Journal articles: 'Split-walking'

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Helm, Erin E., and Darcy S. Reisman. "The Split-Belt Walking Paradigm." Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Clinics of North America 26, no. 4 (November 2015): 703–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pmr.2015.06.010.

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Zijlstra, W., and V. Dietz. "Split-belt walking in healthy adults." Journal of Biomechanics 27, no. 6 (January 1994): 748. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0021-9290(94)91197-5.

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Long, Andrew W., James M. Finley, and Amy J. Bastian. "A marching-walking hybrid induces step length adaptation and transfers to natural walking." Journal of Neurophysiology 113, no. 10 (June 2015): 3905–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.00779.2014.

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Walking is highly adaptable to new demands and environments. We have previously studied adaptation of locomotor patterns via a split-belt treadmill, where subjects learn to walk with one foot moving faster than the other. Subjects learn to adapt their walking pattern by changing the location (spatial) and time (temporal) of foot placement. Here we asked whether we can induce adaptation of a specific walking pattern when one limb does not “walk” but instead marches in place (i.e., marching-walking hybrid). The marching leg's movement is limited during the stance phase, and thus certain sensory signals important for walking may be reduced. We hypothesized that this would produce a spatial-temporal strategy different from that of normal split-belt adaptation. Healthy subjects performed two experiments to determine whether they could adapt their spatial-temporal pattern of step lengths during the marching-walking hybrid and whether the learning transfers to over ground walking. Results showed that the hybrid group did adapt their step lengths, but the time course of adaptation and deadaption was slower than that for the split-belt group. We also observed that the hybrid group utilized a mostly spatial strategy whereas the split-belt group utilized both spatial and temporal strategies. Surprisingly, we found no significant difference between the hybrid and split-belt groups in over ground transfer. Moreover, the hybrid group retained more of the learned pattern when they returned to the treadmill. These findings suggest that physical rehabilitation with this marching-walking paradigm on conventional treadmills may produce changes in symmetry comparable to what is observed during split-belt training.

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Wei, Jiang, Zou De hua, Ma Shuangbao, Ye Gaocheng, and Chen Wei. "Dynamic walking characteristics and control of four-wheel mobile robot on ultra-high voltage multi-split transmission line." Transactions of the Institute of Measurement and Control 44, no. 6 (October 27, 2021): 1309–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/01423312211043001.

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High-voltage lines are an important channel for power transmission, and multi-split transmission lines are the main strength of power transmission. Compared with double-wheel single-wire maintenance robots, ultra-high-voltage multi-split transmission lines and four-wheel mobile robots have a wider application range and greater demand. The maintenance of multi-split transmission lines relies on the stable walking and control of four-wheel mobile robots on heterogeneous multi-split transmission lines. However, uncertain disturbance factors such as wind load in the complex field environment cause vibration of double-split and quad-split lines. The slight change in the line spacing causes the line contact to the edge of the robot’s walking wheel, which increases the friction during the robot’s walking. It also directly hinder the movement of the robot on the multi-split transmission line, thus restricting the completion of the robot’s maintenance operation. Based on the analysis, this paper establishes a mathematical model of the external force disturbance influence on the spacing of the double-split lines. At the same time, the robot walking mechanics characteristics model under the change of the line space has been established. Three different forms of the robot walking online have been obtained through abstraction processing. A method of side friction identification based on fuzzy control has been proposed, through the online monitoring of the friction between line and edge of the walking wheel, the robot walking wheel motor walking force can be intelligently controlled in real time, and effectively avoids the “wheel-line” jam phenomenon under the external uncertain factors in the field environment. Finally, the feasibility and engineering practicability of the method have been verified through MATLAB/ADAMS simulation and field operation experiments. Therefore, the automation and intelligence level of the operation and the transmission system maintenance management has been improved.

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Vasudevan, Erin V. L., and Amy J. Bastian. "Split-Belt Treadmill Adaptation Shows Different Functional Networks for Fast and Slow Human Walking." Journal of Neurophysiology 103, no. 1 (January 2010): 183–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.00501.2009.

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New walking patterns can be learned over short time scales (i.e., adapted in minutes) using a split-belt treadmill that controls the speed of each leg independently. This leads to storage of a modified motor pattern that is expressed as an aftereffect in regular walking conditions and must be de-adapted to return to normal. Here we asked whether the nervous system adapts a general walking pattern that is used across many speeds or a specific pattern affecting only the two speeds experienced during split-belt training. In experiment 1, we tested three groups of healthy adult subjects walking at different split-belt speed combinations and then assessed aftereffects at a range of speeds. We found that aftereffects were largest at the slower speed that was used in split-belt training in all three groups, and it decayed gradually for all other speeds. Thus adaptation appeared to be more strongly linked to the slow walking speed. This result suggests a separation in the functional networks used for fast and slow walking. We tested this in experiment 2 by adapting walking to split belts and then determining how much fast regular walking washed out the slow aftereffect and vice versa. We found that 23–38% of the aftereffect remained regardless of which speed was washed out first. This demonstrates that there is only partial overlap in the functional networks coordinating different walking speeds. Taken together, our results suggest that there are some neural networks for controlling locomotion that are recruited specifically for fast versus slow walking in humans, similar to recent findings in other vertebrates.

