b) to determine ratios between the vastus medialis oblique (VMO) and vastus lateralis (VL) during maximal isometric squat and MVIC testing. Twenty-three subjects participated in a single testing session. Results are as follows: intraclass correlations for MVIC testing and squat testing ranged from .60 to .80 and .70 to .90, respectively. Percentage MVIC during the squat was as follows: rectus femoris 40 ± 30%, VMO 90 ± 70%, VL 70 ±40%, hamstrings 10 ± 10%, gluteus maximus 20 ± 10%, and gastrocnemius 30 ± 20%. No statistical difference existed in VMO:VL ratios during MVIC or squat testing. We conclude that large variations in muscle recruitment patterns occur between individuals during isometric squats.
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Contreras, Bret, Andrew D. Vigotsky, Brad J. Schoenfeld, Chris Beardsley, and John Cronin. "A Comparison of Gluteus Maximus, Biceps Femoris, and Vastus Lateralis Electromyography Amplitude in the Parallel, Full, and Front Squat Variations in Resistance-Trained Females." Journal of Applied Biomechanics 32, no. 1 (February 2016): 16–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jab.2015-0113.
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Front, full, and parallel squats are some of the most popular squat variations. The purpose of this investigation was to compare mean and peak electromyography (EMG) amplitude of the upper gluteus maximus, lower gluteus maximus, biceps femoris, and vastus lateralis of front, full, and parallel squats. Thirteen healthy women (age = 28.9 ± 5.1 y; height = 164 ± 6.3 cm; body mass = 58.2 ± 6.4 kg) performed 10 repetitions of their estimated 10-repetition maximum of each respective variation. There were no statistical (P = .05) differences between full, front, and parallel squats in any of the tested muscles. Given these findings, it can be concluded that the front, full, or parallel squat can be performed for similar EMG amplitudes. However, given the results of previous research, it is recommended that individuals use a full range of motion when squatting, assuming full range can be safely achieved, to promote more favorable training adaptations. Furthermore, despite requiring lighter loads, the front squat may provide a similar training stimulus to the back squat.
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Jarosz, Jakub, Paulina Królikowska, Patryk Matykiewicz, Piotr Aschenbrenner, Paulina Ewertowska, and Michał Krzysztofik. "Effects of Flywheel vs. Free-Weight Squats and Split Squats on Jumping Performance and Change of Direction Speed in Soccer Players." Sports 11, no. 7 (June 23, 2023): 124. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/sports11070124.
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The objective of this study was to compare (i) The effects of a flywheel and free-weight resistance training program; and (ii) The effects of performing lateral and frontal split squats as part of a flywheel-resistance training program on jumping performance, the 5–0–5 change of direction test time, and the one-repetition maximum (1RM) back squat in soccer players. Twenty-four male amateur soccer players participated in this study and were randomly and equally assigned to one of three different test groups: forward split-squat group (FSQ); lateral split-squat group (LSQ); and free-weight training group (TRAD). Athletes in the FSQ group performed a squat and a forward split squat on a flywheel device, while those in the LSQ group performed a squat and a lateral split squat (instead of a forward split squat) on a flywheel device. Each training lasted 4 weeks. The main finding was that all training groups, such as TRAD, FSQ, and LSQ, significantly improved broad jump length (p = 0.001; effect size [ES] = 0.36), 5–0–5 COD time with a turn on the dominant limb (p = 0.038; ES = 0.49), and 1RM back squat (p = 0.001; ES = 0.4). In turn, both flywheel-resistance training groups (FSQ and LSQ) significantly improved their counter-movement jump height (p = 0.001; ES = 0.8 and p = 0.002; ES = 0.58; respectively) with no effect in the TRAD (p = 0.676; ES = 0.07) training group. Both free-weight and flywheel-resistance training lasting 4 weeks performed in-season contributed to significant improvement in 1RM back squat, broad jump performance, and 5–0–5 change of direction testing time, while flywheel-resistance training might be superior in counter-movement jump height enhancement in soccer players. Moreover, the manner in which split squats were performed was not a factor influencing the obtained results.
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Nasrulloh, Ahmad, Putri Deviana, Rina Yuniana, and Kukuh Wahyudin Pratama. "The Effect of Squat Training and Leg Length in Increasing the Leg Power of Volleyball Extracurricular Participants." Teorìâ ta Metodika Fìzičnogo Vihovannâ 21, no. 3 (September 25, 2021): 244–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.17309/tmfv.2021.3.08.
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The study purpose. This study aims to see: (1) The difference in the effect of barbell squat and resistance band squat exercises on the increase in leg power. (2) The difference in influence between players who have high leg height and low leg length on the increase in leg power. (3) The interaction of barbell squat and resistance band squat exercises with leg length (high and low) to increase the power of volleyball extracurricular participants.
Materials and Methods. This is an experimental research using a 2 × 2 factorial design. The population in this study were 38 volleyball extracurricular participants at SMA Negeri 1 Sedayu. The sample in this study may be 20 people. Instruments used for measuring: a tape measure for the length of the legs and a vertical jump for the power of the legs. The data analysis technique used was two-way ANOVA.
Results. The result showed that (1) There was a significant effect between barbell squat and resistance band squat exercises on the increase in the power of volleyball extracurricular participants, with an F value of 65.789 and a significance value of p = 0.000 (<0.05). The squat group has a higher resistance band (good) compared to the barbell squat group with an average difference of 2.5. (2) There was a significant difference in the effect of players who have high leg height and low leg length on the increase in leg power of volleyball extracurricular participants, it is proven that the F value is 38.000 and the significance value is p = 0.000 (<0.05). Players who have high leg length are higher (good) compared to players who have low leg length with an average difference of 1.90. (3) There was a significant interaction between barbell squat and resistance band squat and leg length (high and low) on the leg power increase of volleyball extracurricular members, with an F value of 88.256 and a significance of p = 0.000 (<0.05).
Conclusions. There was a significant difference in the effect of barbell squats and resistance band squats on increasing leg power, there was a significant difference in the effect between players who have high leg length and low leg length on the increase in leg power, and There is a significant interaction between barbell squats and squat resistance bands and leg length (high and low) on the increase in leg power of volleyball extracurricular participants.
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SINCLAIR, JONATHAN, CHRIS EDMUNDSON, STEPHEN ATKINS, PAUL JOHN TAYLOR, and HAYLEY VINCENT. "The effect of front and back squat techniques on peak loads experienced by the Achilles tendon." Baltic Journal of Health and Physical Activity 7, no. 3 (September 30, 2015): 7–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.29359/bjhpa.07.3.01.
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Background: A primary technique in the discipline of strength and conditioning the squat has two principal ‘back and front’ variants. Despite the physiological and strength benefits of the squat, the propensity for musculoskeletal injury is high. The current investigation examined the influence of the front and back squat variations on the load experienced by the Achilles tendon. Material/Methods: Achilles tendon loads were obtained from eighteen experienced male participants as they completed both back and front squats. Differences between squat conditions were examined using Bonferroni adjusted (p = 0.0125) paired t-tests. Results: The results showed that the peak Achilles tendon load was significantly greater in the back squat (2.67 ±0.74 B.W) condition compared to the front squat (2.37 ±0.69 B.W). Conclusions: Given the proposed relationship between the magnitude of the load experienced by the Achilles tendon and tendon pathology, the back squat appears to place lifters at greater risk from Achilles tendon injury. Therefore, it may be prudent for lifters who are predisposed to Achilles tendon pathology to utilize the front squat in their training.
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SINCLAIR, JONATHAN, DARRELL BROOKS, and STEPHEN ATKINS. "An examination of the hamstring and the quadriceps muscle kinematics during the front and back squat in males." Baltic Journal of Health and Physical Activity 9, no. 1 (March 31, 2017): 37–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.29359/bjhpa.09.1.04.
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The aim of the current investigation was to examine the influence of the front and back squat variants on the hamstring and the quadriceps muscles kinematics. Eighteen male participants were recruited with 1 repetition maximum values of 122.7 ±16.4 and 88.7 ±13.9 kg for the back and front squat lifts. Participants completed both back and front squats at 70% of their front squat 1 repetition maximum. The hamstring and the quadriceps muscle kinematics were determined during kinetic situations using motion capture data, in addition to segmental and joint kinematics. Differences between squat conditions were examined using paired samples t-tests.The results showed that there were no differences in either segmental/joint or muscle kinematics between the front and back squat lifts. These findings lead to the conclusion that neither the front nor the back squat conditions differ in terms of their eccentric and concentric recruitment of the quadriceps and hamstring muscles.