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Stubbs, Peter W., and Sabata Gervasio. "Motor adaptation following split-belt treadmill walking." Journal of Neurophysiology 108, no. 5 (September 1, 2012): 1225–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.01197.2011.

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Malone L, Vasudevan E, and Bastian A ( J Neurosci 31: 15136–15143, 2011) investigated the effects of different training paradigms on the day-by-day retention of learned motor patterns. In this Neuro Forum, a description and assessment of the methods used will be presented. The interpretation of the findings will be extended and the possible implications will be discussed. Finally, alternative explanations of the possible regions involved in motor pattern relearning will be provided.

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Musselman, Kristin E., Susan K. Patrick, Erin V. L. Vasudevan, Amy J. Bastian, and Jaynie F. Yang. "Unique characteristics of motor adaptation during walking in young children." Journal of Neurophysiology 105, no. 5 (May 2011): 2195–203. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.01002.2010.

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Children show precocious ability in the learning of languages; is this the case with motor learning? We used split-belt walking to probe motor adaptation (a form of motor learning) in children. Data from 27 children (ages 8–36 mo) were compared with those from 10 adults. Children walked with the treadmill belts at the same speed (tied belt), followed by walking with the belts moving at different speeds (split belt) for 8–10 min, followed again by tied-belt walking (postsplit). Initial asymmetries in temporal coordination (i.e., double support time) induced by split-belt walking were slowly reduced, with most children showing an aftereffect (i.e., asymmetry in the opposite direction to the initial) in the early postsplit period, indicative of learning. In contrast, asymmetries in spatial coordination (i.e., center of oscillation) persisted during split-belt walking and no aftereffect was seen. Step length, a measure of both spatial and temporal coordination, showed intermediate effects. The time course of learning in double support and step length was slower in children than in adults. Moreover, there was a significant negative correlation between the size of the initial asymmetry during early split-belt walking (called error) and the aftereffect for step length. Hence, children may have more difficulty learning when the errors are large. The findings further suggest that the mechanisms controlling temporal and spatial adaptation are different and mature at different times.

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Kim, Daekyoo, Phillip C. Desrochers, Cara L. Lewis, and Simone V. Gill. "Effects of Obesity on Adaptation Transfer from Treadmill to Over-Ground Walking." Applied Sciences 11, no. 5 (February 27, 2021): 2108. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app11052108.

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Discerning whether individuals with obesity transfer walking adaptation from treadmill to over-ground walking is critical to advancing our understanding of walking adaptation and its usefulness in rehabilitating obese populations. We examined whether the aftereffects following split-belt treadmill adaptation transferred to over-ground walking in adults with normal-weight body mass index (BMI) and obese BMI. Nineteen young adults with obesity and 19 age-matched adults with normal weight walked on flat ground at their preferred speed before and after walking on a treadmill with tied belts (preferred speed) and with the split-belt at their preferred speed and at a speed 50% slower than their preferred speed. The adaptation and aftereffects in step length and double-limb support time symmetry were calculated. We found that the amount of temporal adaptation was similar for adults with obesity and with normal weight (p > 0.05). However, adults with obesity showed greater asymmetry for double-limb support time following split-belt treadmill walking compared to adults with normal weight (p < 0.05). Furthermore, the transfer of asymmetry for double-limb support time from the treadmill to over-ground walking was less in adults with obesity than in adults with normal weight (p < 0.05). The transfer of adapted gait following split-belt treadmill walking provides insight into how atypical walking patterns in individuals with obesity could be remediated using long-term gait training.

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Reisman, Darcy S., Robert Wityk, Kenneth Silver, and Amy J. Bastian. "Split-Belt Treadmill Adaptation Transfers to Overground Walking in Persons Poststroke." Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair 23, no. 7 (March 23, 2009): 735–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1545968309332880.

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Background and Objective. Following stroke, subjects retain the ability to adapt interlimb symmetry on the split-belt treadmill. Critical to advancing our understanding of locomotor adaptation and its usefulness in rehabilitation is discerning whether adaptive effects observed on a treadmill transfer to walking over ground. We examined whether aftereffects following split-belt treadmill adaptation transfer to overground walking in healthy persons and those poststroke. Methods. Eleven poststroke and 11 age-matched and gender-matched healthy subjects walked over ground before and after walking on a split-belt treadmill. Adaptation and aftereffects in step length and double support time were calculated. Results. Both groups demonstrated partial transfer of the aftereffects observed on the treadmill ( P < .001) to overground walking ( P < .05), but the transfer was more robust in the subjects poststroke ( P < .05). The subjects with baseline asymmetry after stroke improved in asymmetry of step length and double limb support ( P = .06). Conclusions. The partial transfer of aftereffects to overground walking suggests that some shared neural circuits that control locomotion for different environmental contexts are adapted during split-belt treadmill walking. The larger adaptation transfer from the treadmill to overground walking in the stroke survivors may be due to difficulty adjusting their walking pattern to changing environmental demands. Such difficulties with context switching have been considered detrimental to function poststroke. However, we propose that the persistence of improved symmetry when changing context to overground walking could be used to advantage in poststroke rehabilitation.

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Sato, Sumire, and Julia T. Choi. "Increased intramuscular coherence is associated with temporal gait symmetry during split-belt locomotor adaptation." Journal of Neurophysiology 122, no. 3 (September 1, 2019): 1097–109. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.00865.2018.

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When walking on a split-belt treadmill where one belt moves faster than the other, the nervous system consistently attempts to maintain symmetry between legs, quantified as deviation from double support time or step length symmetry. It is known that the cerebellum plays a critical role in locomotor adaptation. Less is known about the role of corticospinal drive in maintaining this type of proprioceptive-driven locomotor adaptation. The objective of this study was to examine the functional role of oscillatory drive in relation to changes in spatiotemporal gait parameters during split-belt walking adaptation. Eighteen healthy participants adapted and deadapted on a split-belt treadmill; 13 out of 18 participants repeated the paradigm two more times to examine the effects of reexposure. Coherence analysis was used to quantify the coupling between electromyography (EMG) from the proximal (TAprox) and distal tibialis anterior (TAdist) muscle during the swing phase of walking. EMG-EMG coherence was examined within the alpha (8–15 Hz), beta (15–30 Hz), and gamma (30–45 Hz) frequencies. Our results showed that 1) beta- and gamma-band coherence (markers of corticospinal drive) increased during early split-belt walking compared with baseline walking in the slow leg, 2) beta-band coherence decreased from early to late split-belt adaptation in the fast leg, 3) alpha-, beta-, and gamma-band coherence decreased from first to third split-belt exposure in the fast leg, and 4) there was a relationship between higher beta coherence in the slow leg TA and smaller double support asymmetry. Our results suggest that corticospinal drive may play a functional role in the temporal control of split-belt walking adaptation. NEW & NOTEWORTHY This is the first study to examine the functional role of intramuscular coherence in relation to changes in spatiotemporal gait parameters during split-belt walking adaptation. We found that the corticospinal drive measured by intramuscular coherence in tibialis anterior changes with adaptation and that the corticospinal drive is related to temporal but not spatial parameters. This study may give insight as to the specific role of the motor cortex during gait.

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Teoh, Jee Chin, and Taeyong Lee. "Biomechanical assessment of split sole shoes on walking." Footwear Science 7, sup1 (June 18, 2015): S126—S128. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19424280.2015.1038645.

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Meyns, P., F. Massaad, S. M. Bruijn, W. Hoogkamer, M. J. MacLellan, Y. P. Ivanenko, K. Desloovere, and J. Duysens. "Arm swing adaptation during split-belt treadmill walking." Gait & Posture 39 (June 2014): S120—S121. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gaitpost.2014.04.166.

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Hoogkamer, Wouter. "Perception of Gait Asymmetry During Split-Belt Walking." Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews 45, no. 1 (January 2017): 34–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1249/jes.0000000000000094.

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Reisman, Darcy S., Hannah J. Block, and Amy J. Bastian. "Interlimb Coordination During Locomotion: What Can be Adapted and Stored?" Journal of Neurophysiology 94, no. 4 (October 2005): 2403–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.00089.2005.

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Interlimb coordination is critically important during bipedal locomotion and often must be adapted to account for varying environmental circumstances. Here we studied adaptation of human interlimb coordination using a split-belt treadmill, where the legs can be made to move at different speeds. Human adults, infants, and spinal cats can alter walking patterns on a split-belt treadmill by prolonging stance and shortening swing on the slower limb and vice versa on the faster limb. It is not known whether other locomotor parameters change or if there is a capacity for storage of a new motor pattern after training. We asked whether adults adapt both intra- and interlimb gait parameters during split-belt walking and show aftereffects from training. Healthy subjects were tested walking with belts tied (baseline), then belts split (adaptation), and again tied (postadaptation). Walking parameters that directly relate to the interlimb relationship changed slowly during adaptation and showed robust aftereffects during postadaptation. These changes paralleled subjective impressions of limping versus no limping. In contrast, parameters calculated from an individual leg changed rapidly to accommodate split-belts and showed no aftereffects. These results suggest some independence of neural control of intra- versus interlimb parameters during walking. They also show that the adult nervous system can adapt and store new interlimb patterns after short bouts of training. The differences in intra- versus interlimb control may be related to the varying complexity of the parameters, task demands, and/or the level of neural control necessary for their adaptation.