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Szyszka, Paulina, Weronika Zielińska-Stubińska, and Agnieszka Chwaluk. "Modelling Front and Back Squat Record Scores in Long-Term Training of Young Weightlifters." Polish Journal of Sport and Tourism 29, no. 4 (December 1, 2022): 9–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/pjst-2022-0021.
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Abstract Introduction. Front and back squats are multi-joint exercises used in sports to develop strength, power and muscle mass. Due to their movement structure and involvement of the main muscle groups, they are training measures that are used in strength training in various sports. A long-term training process leading to sports mastery requires the correct selection of loads as well as objective control of the training effects to date, both short-term and long-term. The aim of this study was to create a statistical model and to determine with it the character of the changes in the record scores in the front and back squat of young weight-lifters over a two-year training cycle. Material and Methods. The study included 17 young athletes training in competitive weightlifting. Recorded scores in the front squat and back squat were measured seven times (every three months over a two-year training cycle). The progression method was used to determine the maximum load, and the repetition with the highest load (1RM) was used in the calculations. Results. The subjects performed better in the back squat, but the difference between the results for both squats was approximately constant over the two-year training cycle. The time courses of both squats were similar over the analysed period. Systematic increases in maximum results were observed. The first statistically non-significant differences between the mean record values in successive measurements were found between the sixth and seventh measurements for both squats. Conclusions. Determining the relationship between front and back squat record scores can contribute to the optimisation of training loads in sports using strength training. Obtaining an analytical form of the course of record scores over time for both squats helps to assess the skill level of athletes and predict their performance in the next training macro-cycle.
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Sinclair, J., S. Atkins, N. Kudiersky, PJ Taylor, and H. Vincent. "Effects of front and back squat techniques on patellofemoral joint kinetics in males." Journal of Biomedical Engineering and Informatics 2, no. 1 (October 14, 2015): 76. http://dx.doi.org/10.5430/jbei.v2n1p76.
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Purpose: The barbell squat is fundamental in strength and conditioning, with two principal variants; the back and front squat. Unfortunately, the propensity for injury is high particularly at the knee. The aim of the current investigation was examine the influence of front and back squat variations on patellofemoral joint load. Methods: Patellofemoral loads were obtained from thirty-five experienced male participants, who completed both back and front squats at 70% of 1 RM. Differences between squat conditions were examined using Bonferroni adjusted (P = .008) paired t-tests. Results: The results showed that significant differences (P < .008) in patellofemoral load were identified between both conditions with the highest load being experienced during the back squat exercise. Conclusions: Given the proposed relationship between the magnitude of the load experienced by the patellofemoral joint and associated injury pathology, the back squat appears to place lifters at greater risk from injury. Therefore, it may be prudent therefore for lifters who are predisposed to patellofemoral pain syndrome to utilize the front squat in their training.
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Seitz, Laurent B., Gabriel S. Trajano, and G. Gregory Haff. "The Back Squat and the Power Clean: Elicitation of Different Degrees of Potentiation." International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance 9, no. 4 (July 2014): 643–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2013-0358.
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Purpose:To compare the acute effects of back squats and power cleans on sprint performance.Methods:Thirteen elite junior rugby league players performed 20-m linear sprints before and 7 min after 2 different conditioning activities or 1 control condition. The conditioning activities included 1 set of 3 back squats or power cleans at 90% 1-repetition maximum. A 2 × 2 repeated-measures ANOVA was used to compare preconditioning and postconditioning changes in sprint performance.Results:Both the back-squat and power-clean conditioning activities demonstrated a potentiation effect as indicated by improved sprint time (back squat: P = .001, ES = –0.66; power cleans: P = .001, ES = –0.92), velocity (back squat: P = .001, ES = 0.63; power cleans: P = .001, ES = 0.84), and average acceleration over 20 m (back squat: P = .001, ES = 0.70; power cleans: P = .001, ES = 1.00). No potentiation effect was observed after the control condition. Overall, the power clean induced a greater improvement in sprint time (P = .042, ES = 0.83), velocity (P = .047, ES = 1.17), and average acceleration (P = .05, ES = 0.87) than the back squat.Conclusions:Back-squat and power-clean conditioning activities both induced improvements in sprint performance when included as part of a potentiation protocol. However, the magnitude of improvement was greater after the power cleans. From a practical perspective, strength and conditioning coaches should consider using power cleans rather than back squats to maximize the performance effects of potentiation complexes targeting the development of sprint performance.
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Anderson, Ricky, Carol Courtney, and Eli Carmeli. "EMG Analysis of the Vastus Medialis/Vastus Lateralis Muscles Utilizing the Unloaded Narrow- and Wide-Stance Squats." Journal of Sport Rehabilitation 7, no. 4 (November 1998): 236–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jsr.7.4.236.
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The purpose of this study was to see if vastus medialis oblique/vastus lateralis (VMO:VL) ratios could be increased by widening the squat stance and if the VMO activity increases with deeper ranges of knee flexion. Fifteen healthy subjects performed unloaded narrow and wide stance squats through three ranges of knee flexion: 30°, 60°, and 90°. The two squat stances were compared using a 2 × 3 ANOVA to see if the wide-stance squat had any significant difference in EMG activity for VMO: VL ratios compared to the narrow-stance squat. The difference in EMG activity of the VMO between the various angles for both squat stances was also compared. The ANOVA revealed no significant differences between the squat stances for VMO:VL ratios but did show the VMO:VL ratios to be significantly higher with increasing knee flexion angles. These findings suggest that the VMO is active throughout the 90° range and that increasing knee flexion angles can elicit greater activity of the VMO relative to the VL.
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Prof. Anuja Garande, Kushank Patil, Rasika Deshmukh, Siddhi Gurav, and Chaitanya Yadav. "AI Trainer : Video-Based Squat Analysis." International Journal of Scientific Research in Science, Engineering and Technology 11, no. 2 (April 7, 2024): 172–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.32628/ijsrset2411221.
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This research proposes a video-based system for analyzing human squats and providing real-time feedback to improve posture. The system leverages MediaPipe, an open-source pose estimation library, to identify key body joints during squats. By calculating crucial joint angles (knee flexion, hip flexion, ankle dorsiflexion), the system assesses squat form against established biomechanical principles. Deviations from these principles trigger real-time feedback messages or visual cues to guide users towards optimal squat posture. The paper details the system architecture, with a client-side application performing pose estimation and feedback generation. The methodology outlines data collection with various squat variations, system development integrating MediaPipe, and evaluation through user testing with comparison to expert evaluations. Key features include real-time feedback and customizable thresholds for user adaptation. Potential applications encompass fitness training, physical therapy, and sports training. Finally, the paper explores future work possibilities like mobile integration, advanced feedback mechanisms, and machine learning for automatic threshold adjustments. This research offers a valuable tool for squat analysis, empowering users to achieve their fitness goals with proper form and reduced injury risk.
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Joseph, Lori, Josh Reilly, Kristine Sweezey, Robyn Waugh, Lara A. Carlson, and Michael A. Lawrence. "Activity of Trunk and Lower Extremity Musculature: Comparison Between Parallel Back Squats and Belt Squats." Journal of Human Kinetics 72, no. 1 (March 31, 2020): 223–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/hukin-2019-0126.
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AbstractThe back squat is widely used in strength training programs. Alternatively, the belt squat has been gaining popularity since it loads the weight on the hips, as opposed to the shoulders and spine. The purpose of this study was to determine whether using a belt squat would result in less lumbar extensor activation while providing similar excitation of other prime mover and stabilizer musculature. Ten participants (9 males, 1 female; age 29.3 ± 4.9 years; body mass 96.2 ± 17.8 kg) who regularly trained both belt squats and back squats performed three sets of 5 repetitions with 100% bodyweight for each exercise. Peak and integrated muscle activity was calculated and normalized to a maximum voluntary isometric contraction. A one-way ANOVA (p < 0.05) was used to compare conditions. Belt squatting decreased lumbar erector impulse (45.4%) and peak (52.0%) activation as compared to the back squat. Belt squatting did not alter activation of the lower extremities except for a decrease in the gluteus maximus (35.2% impulse and 32.1% peak), gluteus medius (54.1% impulse and 55.2% peak). Furthermore, belt squatting reduced activation of the rectus abdominus (44.3% impulse; 31.1% peak), and external obliques (45.8% impulse; 53.7% peak) as compared to back squatting. Our results suggest belt squatting provides similar muscular demands for the quadriceps, hamstrings, and plantar flexors, but is less demanding of trunk stabilizers, and gluteual muscles. Belt squats may be a suitable alternative to back squats in order to avoid stressing low back or trunk musculature.
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Cheatham, Scott W., Kyle R. Stull, Mike Fantigrassi, and Ian Montel. "Hip Musculoskeletal Conditions and Associated Factors That Influence Squat Performance: A Systematic Review." Journal of Sport Rehabilitation 27, no. 3 (May 1, 2018): 263–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jsr.2016-0246.
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Context: The squat is a fundamental movement for weightlifting and sports performance. Both unilateral and bilateral squats are also used to assess transitional and dynamic lower-extremity control. Common lower-extremity conditions can have an influence on squat performance. Of interest are the effects of hip musculoskeletal conditions and associated factors, such as hip muscle pain, fatigue, and tightness, on squat performance. Currently, there has been no appraisal of the evidence regarding the association of these conditions and associated factors on squat performance. Objective: This study evaluated the current evidence regarding common hip musculoskeletal conditions and associated factors, such as hip muscle pain, fatigue, and tightness, on squat performance. Evidence Acquisition: A systematic review was conducted according to preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses guidelines. A search of PubMed, CINAHL, SPORTDiscus, ProQuest, and Google Scholar® was conducted in October, 2016 using the following keywords alone and in combination: hip, joint, arthritis, pain, range of motion (ROM), fatigue, tightness, pathology, condition, muscle, intraarticular, extraarticular, femoroacetabular impingement, single leg, bilateral, squat, performance, and technique. The grading of studies was conducted using the Physiotherapy Evidence Database scale. Evidence Synthesis: The authors identified 35 citations, 15 of which met the inclusion criteria. The qualifying studies yielded a total of 542 subjects (160 men and 382 women; mean age = 29.3 (5.9) y) and measured performance with either the barbell squat, step down, bilateral, or single-leg squat. Femoroacetabular impingement and hip arthroscopy were the only hip conditions found that affected the squat. Associated factors, such as muscle pain, fatigue, and tightness, also influenced squat performance. Conclusion: This review found that common hip conditions and associated factors and their effects on squat performance to be underinvestigated. Future research should focus on the association between common hip conditions and squat performance.
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Kosynskyi, E. "Methodological features of using of the element «squat»." Scientific Journal of National Pedagogical Dragomanov University. Series 15. Scientific and pedagogical problems of physical culture (physical culture and sports), no. 3(161) (March 15, 2023): 94–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.31392/npu-nc.series15.2023.03(161).22.
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The paper analyzes the technical element «squat», considers the options for its use in choreography and their interpretation in national associations, highlights the basic parts of this movement, typical for different squats. A general scheme of the «squat» element is proposed, which allows one to freely master and apply it, depending on the increase in the level of theoretical material and practical implementation, thus avoiding significant indicators that should be combined with technical development and a variety of assortment of this element of martial arts. Examples of the use of a squat in the form of a counterattack are given, using the energy of the body's inertia in the process of transition from a standing position to a crouching position. The effectiveness of plyometric exercises in the conditions of modern training and the possibility of their wide use in the form of such an element as a «squat» are considered. The expediency of using this element as a means of developing speed-strength abilities is also substantiated. Various classic and innovative options for using squats are presented, both in a practical and applied aspect, and in the aspect of effective development of physical qualities. Proposes the author's method of using the squat as an element of an applied nature, and as a means of developing speed-strength qualities.
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Lee, Jae-woo, Young-tae Lim, and Moon-seok Kwon. "The Effect of Dynamic Lumbar Kyphosis on the Biomechanical Factors of the Lumbar Joints during Deep Squats." Korean Journal of Sport Science 35, no. 2 (June 30, 2024): 296–305. http://dx.doi.org/10.24985/kjss.2024.35.2.296.
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PURPOSE This study analyzed the effect of dynamic lumbar kyphosis on the biomechnical factors affecting the lumbar joints during deep squats.METHODS Thirty adults in their 20s who had experienced weight training for more than one year participated in this study (age: 23.4±3.5years old, height: 175.3±4.3cm, weight: 75.8±6.5kg, squat single repetition maximum (1RM) weight: 115.3±19.5kg). Under both restricted dynamic lumbar kyphosis (RDLK) and dynamic lumbar kyphosis (DLK), subjects completed one repetition of deep squats at a load of 70% of their 1-RM weight. To verify the consistency of deep squat movements performed under DLK and RDLK conditions, intra-rater reliability was analyzed using intra-class correlation . The biomechnical variables of the lumbar joint were calculated during DLK and RDLK deep squats. Paired sample t-tests (IBM SPSS 27.0, Armonk, New York, USA) were used for statistical verification.RESULTS During the deep squat movement performed in DLK and RDLK conditions, the peak angles of the ankle, knee, and hip joints, the minimum height of the pelvis, and the time and tempo showed statistically high reliability, confirming the accuracy of the movement. The peak flexion angle and moment, left flexion moment, left rotation moment, and compression force factors of the lumbar joint during deep squat were significantly lower in RDLK than in DLK.CONCLUSIONS Restricting lumbar dynamic kyphosis during deep squats is essential for decreasing the risk of lumbar joint injury.
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Cho, Seong-Jun, Mi-Ock Han, Eun-Hye Choi, Jirakit Siripatrawan, and Hyung-pil Jun. "Differences on Thigh Muscles' Activity by Types of Squat." Asian Journal of Kinesiology 26, no. 2 (April 30, 2024): 4–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.15758/ajk.2024.26.2.4.
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OBJECTIVES Thigh strength has many features in our life. Many people perform vary squat types to stimulate different thigh muscles. However, there is a lack of information on which squat is the most effective on targeted muscles. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to compare thigh muscles’ activity by squat types and suggest the correct squat for strengthening thigh.METHODS Total of 20 men and women (age: 23.9±1.5yrs, height: 173.3±6.6cm, weight: 75.1±13.2kg, BMI: 24.9±3.1kg/m<sup>2</sup>) who had no musculoskeletal pathologies within last one year, and had weight training experience for more than 1 year were participated. Squat types were classified into standard (SS), narrow (NS), wide (WS), jump (JS), and Smith machine squats (SMS). Surface electromyography was used to collect the muscle activity of the thigh during three repetitions of each squat without weights. Time points during squat are defined as follows: E1 (start), E2 (maximum knee flexion, MKF), E3 (returned), P1 (from start to MKF), and P2 (from MKF to return). Repeated measured ANOVA was used to verify differences in lower limb muscle activity between squat types.RESULTS At the E2, significant differences were found in RF (p=.00) and ST (p=.00). In the P1, significant differences were found in RF (p=.00), VL (p=.00), and BF (p=.02). In the P2, significant differences were found in RF (p=.00), VM (p=.00), and ST (p=.01).CONCLUSIONS For more activity of both quadriceps and hamstrings, plyometric-based JS is the most effective squat, but by considering the performer's lack of exercise experience, postural control may not be performed correctly which may lead to injury. In addition, stable squat using the Smith machine should be considered and the intensity, number of repetitions, and weight should be carefully set according to type of squat.
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Wu, Hong-Wen, Cheng-Feng Tsai, Kai-Han Liang, and Yi-Wen Chang. "Effect of Loading Devices on Muscle Activation in Squat and Lunge." Journal of Sport Rehabilitation 29, no. 2 (February 1, 2020): 200–205. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jsr.2018-0182.
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Context: Squats and lunges are common exercises frequently applied in muscle-strengthening and therapeutic exercises. The loading devices are often used to increase the training intensity. Objective: To determine the effect of loading devices on muscle activation in squat and lunge and to compare the differences in muscle activation between squat and lunge. Design: Cross-sectional cohort. Participants: Nineteen healthy, male, recreationally active individuals without a history of lower limb injury. Interventions: Each participant performed 10 repetitions of a squat under 5 conditions: unloaded, barbell, dumbbell, loaded vest, and kettlebell, and 10 repetitions of a lunge under 4 conditions: unloaded, barbell, dumbbell, and loaded vest. Main Outcome Measures: The electromyography signals of quadriceps, hamstrings, tibialis anterior, gastrocnemius lateralis and medialis were measured. One-way repeated-measure analysis of variance was used to compare the difference among different loading conditions. Paired t test was used to compare the difference between squat and lunge. Results: The muscle activation in the loaded conditions was significantly higher than that in nonloaded conditions in squat and lunge. Compared with the barbell, dumbbell, and loaded vest conditions, the semitendinosus showed significantly higher activation, and the tibialis anterior showed significantly lower activation in kettlebell condition in squat. No significant difference in muscle activation was found among barbell, dumbbell, and kettlebell conditions in lunge. In addition, quadriceps and hamstring activities were significantly higher in lunge than in squat. Conclusions: Muscle activation was affected by the loading devices in squat but not affected in lunge. Kettlebell squat could be suggested for targeting in strengthening medial hamstring. Progressive strengthening exercise could be recommended from squat to lunge based on sequential activation level.