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Hoogkamer, Wouter, Sjoerd M. Bruijn, Zrinka Potocanac, Frank Van Calenbergh, Stephan P. Swinnen, and Jacques Duysens. "Gait asymmetry during early split-belt walking is related to perception of belt speed difference." Journal of Neurophysiology 114, no. 3 (September 2015): 1705–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.00937.2014.

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Gait adaptation is essential for humans to walk according to the different demands of the environment. Although locomotor adaptation has been studied in different contexts and in various patient populations, the mechanisms behind locomotor adaptation are still not fully understood. The aim of the present study was to test two opposing hypotheses about the control of split-belt walking, one based on avoidance of limping and the other on avoiding limb excursion asymmetry. We assessed how well cerebellar patients with focal lesions and healthy control participants could sense differences between belt speeds during split-belt treadmill walking and correlated this to split-belt adaptation parameters. The ability to perceive differences between belt speeds was similar between the cerebellar patients and the healthy controls. After combining all participants, we observed a significant inverse correlation between stance time symmetry and limb excursion symmetry during the early phase of split-belt walking. Participants who were better able to perceive belt speed differences (e.g., they had a lower threshold and hence were able to detect a smaller speed difference) walked with the smallest asymmetry in stance time and the largest asymmetry in limb excursion. Our data support the hypothesis that humans aim to minimize (temporal) limping rather than (spatial) limb excursion asymmetry when using their perception of belt speed differences in the early phase of adaptation to split-belt walking.

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Mizrachi, Nama, Simona Bar-Haim, Iuly Treger, and Itshak Melzer. "Unilaterally Applied Resistance to Swing Leg Shows a Different Adaptation Pattern Compared to Split-Belt Treadmill in Patients with Stroke." Brain Sciences 13, no. 2 (February 3, 2023): 264. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/brainsci13020264.

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Persons with chronic stroke (PwCS) have a decreased ability to ambulate and walk independently. We aimed to investigate the differences between the motor adaptation process for two different perturbation methods: split-belt treadmill walking and unilaterally applied resistance to the swing leg during walking. Twenty-two PwCS undergo split-belt treadmill walking and unilaterally applied resistance to the swing leg during walking, each one week apart. The test included three phases: the baseline period, the early-adaptation period and the late-adaptation period, as well as the early-de-adaptation period and the late-de-adaptation period. The average step length, swing duration, double-limb support duration, and coefficient of variance (CV) of these parameters were measured. During the split-belt treadmill walking, PwCS showed an adaptation of double-limb support duration symmetry (p = 0.004), specifically a trend between baseline versus early-adaptation (p = 0.07) and an after-effect (late-adaptation compare to early-de-adaptation, p = 0.09). In unilaterally applied resistance to the swing leg during walking, PwCS showed lower swing phase duration CV, in the adaptation period (baseline compare to adaptation, p = 0.006), and a trend toward increased variability of gait in the de-adaptation period compare to the adaptation periods (p = 0.099). The rate of adaptation and de-adaptation were alike between the two perturbation methods. Our findings show that the learning process happening in the central nervous system of PwCS may be dependent on the nature of the perturbation (mechanical resistance vs. split-belt) and that PwCS are able to adapt to two types of errors.

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Vazquez, Alejandro, Matthew A. Statton, Stefanie A. Busgang, and Amy J. Bastian. "Split-belt walking adaptation recalibrates sensorimotor estimates of leg speed but not position or force." Journal of Neurophysiology 114, no. 6 (December 1, 2015): 3255–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.00302.2015.

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Motor learning during reaching not only recalibrates movement but can also lead to small but consistent changes in the sense of arm position. Studies have suggested that this sensory effect may be the result of recalibration of a forward model that associates motor commands with their sensory consequences. Here we investigated whether similar perceptual changes occur in the lower limbs after learning a new walking pattern on a split-belt treadmill—a task that critically involves proprioception. Specifically, we studied how this motor learning task affects perception of leg speed during walking, perception of leg position during standing or walking, and perception of contact force during stepping. Our results show that split-belt adaptation leads to robust motor aftereffects and alters the perception of leg speed during walking. This is specific to the direction of walking that was trained during adaptation (i.e., backward or forward). The change in leg speed perception accounts for roughly half of the observed motor aftereffect. In contrast, split-belt adaptation does not alter the perception of leg position during standing or walking and does not change the perception of stepping force. Our results demonstrate that there is a recalibration of a sensory percept specific to the domain of the perturbation that was applied during walking (i.e., speed but not position or force). Furthermore, the motor and sensory consequences of locomotor adaptation may be linked, suggesting overlapping mechanisms driving changes in the motor and sensory domains.