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Cho, Hojin, Jaehak Park, and Kyungsu Park. "Analysis of Axial Acceleration for the Detection of Rail Squats in High-Speed Railways." CivilEng 4, no. 4 (November 1, 2023): 1143–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/civileng4040062.
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A squat is a type of fatigue defect caused by short-wavelength rotational contact; if squats are detected early, the maintenance cost of the track can be effectively reduced. In this paper, a method for the early detection of squats is presented based on ABA (axle box acceleration) and frequency signal processing techniques. To increase the measurement sensitivity for the squat, ABA was used to measure the longitudinal vibration. Compared to vertical ABA, longitudinal ABA does not include vibrations from rail fasteners and sleepers, so it is possible to effectively measure the vibration signal in relation to the impact of the rail. In this paper, vibration data were measured and analyzed by installing a 3-axis accelerometer on the wheel axle of the KTX; squat signals were more effectively extracted using the longitudinal vibration measurement presented above. The algorithm to detect the position of squats was developed based on wavelet spectrum analysis. This study was verified for the section of a domestic high-speed line, and as a result of conducting field verification for this section, squats were detected with a hit rate of about 88.2%. The main locations where the squats occurred were the rail welds and the joint section, and it was confirmed that unsupported sleepers occurred at locations where the squats occurred in some sections.
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Kupczak, Agata, Anna Dolińska, Kacper Zając, Krzysztof Suszyński, Jan Latos, Mikołaj Górka, and Dariusz Górka. "Assessment of the knowledge of people training amateur strength sports about the squat and its variations and the benefits from this fact." Journal of Education, Health and Sport 29, no. 1 (August 1, 2023): 115–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.12775/jehs.2023.29.01.012.
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EntryThe squat pattern is present in the life of every human being from his earliest years. In sports, the squat is one of the most popular exercises, used in almost every discipline in countless variations by both professionals and amateurs. Due to its biomechanics and the degree of involvement of the nervous system and the musculoskeletal system, its use is an essential training link in any plan aimed at developing muscle mass, strength and endurance. The squat pattern is also used in medicine, rehabilitation and improving people suffering from all kinds of injuries and dysfunctions of the locomotor system. Material and methodsThe study used the diagnostic survey method, with the use of a proprietary questionnaire consisting of 37 questions. The study was conducted among a group of 250 men aged 20-50 practicing amateur strength sports. ConclusionsThe current state of knowledge about the squat technique (high bar, low bar, front squat) among men practicing strength sports as amateurs is at an insufficient level. Respondents did not show sufficient knowledge about the impact of squats on the human body.
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Pierce, Kyle. "Front Squat and Belt Squat." STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING JOURNAL 19, no. 5 (1997): 60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1519/1073-6840(1997)019<0060:fsabs>2.3.co;2.
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Ayers, Suzan F. "Front Squat or Back Squat." Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance 81, no. 2 (February 2010): 9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07303084.2010.10598423.
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Wunsch, Tobias, Georg Teufl, Nathalie Alexander, and Hermann Schwameder. "Squat ist nicht gleich Squat." Sportphysio 04, no. 02 (May 4, 2016): 89–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-0042-104342.
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Indra Siregar, Yan, Nurkadri Nurkadri, Nirwana Rohaya, Sory Muda, and Delpipo Alessandro Ginting. "Contribution of squat jump, leg squat, and walking lunge to mawashi geri kicking ability skills." Jurnal SPORTIF : Jurnal Penelitian Pembelajaran 9, no. 2 (August 31, 2023): 355–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.29407/js_unpgri.v9i2.21014.
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Muscle explosiveness is a physical component that contributes from technical ability to karate ability. The kicking technique in karate is a very important skill in attacking movements. It is necessary to provide training so that muscle explosive power, especially in the legs, increases so that technical ability can increase. Squat jump exercises, leg squats, and walking lunges are forms of exercise that can increase muscle explosive power and the ability of karate kicks. This study aimed to determine the contribution of squat jump exercises, leg squats, and walking lunges to the ability to kick in karate. The subjects of this study were 27 female Karate Dojo athletes, the subject collection technique was total sampling by recruiting all 27 female athletes. The instruments used in this study were for initial and final test measurements using Mawashi Geri's kick ability test. Data analysis using ANOVA test and statistical prerequisite test using SPSS 25. The results of this study from the results of data analysis with a comparative hypothesis test between posttest values showed a calculated t value < a significant level of 0.05, which means that the provision of squat jumps, leg squats, walking lunges significantly contributed to Mawashi Geri's kicking ability. The conclusion of the results of this study explains that leg muscle power training has contributed to Mawashi Geri's kicking ability, especially in walking lunges training the results of the research are very significant.
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Jaeggi, Jessica S., Basil Achermann, and Silvio R. Lorenzetti. "Female Lower Body Muscle Forces: A Musculoskeletal Modeling Comparison of Back Squats, Split Squats and Good Mornings." Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology 9, no. 2 (April 8, 2024): 68. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jfmk9020068.
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The aim of this study was to analyze lower leg muscle forces during strength exercises such as back squats, good mornings and split squats, with a particular emphasis on females. By focusing on females, who are more vulnerable to anterior cruciate ligament injuries, we aimed to better understand muscle engagement and its role in injury prevention. Eight participants were monitored during exercises with a barbell load of 25% of body weight and, during the back squat, an additional 50% load. The analysis was conducted using personalized musculoskeletal models, electromyography (EMG) and Vicon motion capture systems to assess various muscle groups, including the m. gluteus maximus and m. gluteus medius, as well as the hamstring and quadriceps muscles. The back squat produced the highest forces for the quadriceps muscles, particularly the rectus femoris (>25 N/kg), as well as in the back leg during the split squat (>15 N/kg). The gluteal muscles were most active during good mornings and in the front leg of the split squat, especially the m. gluteus maximus medial part (>20 N/kg). The hamstrings generated the highest muscle forces in the front leg of the split squat, with the greatest forces observed in the m. semimembranosus. Our research highlights how musculoskeletal modeling helps us to understand the relationship among muscles, joint angles and anterior cruciate ligament injury risks, especially in strength training females. The results emphasize the need for personalized exercise guidance and customized models to make strength training safer and more effective.
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Olivier, Benita, Samantha-Lynn Quinn, Natalie Benjamin, Andrew Craig Green, Jessica Chiu, and Weijie Wang. "Single-Leg Squat Delicacies—The Position of the Nonstance Limb is an Important Consideration." Journal of Sport Rehabilitation 28, no. 4 (May 1, 2019): 318–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jsr.2018-0181.
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Context: The single-leg squat task is often used as a rehabilitative exercise or as a screening tool for the functional movement of the lower limb. Objective: To establish the effect of 3 different positions of the nonstance leg on 3-dimensional kinematics, muscle activity, and center of mass displacement during a single-leg squat. Design: Within-subjects, repeated-measures design. Setting: Movement analysis laboratory. Participants: A total of 10 participants, aged 28.2 (4.42) years performed 3 squats to 60° of knee flexion with the nonstance (1) hip at 90° flexion and knee at 90° flexion, (2) hip at 30° flexion with the knee fully extended, or (3) hip in neutral/0° and the knee flexed to 90°. Main Outcome Measures: Trunk, hip, knee and ankle joint angles, and center of mass displacement were recorded with inertial sensors while muscle activity was captured through wireless electromyography. Results: Most trunk flexion (21.38° [18.43°]) occurred with the nonstance hip at 90° and most flexion of the stance hip (23.10° [6.60°]) occurred with the nonstance hip at 0°. Biceps femoris activity in the 90° squat was 40% more than in the 0° squat, whereas rectus femoris activity in the 0° squat was 29% more than in the 90° squat. Conclusion: The position of the nonstance limb should be standardized when the single-leg squat is used for assessment and be adapted to the aim when used in rehabilitation.