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Kim, Seung-Jae, Scott Howsden, Nicole Bartels, and Hyunglae Lee. "Concurrent locomotor adaptation and retention to visual and split-belt perturbations." PLOS ONE 17, no. 12 (December 30, 2022): e0279585. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0279585.

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Gait asymmetry is a common symptom in groups with neurological disorders and significantly reduces gait efficiency. To develop efficient training for gait rehabilitation, we propose a novel gait rehabilitation paradigm that combines two distinct perturbation strategies: visual feedback distortion (VFD) and split-belt treadmill (SBT) walking. In SBT walking, spatiotemporal gait adaptation can be readily achieved, but it quickly fades after training. Gait adaptation to implicit VFD in an unconscious manner tends to persist longer, potentially due to a greater engagement of implicit learning during training. Thus, we investigated whether the combined strategies would lead to more effective changes in symmetric gait patterns with longer retention periods. We compared the retention of the preserved asymmetric pattern acquired by “implicit VFD+SBT walking” with “SBT-only walking” and with “SBT walking with conscious correction”. In the implicit VFD+SBT walking, the speed of the two belts was gradually changed, the visual representation of gait symmetry was implicitly distorted, and no instructions were given to subjects except to watch the visual feedback. In the SBT walking with conscious correction, subjects were instructed to consciously correct their steps with the help of visual feedback while SBT walking. The SBT-only walking consisted of SBT walking with no visual feedback. After the 7-minute adaptation period, we removed the visual feedback and the split-belt perturbations, and we assessed the retention of the preserved asymmetric pattern while subjects continued walking for the 15-minute post-adaptation period. In a group of subjects who spontaneously showed visuomotor adaptation in response to the implicit VFD (16 out of 27 subjects), we found a greater retention rate during the implicit VFD+SBT walking trial than the SBT-only walking or the SBT walking with conscious correction trials. The implicit visual distortion paradigm delivered in an attention-independent (unconscious) manner can be utilized and integrated into SBT walking to improve the efficacy of symmetric gait adaptation by producing longer-lasting effects on the retention of a newly learned motor pattern.

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Wade, Francesca, Sidney Baudendistel, Amanda Stone, Jaimie Roper, Tiphanie Raffegeau, Matthew Terza, and Chris Hass. "Locomotor Adaptation Training to Prevent Mobility Disability." Biomechanics 2, no. 3 (August 4, 2022): 395–420. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/biomechanics2030031.

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Mobility disability is prevalent in aging populations. While existing walking interventions improve aspects related to mobility, meaningful and sustained changes leading to preventing and reversing mobility disability have remained elusive. Split-belt treadmills can be used to train gait adaptability and may be a potential long-term rehabilitation tool for those at risk for mobility decline. As adaptability is necessary for community walking, we investigated the feasibility of a small, randomized controlled 16-week gait adaptability training program in a cohort of 38 sedentary older adults at risk for mobility disability. Individuals were randomly assigned to one of three groups: traditional treadmill training, split-belt treadmill training, or no-contact control. Both treadmill interventions included progressive training 3 days a week, focusing on increasing duration and speed of walking. Cognitive, functional, cardiovascular, and gait assessments were completed before and after the intervention. While individuals were able to complete split-belt treadmill training, only Timed Up and Go performance was significantly improved compared to traditional treadmill training. As the stimulus provided by the split-belt training was difficult to control, we did not observe a clear benefit for split-belt treadmill training over traditional treadmill training. Our findings indicate a cautionary tale about the implementation of complex training interventions.

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Zijlstra, W., T. Prokop, and W. Berger. "Adaptability of leg movements during normal treadmill walking and split-belt walking in children." Gait & Posture 4, no. 3 (May 1996): 212–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0966-6362(95)01065-3.

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Tyrell, Christine M., Erin Helm, and Darcy S. Reisman. "Learning the spatial features of a locomotor task is slowed after stroke." Journal of Neurophysiology 112, no. 2 (July 15, 2014): 480–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.00486.2013.