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Strokosch, Alasdair, Loic Louit, Laurent Seitz, Richard Clarke, and Jonathan D. Hughes. "Impact of Accommodating Resistance in Potentiating Horizontal-Jump Performance in Professional Rugby League Players." International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance 13, no. 9 (October 1, 2018): 1223–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2017-0697.
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This study investigated the efficacy of deadlifts and box squats, with a combination of traditional and accommodating resistance, as a postactivation potentiating stimulus of standing broad jumps (SBJ) in a multiple-set contrast protocol. Twelve professional rugby league players (21.4 [2.5] y; 181.3 [8.3] cm, 91.9 [8.8] kg; 1-repetition-maximum [1RM] back squat/body mass 1.59 [0.21]; 1RM deadlift/body mass 2.11 [0.25]; ≥3-y resistance-training experience) performed baseline SBJ before a contrast postactivation potentiating protocol involving 2 repetitions of 85% 1RM box squat or deadlifts, loaded with a combination of traditional barbell weight (70% 1RM) and elastic-band resistance (∼15% 1RM), followed by 2 SBJs. Exercises were separated by 90 s, and 4 contrast pairs were performed in total. Using a repeated-measures design, all subjects performed the squat followed by the deadlift and finally the control (SBJ only) condition in the same order across consecutive weeks. Changes from baseline in SBJ distance were moderate for the box squat (effect size [ES] = 0.64–1.03) and deadlift (ES = 0.80–0.96) and trivial in the control condition (ES = 0.02–0.11). The magnitude of differences in postactivation potentiating effect were considered moderate (d = 0.61) for set 1, trivial for set 2 (d = 0.10) and set 3 (d = 0.05) in favor of box squats, and moderate for set 4 (d = 0.58) in favor of deadlifts. Accommodating resistance in either box squats or deadlifts is an effective means of potentiating SBJ performance across multiple sets of a contrast protocol with only 90-s rest.
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Lynch, Arthur E., Robert W. Davies, Philip M. Jakeman, Tim Locke, Joanna M. Allardyce, and Brian P. Carson. "The Influence of Maximal Strength and Knee Angle on the Reliability of Peak Force in the Isometric Squat." Sports 9, no. 10 (October 9, 2021): 140. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/sports9100140.
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This study aimed to investigate the test-retest reliability of peak force in the isometric squat across the strength spectrum using coefficient of variation (CV) and intra-class correlation coefficient (ICC). On two separate days, 59 healthy men (mean (SD) age 23.0 (4.1) years; height 1.79 (0.7) m; body mass 84.0 (15.2) kg) performed three maximal effort isometric squats in two positions (at a 120° and a 90° knee angle). Acceptable reliability was observed at both the 120° (CV = 7.5 (6.7), ICC = 0.960 [0.933, 0.977]) and 90° positions (CV = 9.2 (8.8), ICC = 0.920 [0.865, 0.953]). There was no relationship between peak force in the isometric squat and the test-retest reliability at either the 120° (r = 0.052, p = 0.327) or 90° (r = 0.014, p = 0.613) positions. A subgroup of subjects (n = 17) also completed the isometric squat test at a 65° knee angle. Acceptable reliability was observed in this position (CV = 9.6 (9.3), ICC = 0.916 [0.766, 0.970]) and reliability was comparable to the 120° and 90° positions. Therefore, we deem isometric squat peak force output to be a valid and reliable measure across the strength spectrum and in different isometric squat positions.
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Boling, Michelle, Darin Padua, J. Troy Blackburn, Meredith Petschauer, and Christopher Hirth. "Hip Adduction Does not Affect VMO EMG Amplitude or VMO:VL Ratios during a Dynamic Squat Exercise." Journal of Sport Rehabilitation 15, no. 3 (August 2006): 195–205. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jsr.15.3.195.
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Context:Clinicians commonly attempt to facilitate vastus medialis oblique (VMO) activity by instructing patients to squeeze a ball between their knees during squatting exercises.Objective:To determine whether VMO activation amplitude and the VMO to vastus lateralis (VL) activation ratio (VMO:VL) were altered when performing active hip adduction during a dynamic squat exercise.Design:Single test session.Participants:Fifteen healthy subjects, with no history of knee pain, volunteered for this study.Intervention:Surface EMG of the VMO, VL, and hip adductor (ADD) muscles were recorded while subjects performed 10 consecutive squats against their body weight through a range of 0° to 90° of knee flexion. Subjects performed the squat exercises during two different conditions: (1) active hip adduction and (2) no hip adduction.Main Outcome Measures:Average VMO EMG amplitude and VMO:VL ratio were determined during the knee flexion (0° to 90°) and knee extension (90° to 0°) phases of the squat exercise.Results:Active hip adduction did not significantly change VMO amplitude or VMO:VL ratio during the knee flexion or knee extension phases of the dynamic squat exercise.Conclusions:Based on these results, we conclude that VMO amplitude and the VMO: VL ratio are not influenced by performing active hip adduction during a dynamic squat exercise in healthy subjects.
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Anderson, Kenneth, and David G. Behm. "Trunk Muscle Activity Increases With Unstable Squat Movements." Canadian Journal of Applied Physiology 30, no. 1 (February 1, 2005): 33–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/h05-103.
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The objective of this study was to determine differences in electromyographic (EMG) activity of the soleus (SOL), vastus lateralis (VL), biceps femoris (BF), abdominal stabilizers (AS), upper lumbar erector spinae (ULES), and lumbo-sacral erector spinae (LSES) muscles while performing squats of varied stability and resistance. Stability was altered by doing the squat movement on a Smith machine, a free squat, and while standing on two balance discs. Fourteen male subjects performed the movements. Activities of the SOL, AS, ULES, and LSES were highest during the unstable squat and lowest with the Smith machine protocol (p < 0.05). Increased EMG activity of these muscles may be attributed to their postural and stabilization role. Furthermore, EMG activity was higher during concentric contractions compared to eccentric contractions. Performing squats on unstable surfaces may permit a training adaptation of the trunk muscles responsible for supporting the spinal column (i.e., erector spinae) as well as the muscles most responsible for maintaining posture (i.e., SOL). Key words: electromyography, concentric, eccentric, resistance training, stabilizers
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McErlain-Naylor, Stuart A., and Marco Beato. "Post Flywheel Squat Potentiation of Vertical and Horizontal Ground Reaction Force Parameters during Jumps and Changes of Direction." Sports 9, no. 1 (January 5, 2021): 5. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/sports9010005.
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(1) Background: The aim of the study was to determine the post-activation performance enhancement (PAPE) of vertical and horizontal ground reaction force parameters during jumps and change of direction following flywheel squat exercise using two different flywheel inertias. (2) Methods: Eleven male athletes performed a countermovement jump (CMJ), standing broad jump (SBJ), and “modified 505” change of direction (COD) in a control condition and 6 minutes following three sets of six repetitions of flywheel half squats at one of two inertias (0.029 kg·m2 and 0.061 kg·m2). Peak directional ground reaction force, power, and rate of force development were calculated for each test. (3) Results: Higher inertia flywheel squats were able to acutely enhance CMJ peak vertical force (Bayes Factor (BF10) = 33.5, very strong; δ = 1.66; CI: 0.67, 2.70), whereas lower inertia flywheel squats were able to acutely enhance CMJ peak vertical power (BF10 = 3.65, moderate; δ = 0.93; CI: 0.11, 1.88). The vertical squat exercise induced no PAPE effect on resultant SBJ or horizontal COD ground reaction force parameters, nor were any differences observed between the inertias. (4) Conclusions: Researchers and practitioners should consider the kinetic and kinematic correspondence of a pre-load stimulus to the subsequent sport-specific activity (i.e., flywheel squat to CMJ).
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Schlegel, Petr, Adrián Agricola, and Dana Fialová. "Deep Squat – Should We Be Afraid?" Studia sportiva 15, no. 1 (June 9, 2021): 26–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.5817/sts2021-1-3.
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PURPOSE Squats are among the basic exercises that have become an integral part of exercise programs. It is commonly used by athletes in many sports. Its potential is shown in the development of strength, power, and overall sports performance. The aim of the study was to verify inconsistent views on deep squats, technical design, and related health risks. METHODS For the purposes of the review, the terms "squat, knee, biomechanics, deep, patellofemoral, back squat, performance, arthritis, health, injury, risk" were used. RESULTS It turns out that the technique of performing a deep squat has its strict principles, which must be respected and which have a significant impact on the benefits and risks. From loading, the lower position represents an increase in compressive and shear forces on the patellofemoral joint, however, this is a natural state that is not risky. Health hazards cannot be based on analytical-mathematical models, which are insufficient in this aspect. Extreme long-term exposure carries the risk of permanent consequences in the form of osteoarthritis. For prophylaxis or convalescence, it is possible to use effective aids like sleeves, kinesio taping, bandage or "knee savers". CONCLUSIONS With optimal technique and sensible exercise selection, there is no greater risk in healthy individuals without degenerative anatomical changes. In order to assess the effects of the squat forces on the ankle, knee, hip, spine, it is necessary to consider the technique and also individual anatomical differences.