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The capacity for humans to learn a new walking pattern has been explored with a split-belt treadmill during single sessions of adaptation, but the split-belt treadmill can also be used to study longer-term motor learning. Although the literature provides some information about motor learning after stroke, existing studies have primarily involved the upper extremity and the results are mixed. The purpose of this study was to characterize learning of a novel locomotor task in stroke survivors. We hypothesized that the presence of neurological dysfunction from stroke would result in slower learning of a locomotor task and decreased retention of what was learned and that these deficits would be related to level of sensorimotor impairment. Sixteen participants with stroke and sixteen neurologically intact participants walked on a split-belt treadmill for 15 min on 5 consecutive days and during a retention test. Step length and limb phase were measured to capture learning of the spatial and temporal aspects of walking. Learning the spatial pattern of split-belt treadmill walking was slowed after stroke compared with neurologically intact subjects, whereas there were no differences between these two groups in learning the temporal pattern. During the retention test, poststroke participants demonstrated equal retention of the split-belt treadmill walking pattern compared with those who were neurologically intact. The results suggest that although stroke survivors are slower to learn a new spatial pattern of gait, if given sufficient time they are able to do so to the same extent as those who are neurologically intact.

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Alcântara, Carolina C., Charalambos C. Charalambous, Susanne M. Morton, Thiago L. Russo, and Darcy S. Reisman. "Different Error Size During Locomotor Adaptation Affects Transfer to Overground Walking Poststroke." Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair 32, no. 12 (November 9, 2018): 1020–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1545968318809921.

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Background. Studies in neurologically intact subjects suggest that the gradual presentation of small perturbations (errors) during learning results in better transfer of a newly learned walking pattern to overground walking. Whether the same result would be true after stroke is not known. Objective. To determine whether introducing gradual perturbations, during locomotor learning using a split-belt treadmill influences learning the novel walking pattern or transfer to overground walking poststroke. Methods. Twenty-six chronic stroke survivors participated and completed the following walking testing paradigm: baseline overground walking; baseline treadmill walking; split-belt treadmill/adaptation period (belts moving at different speeds); catch trial (belts at same speed); post overground walking. Subjects were randomly assigned to the Gradual group (gradual changes in treadmill belts speed during adaptation) or the Abrupt group (a single, large, abrupt change during adaptation). Step length asymmetry adaptation response on the treadmill and transfer of learning to overground walking was assessed. Results. Step length asymmetry during the catch trial was the same between groups ( P = .195) confirming that both groups learned a similar amount. The magnitude of transfer to overground walking was greater in the Gradual than in the Abrupt group ( P = .041). Conclusions. The introduction of gradual perturbations (small errors), compared with abrupt (larger errors), during a locomotor adaptation task seems to improve transfer of the newly learned walking pattern to overground walking poststroke. However, given the limited magnitude of transfer, future studies should examine other factors that could impact locomotor learning and transfer poststroke.

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Hoogkamer, Wouter, and Megan K. O'Brien. "Sensorimotor recalibration during split-belt walking: task-specific and multisensory?" Journal of Neurophysiology 116, no. 4 (October 1, 2016): 1539–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.00079.2016.

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Motor adaptations not only recalibrate movement execution but also can lead to altered movement perception in multiple sensory domains. Vazquez, Statton, Busgang, and Bastian ( J Neurophysiol 114: 3255–3267, 2015) recently showed that split-belt walking affects perception of leg speed during walking, but not perceptions of leg position during standing and walking or perception of contact force during stepping. Considering their findings within the broader scope of sensorimotor recalibration in other tasks, we suggest that sensorimotor recalibrations are task specific and can be multisensory.

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Fujiki, Soichiro, Shinya Aoi, Tetsuro Funato, Nozomi Tomita, Kei Senda, and Kazuo Tsuchiya. "Adaptation mechanism of interlimb coordination in human split-belt treadmill walking through learning of foot contact timing: a robotics study." Journal of The Royal Society Interface 12, no. 110 (September 2015): 20150542. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2015.0542.

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Human walking behaviour adaptation strategies have previously been examined using split-belt treadmills, which have two parallel independently controlled belts. In such human split-belt treadmill walking, two types of adaptations have been identified: early and late. Early-type adaptations appear as rapid changes in interlimb and intralimb coordination activities when the belt speeds of the treadmill change between tied (same speed for both belts) and split-belt (different speeds for each belt) configurations. By contrast, late-type adaptations occur after the early-type adaptations as a gradual change and only involve interlimb coordination. Furthermore, interlimb coordination shows after-effects that are related to these adaptations. It has been suggested that these adaptations are governed primarily by the spinal cord and cerebellum, but the underlying mechanism remains unclear. Because various physiological findings suggest that foot contact timing is crucial to adaptive locomotion, this paper reports on the development of a two-layered control model for walking composed of spinal and cerebellar models, and on its use as the focus of our control model. The spinal model generates rhythmic motor commands using an oscillator network based on a central pattern generator and modulates the commands formulated in immediate response to foot contact, while the cerebellar model modifies motor commands through learning based on error information related to differences between the predicted and actual foot contact timings of each leg. We investigated adaptive behaviour and its mechanism by split-belt treadmill walking experiments using both computer simulations and an experimental bipedal robot. Our results showed that the robot exhibited rapid changes in interlimb and intralimb coordination that were similar to the early-type adaptations observed in humans. In addition, despite the lack of direct interlimb coordination control, gradual changes and after-effects in the interlimb coordination appeared in a manner that was similar to the late-type adaptations and after-effects observed in humans. The adaptation results of the robot were then evaluated in comparison with human split-belt treadmill walking, and the adaptation mechanism was clarified from a dynamic viewpoint.

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Mariscal, Dulce M., Pablo A. Iturralde, and Gelsy Torres-Oviedo. "Altering attention to split-belt walking increases the generalization of motor memories across walking contexts." Journal of Neurophysiology 123, no. 5 (May 1, 2020): 1838–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.00509.2019.

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Little is known about how attention affects the generalization of motor recalibration induced by sensorimotor adaptation paradigms. We showed that altering attention to movements on a split-belt treadmill led to greater adaptation effects in subjects walking overground. Thus our results suggest that altering patients’ attention to their actions during sensorimotor adaptation protocols could lead to greater generalization of corrected movements when moving without the training device.

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Roper, Jaimie A., Ryan T. Roemmich, Mark D. Tillman, Matthew J. Terza, and Chris J. Hass. "Split-Belt Treadmill Walking Alters Lower Extremity Frontal Plane Mechanics." Journal of Applied Biomechanics 33, no. 4 (August 2017): 256–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jab.2016-0059.

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Interventions that manipulate gait speed may also affect the control of frontal plane mechanics. Expanding the current knowledge of frontal plane adaptations during split-belt treadmill walking could advance our understanding of the influence of asymmetries in gait speed on frontal plane mechanics and provide insight into the breadth of adaptations required by split-belt walking (SBW). Thirteen young, healthy participants, free from lower extremity injury walked on a split-belt treadmill with belts moving simultaneously at different speeds. We examined frontal plane mechanics of the ankle, knee, and hip joints during SBW, as well as medio-lateral ground reaction forces (ML-GRF). We did not observe alterations in the frontal mechanics produced during early or late adaptation of SBW when compared to conditions where the belts moved together. We did observe that ML-GRF and hip moment impulse of the fast limb increased over time with adaptation to SBW. These results suggest this modality may provide a unique therapy for individuals with gait pathologies, impairments, or compensation(s).

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Malone, Laura A., and Amy J. Bastian. "Spatial and Temporal Asymmetries in Gait Predict Split-Belt Adaptation Behavior in Stroke." Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair 28, no. 3 (November 15, 2013): 230–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1545968313505912.

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Background. Step asymmetries during gait in persons after stroke can occur in temporal or spatial domains. Prior studies have shown that split-belt locomotor adaptation can temporarily mitigate these asymmetries. Objective. We investigated whether baseline gait asymmetries affected how patients adapt and store new walking patterns. Methods. Subjects with stroke and age-matched controls were studied walking at a 2:1 speed ratio on the split-belt during adaptation and assessed for retention of the learned pattern (the after-effect) with both belts at the same speed. Results. Those with stroke adapted more slowly ( P < .0001), though just as much as healthy older adults. During split-belt walking, the participants with stroke adapted toward their baseline asymmetry (eg, F = 14.02, P < .01 for step symmetry), regardless of whether the subsequent after-effects improved or worsened their baseline step asymmetries. No correlation was found between baseline spatial and temporal measures of asymmetry ( P = .38). Last, the initial spatial and temporal asymmetries predicted after-effects independently of one another. The after-effects in the spatial domain (ie, center of oscillation difference) are only predicted by center of oscillation difference baseline ( F = 15.3, P = .001), while all other parameters were nonsignificant (all Ps > .17). Temporal coordination (ie, phasing) after-effects showed a significant effect only from phasing baseline ( F = 26.92, P < .001, all others P > .33). Conclusion. This work demonstrates that stroke patients adapt toward their baseline temporal and spatial asymmetries of walking independently of one another. We define how a given split-belt training session would affect asymmetries in these domains, which must be considered when developing rehabilitation interventions for stroke patients.

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Teoh, Jee Chin, and Taeyong Lee. "The biomechanical effects of split-sole shoes on normal walking." Footwear Science 9, sup1 (May 10, 2017): S143—S145. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19424280.2017.1314385.

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Bruijn, Sjoerd M., Annouchka Van Impe, Jacques Duysens, and Stephan P. Swinnen. "Split-belt walking: adaptation differences between young and older adults." Journal of Neurophysiology 108, no. 4 (August 15, 2012): 1149–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.00018.2012.