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Léon, Myriam, and Yaëlle Dauriol. "Squat." Lien Social N° 1302, no. 17 (October 11, 2021): 18–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.3917/liso.1302.0018.
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Johnsen, Emil, and Roland van den Tillaar. "Effects of training frequency on muscular strength for trained men under volume matched conditions." PeerJ 9 (February 18, 2021): e10781. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.10781.
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Background In resistance training, the role of training frequency to increase maximal strength is often debated. However, the limited data available does not allow for clear training frequency “optimization” recommendations. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of training frequency on maximal muscular strength and rate of perceived exertion (RPE). The total weekly training volume was equally distributed between two and four sessions per muscle group. Methods Twenty-one experienced resistance-trained male subjects (height: 1.85 ± 0.06 m, body mass: 85.3 ± 12.3 kg, age: 27.6 ± 7.6 years) were tested prior to and after an 8-week training period in one-repetition maximum (1RM) barbell back squat and bench press. Subjects were randomly assigned to a SPLIT group (n = 10), in which there were two training sessions of squats and lower-body exercises and two training sessions of bench press and upper-body exercises, or a FULLBODY group (n = 11), in which four sessions with squats, bench press and supplementary exercises were conducted every session. In each session, the subjects rated their RPE after barbell back squat, bench press, and the full session. Results Both groups significantly increased 1RM strength in barbell back squat (SPLIT group: +13.25 kg; FULLBODY group: +14.31 kg) and bench press (SPLIT group: +7.75 kg; FULLBODY group: +8.86 kg) but training frequency did not affect this increase for squat (p = 0.640) or bench press (p = 0.431). Both groups showed a significant effect for time on RPE on all three measurements. The analyses showed only an interaction effect between groups on time for the RPE after the squat exercise (p = 0.002). Conclusion We conclude that there are no additional benefits of increasing the training frequency from two to four sessions under volume-equated conditions, but it could be favorable to spread the total training volume into several training bouts through the week to avoid potential increases in RPE, especially after the squat exercise.
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Suchomel, Timothy J., Conor J. Cantwell, Brookelyn A. Campbell, Zachary S. Schroeder, Lauren K. Marshall, and Christopher B. Taber. "Braking and Propulsion Phase Characteristics of Traditional and Accentuated Eccentric Loaded Back Squats." Journal of Human Kinetics 91 (April 15, 2024): 121–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.5114/jhk/185726.
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The purpose of this study was to examine the differences in braking and propulsion force-time characteristics and barbell velocity between traditional (TRAD) and accentuated eccentric loaded (AEL) back squats using various load combinations. Sixteen resistance-trained men participated in four separate testing sessions which included a one repetition maximum (1RM) back squat during the first session and three squat testing sessions. During the squat testing sessions, participants either performed sets of three repetitions of TRAD back squats each with 50, 60, 70, and 80% 1RM or performed the same loads with the addition of weight releasers that increased the total eccentric weight of the first repetition of each set to either 100 (AEL-MAX) or 110% 1RM (AEL-SUPRA). Braking and propulsion mean force, duration, and impulse as well as mean and peak barbell velocity were compared between each condition and load. Significantly greater braking impulses were produced during the AEL-MAX and AEL-SUPRA conditions compared to TRAD (p < 0.03) with small-moderate effect sizes favoring AEL-SUPRA. No other significant differences existed among conditions for other braking, propulsion, or barbell velocity variables. AEL-MAX and AEL-SUPRA back squats may provide a greater braking stimulus compared to TRAD squats; however, the propulsion phase of the movement does not appear to be impacted. From a loading standpoint, larger and smaller load spreads may favor rapid and maximal force production characteristics, respectively. Further research on this topic is needed as a large portion of the braking stimulus experienced during AEL back squats may be influenced by relative strength.
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Imano, Tetsuo, and Masaaki Nakajima. "Exercise speed and workload effects on muscle hypoxia in vastus lateralis muscle during squatting exercises." Scientific Journal of Sport and Performance 3, no. 4 (July 12, 2024): 464–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.55860/knxz7210.
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Background: The study aimed to examine the effects of varying exercise speed and joint motion range (opting for either full knee extension or sustained knee flexion) on the intramuscular hypoxic environment, a key factor in muscle hypertrophy, during squat exercises. Methods: The participants were 17 healthy male and female students from Kibi International University, without back or knee pain at the time of evaluation. Two squat variations were performed: squats with full knee extension (Locked group; L group) and squats without full knee extension (non-locked group; NL group). The exercises were conducted in the following sequence with intervals: 12 s of non-locking (NL12), 12 s of locking (L12), 8 s of non-locking (NL8), 8 s of locking (L8), 4 s of non-locking (NL4), and 4 s of locking (L4). Tissue Oxygen Saturation (StO2) in the right vastus lateralis muscle, under blood flow restriction during squat exercises, was measured using near-infrared spectroscopy. Results: The minimum StO2 for NL12 was significantly lower than the resting StO2 values. Similarly, the minimum StO2 values for L12 and L8 were also significantly lower than the resting StO2 values. The minimum StO2 value for 8 s was significantly lower than at rest only in group L. Conclusion: When performing squat exercises, it is beneficial to reduce the exercise speed and increase the knee joint’s range of motion. This adjustment enhances the work of the quadriceps muscles, thereby creating an intramuscular hypoxic environment and promoting muscle hypertrophy.
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Lu, Yichen, Qichang Mei, Hsien-Te Peng, Jianshe Li, Chen Wei, and Yaodong Gu. "A Comparative Study on Loadings of the Lower Extremity during Deep Squat in Asian and Caucasian Individuals via OpenSim Musculoskeletal Modelling." BioMed Research International 2020 (July 4, 2020): 1–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2020/7531719.
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Populations of different ethnicities may present different movement capacities and muscular function adaptations. The purpose of this study was to investigate the differences of motion and loading in the lower extremity during dynamic deep squats between Asian and Caucasian individuals using OpenSim modelling technique with a customized squat-specific musculoskeletal model. Twenty-four participants joined the test performing the step-squat test, with right foot stepping side, squatting, and returning. The one-dimensional statistical parametric mapping package was used for statistical analysis. The main findings of the current study were as follows: (1) significant lower squat depth was observed in the Asian individuals, (2) the greater knee range of motion and contact forces were found in the Asian individuals, and (3) the greater ankle contact forces in the Caucasian individuals were notable while performing the deep squat compared to the Asian group. Knowledge found in the current study may provide implication for exercise practitioners and physiotherapists while designing schemes for the prevention of loading accumulation in the lower extremity.
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Swinton, Paul A., Ray Lloyd, Justin W. L. Keogh, Ioannis Agouris, and Arthur D. Stewart. "A Biomechanical Comparison of the Traditional Squat, Powerlifting Squat, and Box Squat." Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 26, no. 7 (July 2012): 1805–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1519/jsc.0b013e3182577067.
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Kaçoğlu, Celil, and Barış Gürol. "EFFECT OF BODY POSITION DURING WHOLE BODY VIBRATION ON ACUTE JUMPING PERFORMANCE." Baltic Journal of Sport and Health Sciences 3, no. 102 (2016): 8–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.33607/bjshs.v3i102.59.
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Background. The aim of the study was to investigate the acute effect of whole-body vibration (WBV) during heel raised and standing squat position on squat (SJ) and countermovement jump (CMJ) heights. Methods. Twenty four physically active sport science students are voluntarily participated in this study. Randomized, counterbalanced, crossover study was used in this study and all subjects completed two trials that were plantar (25–30°) and dorsal (5–10°) flexion squats. WBV exercises were performed on a vibration plate at 26 Hz frequency, 4mm amplitude. Jumping performances were assessed with and without WBV conditions. Subjects executed WBV condition treatment on static plantar or dorsal flexion half squat position (45 °knee angle) for 3x60 s with 60 s rest between sets. Results. There was no statistically significant two-way interaction between treatments and times for SJ and CMJ (p > .05). SJ and CMJ after the WBV were significantly higher than without WBV condition (p < .05). SJ and CMJ heights were higher than baseline values without WBV. Conclusion. These results indicate that there were no differences between WBV during plantar and dorsal flexion squat position on SJ and CMJ heights. Regardless of different muscle length squat position during WBV, there were little but significant differences (~1cm) on SJ and CMJ heights after WBV. According to these results it can be said that WBV had a statistically significant acute effect on jumping, but different plantar-flexor muscle length squat position on vibration plate during WBV did not have any effect on jumping performance.
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Zuo, Yang, Praneeth Chandran, Johan Odelius, and Matti Rantatalo. "Wayside Railway Switch and Crossing Monitoring Using Isolation Forest Anomaly Scores." Sustainability 15, no. 20 (October 13, 2023): 14836. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su152014836.
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Railway switch and crossing (S&C) systems have complicated moving structures compared with regular rail. They require multiple components that vary in complexity. The complexity of railway S&C, together with the fact that they are discontinuous points of the system, makes them vulnerable to defects such as squats. A squat on the switching rail could potentially cause rail breakage and lead to catastrophic results, such as derailment. In this study, a method based on anomaly scoring was investigated to estimate the status of an S&C system with respect to squat defects. The proposed method was tested in a real environment under controlled measurement sequences. The results show that the methods can differ between an S&C with squats and another one without them.
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Yun, Seok-Ho, Hyeon-Joo Kim, Jeh-Kwang Ryu, and Seung-Chan Kim. "Fine-Grained Motion Recognition in At-Home Fitness Monitoring with Smartwatch: A Comparative Analysis of Explainable Deep Neural Networks." Healthcare 11, no. 7 (March 24, 2023): 940. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/healthcare11070940.
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The squat is a multi-joint exercise widely used for everyday at-home fitness. Focusing on the fine-grained classification of squat motions, we propose a smartwatch-based wearable system that can recognize subtle motion differences. For data collection, 52 participants were asked to perform one correct squat and five incorrect squats with three different arm postures (straight arm, crossed arm, and hands on waist). We utilized deep neural network-based models and adopted a conventional machine learning method (random forest) as a baseline. Experimental results revealed that the bidirectional GRU/LSTMs with an attention mechanism and the arm posture of hands on waist achieved the best test accuracy (F1-score) of 0.854 (0.856). High-dimensional embeddings in the latent space learned by attention-based models exhibit more clustered distributions than those by other DNN models, indicating that attention-based models learned features from the complex multivariate time-series motion signals more efficiently. To understand the underlying decision-making process of the machine-learning system, we analyzed the result of attention-based RNN models. The bidirectional GRU/LSTMs show a consistent pattern of attention for defined squat classes, but these models weigh the attention to the different kinematic events of the squat motion (e.g., descending and ascending). However, there was no significant difference found in classification performance.
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Garrick, Lachlan E., Bryce C. Alexander, Anthony G. Schache, Marcus G. Pandy, Kay M. Crossley, and Natalie J. Collins. "Athletes Rated as Poor Single-Leg Squat Performers Display Measurable Differences in Single-Leg Squat Biomechanics Compared With Good Performers." Journal of Sport Rehabilitation 27, no. 6 (November 1, 2018): 546–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jsr.2016-0208.
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Context: It is important to validate single-leg squat visual rating criteria used in clinical practice and research. Foot orthoses may improve single-leg squat performance in those who demonstrate biomechanics associated with increased risk of lower limb injury. Objective: Validate visual rating criteria proposed by Crossley et al, by determining whether athletes rated as poor single-leg squat performers display different single-leg squat biomechanics than good performers; and evaluate immediate effects of foot orthoses on single-leg squat biomechanics in poor performers. Design: Comparative cross-sectional study. Setting: University laboratory. Participants: 79 asymptomatic athletes underwent video classification of single-leg squat performance based on established visual rating criteria (overall impression, trunk posture, pelvis “in space,” hip movement, and knee movement), and were rated as good (n = 23), fair (n = 41), or poor (n = 15) performers. Intervention: A subset of good (n = 16) and poor (n = 12) performers underwent biomechanical assessment, completing 5 continuous single-leg squats on their dominant limb while 3-dimensional motion analysis and ground reaction force data were recorded. Poor performers repeated the task standing on prefabricated foot orthoses. Main Outcome Measures: Peak external knee adduction moment (KAM) and peak angles for the trunk, hip, knee, and ankle. Results: Compared with good performers, poor performers had a significantly lower peak KAM (mean difference = 0.11 Nm/kg, 95% confidence interval = 0.02 to 0.2 Nm/kg), higher peak hip adduction angle (−4.3°, −7.6° to −0.9°), and higher peak trunk axial rotation toward their stance limb (3.8°, 0.4° to 7.2°). Foot orthoses significantly increased the peak KAM in poor performers (−0.06 Nm/kg, −0.1 to −0.01 Nm/kg), with values approximating those observed in good performers. Conclusions: Findings validate Crossley et al’s visual rating criteria for single-leg squat performance in asymptomatic athletes, and suggest that “off-the-shelf” foot orthoses may be a simple intervention for poor performers to normalize the magnitude of the external KAM during single-leg squat.
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Lee, Dong Hwan, Yun Hwan Kim, Jaeyoon Baek, Seon Ae Kim, and Seok Jung Kim. "Femoral anteversion linked to the inability to squat: Analysis of CT images in the patient and control groups." Medicine 103, no. 23 (June 7, 2024): e38411. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/md.0000000000038411.
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Many patients who cannot squat well in a neutral toe position can only squat in an excessively out-toeing position. This excessive out-toeing squat is thought to be caused by rotational problems of the lower extremities. In this study, we aimed to identify the cause for the inability to squat by measuring and comparing femoral and tibial torsion between an excessive out-toeing squat patient group and a control group representing the general population. Between 2008 and 2022, a patient group comprising 50 lower extremities with excessive out-toeing squats was established. A control group representing the general population was selected from patients aged 0 to 29 years, who underwent lower-extremity CT angiography between 2012 and 2022, using the Clinical Data Warehouse with exclusion criteria applied. A total of 94 lower extremities were included in the control group. The femoral torsional angle (FTA) and tibial torsional angle (TTA) of both groups were measured and compared using Student t test. Additionally, 30 each of those with the highest and lowest 30 FTA values were selected from the patient and control groups, and the TTA was compared between the high- and low-FTA groups using Student t test. The mean FTA was 0.34° (SD, 11.11°) in the patient group and 10.14° (SD, 11.85°) in the control group, with a mean difference of 9.8° and P < .001. The mean TTA was 27.95° (SD, 7.82°) in the patient group and 32.67 ° (SD, 7.58°) in the control group, with a mean difference of 4.72° (P = .001). The mean TTA was 34.3° (SD, 7.72°) in the high-FTA group and 28.17° (SD, 8.35°) in the low-FTA group, with a mean difference of 6.13° (P = .005). Patients with excessive out-toeing squat showed lower FTA and TTA values than the general population. Furthermore, although a correlation between FTA and TTA was not established through Pearson correlation analysis, a tendency was observed where a decrease in FTA was associated with a decrease in TTA. Based on these results, decreased FTA was demonstrated to be one of the major causes of excessive out-toeing squats.
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Šiška, Simon, Tereza Králová, Zuzana Hlavoňová, Luděk Helis, Jan Cacek, and Zdeněk Morávek. "Time Changes in Resisted Sprinting With a Weighted Vest: 5 % of Body Weight or Back Squat? The Use of the 1RM Back Squat and Body Weight as Load Strategy in Weighted Vest Sprinting." Studia sportiva 17, no. 1 (2023): 169–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.5817/sts2023-1-15.
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The purpose was to investigate whether runners who do not squat their body weight once will not be overloaded with a weight vest with a load of 5% of BW and will not maintain 95% intensity across ten repetitions of a 20-meter sprint. Eight adult female students (24,05±1,15 years old; body height 168±4,24 cm; body weight 60,39±5,53 kg) from the faculty of sports studies at Masaryk University in the Czech Republic participated in this study. Categories were: 1 = NBW (1RM in the squat is relative body weight ± 5 kg), 2 = LBW (1RM in the squat is lower than BW-5 kg) and 3 = HBW (1RM in the squat is higher than BW +5 kg). The measurements took place on three different days, each day running with another experimental condition: free sprinting, weighted vest sprinting with a 5% load of BW, and weighted vest sprinting with a 5% load of 1RM squat. With a weight vest with resistance at the level of 5% of body weight, during 49 sprints, the intensity decreased by a maximum of 4.82% (participant 4, NBW group, 1st run). Although, with weight vest resistance at the level of 5% of the 1RM back squats, during 68 sprints, the intensity decreased by a maximum of 6.59% (participant 1, NBW group, 8th run). It seems that the level of strength abilities of the lower limbs did not play a role in this, we can calculate 5% intensity from both BW and 1 RM squat. Since the HBW group could maintain the required intensity even at significantly higher weights than 5% BW, further research with a larger research sample is needed.
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Drinkwater, Eric J., Erica J. Pritchett, and David G. Behm. "Effect of Instability and Resistance on Unintentional Squat-Lifting Kinetics." International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance 2, no. 4 (December 2007): 400–413. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2.4.400.
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Context:Resistance training while using an instability-training device is known to increase activation of stabilizing muscle groups while decreasing the force generated by the prime movers during isometric contractions.Purpose:To investigate differences in squat kinetics during dynamic resistance training in an increasingly unstable training environment.Methods:Fourteen active men participated in this study. In each testing session, each participant performed 3 repetitions of squats with a 10-repetition maximum (10-RM) resistance, 40% of their 10-RM resistance, and 20.45 kg. The 3 testing session consisted of standing on a stable foor, foam pads, or BOSU balls. All repetitions were recorded with an optical encoder to record barbell kinetics.Results:The transition from stable (floor) to very unstable (BOSU) resulted in high likelihoods (>75%) of clinically meaningful differences ranging from small to large (effect size [ES] 0.31–1.73) in factors relating to concentric kinetics, eccentric power, and squat depth, regardless of the resistance used for training. There were also likely differences at the heaviest resistance in peak concentric power (stable to foam: ES 2.06; foam to BOSU: ES 0.38), eccentric power (stable to foam: ES 1.88; foam to BOSU: ES 0.74), and squat depth (stable to foam: ES 0.50; foam to BOSU: ES 0.67).Conclusions:Resistance training in an unstable environment at an intensity sufficient to elicit strength gains of the prime movers results in deleterious effects in concentric squat kinetics and squat technique. Such observations are particularly evident on very unstable platforms.
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Long, Kirstin I. "Spatio-temporal interactions among male and female long-nosed potoroos, Potorous tridactylus (Marsupialia : Macropodoidea): mating system implications." Australian Journal of Zoology 49, no. 1 (2001): 17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/zo00077.
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This study investigated the mating system of the long-nosed potoroo, Potorous tridactylus, by examining temporal associations between individuals, and patterns of home-range overlap. Six adult females and five adult males were radio-tracked at intervals throughout the 24-h day from December 1996 to March 1997 in south-western Victoria. Home ranges of individuals overlapped with multiple members of each sex; however, intrasexual overlap was significantly lower than intersexual overlap. When data from consecutive radio-tracking sessions were examined, the locations of resting or ‘squat’ areas were identified. These were almost entirely intrasexually exclusive. Male home ranges overlapped the squat areas of one or more females; however, males did not regularly associate with every female whose squat area they overlapped. In three of four cases, pairs of a male and a female associated regularly and spent a greater proportion of time in close proximity to each other than would be expected if they were moving at random. In the past it has been assumed that males monitor the sexual status of females while they rest in squats. If this is the case, the mating system of long-nosed potoroos will be largely dictated by the number of female squat areas that a male is able to regularly monitor within his home range.
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Tillaar, Roland van den, and Eric Helms. "Comparison of Muscle Activation and Kinematics in 6-RM Squatting With Low and High Barbell Placement." Journal of Human Kinetics 74, no. 1 (August 31, 2020): 131–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/hukin-2020-0021.
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Abstract The aim of this study was to compare 6-RM muscle activation and kinematics in back squats with low and high barbell placements. Twelve resistance-trained males (23.5 ± 2.6 years, 86.8 ± 21.3 kg, 1.81 ± 0.08 m) with a minimum of 2 years of squatting experience performed a 6-RM using high and low barbell placements while muscle activation of eight muscles and joint kinematics were measured. During high barbell placement squats, lifting time was longer, with lower average velocity than low barbell placement. This was accompanied by a lesser knee flexion angle at the lowest point of the squat, and larger hip flexion angles during high, compared to low barbell squats. Furthermore, peak angular ankle, knee and hip velocities in the descending phase developed differently between conditions. No significant differences in muscle activation were found between conditions. Thus, our data suggests gross muscular adaptations between barbell placements may be similar over time, and therefore, from a muscular development standpoint, both squat styles are valid. Furthermore, unlike the low barbell placement, fatigue may manifest earlier itself in the high barbell squats during 6-RMs as sets progress toward a lifter’s maximal capacity, altering kinematics, especially in the last repetition.
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Sarabia, Jose Manuel, Jaime Fernandez-Fernandez, Casto Juan-Recio, Hector Hernández-Davó, Tomás Urbán, and Manuel Moya. "Mechanical, Hormonal and Psychological Effects of a Non-Failure Short-Term Strength Training Program in Young Tennis Players." Journal of Human Kinetics 45, no. 1 (March 1, 2015): 81–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/hukin-2015-0009.
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Abstract This study examined the effects of a 6-week non-failure strength training program in youth tennis players. Twenty tennis players (age: 15.0 ± 1 years, body height: 170.9 ± 5.1 cm, body mass: 63.3 ± 9.1 kg) were divided into experimental and control groups. Pre and post-tests included half squats, bench press, squat jumps, countermovementjumps and side-ball throws. Salivary cortisol samples were collected, and the Profile of Mood States questionnaire was used weekly during an anatomical adaptation period, a main training period and after a tapering week. The results showed that, after the main training period, the experimental group significantly improved (p<0.05) in mean and peak power output and in the total number of repetitions during the half-squat endurance test; mean force, power and velocity in the half-squat power output test; Profile of Mood States (in total mood disturbance between the last week of the mean training period and the tapering week); and in squat-jump and countermovement-jump height. Moreover, significant differences were found between the groups at the post-tests in the total number of repetitions, mean and peak power during the half-squat endurance test, mean velocity in the half-squat power output test, salivary cortisol concentration (baselines, first and third week of the mean training period) and in the Profile of Mood States (in fatigue subscale: first and third week of the mean training period). In conclusion, a non-failure strength training protocol improved lower-limb performance levels and produced a moderate psychophysiological impact in youth elite tennis players, suggesting that it is a suitable program to improve strength. Such training protocols do not increase the total training load of tennis players and may be recommended to improve strength.
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Schwarz, Neil A., Sean P. Harper, Andy Waldhelm, Sarah K. McKinley-Barnard, Shelley L. Holden, and John E. Kovaleski. "A Comparison of Machine versus Free-Weight Squats for the Enhancement of Lower-Body Power, Speed, and Change-of-Direction Ability during an Initial Training Phase of Recreationally-Active Women." Sports 7, no. 10 (September 30, 2019): 215. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/sports7100215.
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The purpose of this study was to examine differences between a free-weight squat (FWS) and machine squat (MS) during an initial resistance training phase for augmentation of performance tests in recreationally active women. Twenty-seven women (22.7 ± 3.5 years) were block-randomized to three groups: FWS, MS, or control (CON) and completed pre- and post-testing sessions consisting of the squat one-repetition maximum (1-RM), vertical jump, pro-agility test, zig-zag change-of-direction (COD) test, and 30-meter sprint. Participants trained two sessions per week for six weeks by performing jumping, sprinting, and COD drills followed by FWS, MS, or no squats (CON). Peak jump power increased for CON (p = 0.03) and MS (p < 0.01) groups. Change in peak jump power was greater for the MS group compared with the FWS group (p = 0.05). Average jump power increased for the MS group (p < 0.01). Change in average jump power was greater for the MS group compared with the CON group (p = 0.04). Vertical jump height, pro-agility, 30-meter sprint, and zig-zag COD tests improved over time (p < 0.01), with no difference between groups (p > 0.05). Machine squat training maximized jumping power compared with FWS training and CON. Both resistance training groups and the CON group improved equally in the pro-agility, 30-meter sprint, and zig-zag COD tests. Machine squat training may provide performance-enhancing benefits of equal or superior value to those obtained with free-weight squat training in recreationally active women during an initial training mesocycle. These findings also stress the importance of task-specific training in this population of untrained women, as the control group improved in terms of performance to the same degree as both resistance training groups.