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Human walking is highly adaptable, which allows us to walk under different circumstances. With aging, the probability of falling increases, which may partially be due to a decreased ability of older adults to adapt the gait pattern to the needs of the environment. The literature on visuomotor adaptations during reaching suggests, however, that older adults have little problems in adapting their motor behavior. Nevertheless, it may be that adaptation during a more complex task like gait is compromised by aging. In this study, we investigated the ability of young ( n = 8) and older ( n = 12) adults to adapt their gait pattern to novel constraints with a split-belt paradigm. Findings revealed that older adults adapted less and more slowly to split-belt walking and showed fewer aftereffects than young adults. While young adults showed a fast adjustment of the relative time spent in swing for each leg older adults failed to do so, but instead they were very fast in manipulating swing speed differences between the two legs. We suggest that these changes in adaptability of gait due to aging stem from a mild degradation of cortico-cerebellar pathways (reduced adaptability) and cerebral structures (decreased ability to change gait cycle timing). However, an alternative interpretation may be that the observed reduced adaptation is a compensatory strategy in view of the instability induced by the split-belt paradigm.

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Marques, B., G. Colombo, R. Müller, M. R. Dürsteler, V. Dietz, and D. Straumann. "Influence of vestibular and visual stimulation on split-belt walking." Experimental Brain Research 183, no. 4 (July 31, 2007): 457–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00221-007-1063-4.

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Lamoth, Claudine, and Danique Vervoort. "O29: Aging effects on muscle synergies during split-belt walking." Gait & Posture 57 (September 2017): 51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gaitpost.2017.06.282.

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HUYNH, KRISTIN V., CAROLINA H. SARMENTO, RYAN T. ROEMMICH, ELIZABETH L. STEGEMÖLLER, and CHRIS J. HASS. "Comparing Aftereffects after Split-Belt Treadmill Walking and Unilateral Stepping." Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 46, no. 7 (July 2014): 1392–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1249/mss.0000000000000240.

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Hinkel-Lipsker, Jacob W., and Michael E. Hahn. "Novel Kinetic Strategies Adopted in Asymmetric Split-Belt Treadmill Walking." Journal of Motor Behavior 48, no. 3 (September 11, 2015): 209–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00222895.2015.1073137.

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Zijlstra, W., and V. Dietz. "Adaptability of the human stride cycle during split-belt walking." Gait & Posture 3, no. 4 (December 1995): 250–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0966-6362(96)82855-4.

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Brinkerhoff, Sarah A., Patrick G. Monaghan, and Jaimie A. Roper. "Adapting gait with asymmetric visual feedback affects deadaptation but not adaptation in healthy young adults." PLOS ONE 16, no. 2 (February 25, 2021): e0247706. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0247706.

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Split-belt treadmill walking allows researchers to understand how new gait patterns are acquired. Initially, the belts move at two different speeds, inducing asymmetric step lengths. As people adapt their gait on a split-belt treadmill, left and right step lengths become more symmetric over time. Upon returning to normal walking, step lengths become asymmetric in the opposite direction, indicating deadaptation. Then, upon re-exposure to the split belts, step length asymmetry is less than the asymmetry at the start of the initial exposure, indicating readaptation. Changes in step length symmetry are driven by changes in step timing and step position asymmetry. It is critical to understand what factors can promote step timing and position adaptation and therefore influence step length asymmetry. There is limited research regarding the role of visual feedback to improve gait adaptation. Using visual feedback to promote the adaptation of step timing or position may be useful of understanding temporal or spatial gait impairments. We measured gait adaptation, deadaptation, and readaptation in twenty-nine healthy young adults while they walked on a split-belt treadmill. One group received no feedback while adapting; one group received asymmetric real-time feedback about step timing while adapting; and the last group received asymmetric real-time feedback about step position while adapting. We measured step length difference (non-normalized asymmetry), step timing asymmetry, and step position asymmetry during adaptation, deadaptation, and readaptation on a split-belt treadmill. Regardless of feedback, participants adapted step length difference, indicating that walking with temporal or spatial visual feedback does not interfere with gait adaptation. Compared to the group that received no feedback, the group that received temporal feedback exhibited smaller early deadaptation step position asymmetry (p = 0.005). There was no effect of temporal or spatial feedback on step timing. The feedback groups adapted step timing and position similarly to walking without feedback. Future work should investigate whether asymmetric visual feedback also results in typical gait adaptation in populations with altered step timing or position control.

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Day, Kevin A., Kristan A. Leech, Ryan T. Roemmich, and Amy J. Bastian. "Accelerating locomotor savings in learning: compressing four training days to one." Journal of Neurophysiology 119, no. 6 (June 1, 2018): 2100–2113. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.00903.2017.

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Acquiring new movements requires the capacity of the nervous system to remember previously experienced motor patterns. The phenomenon of faster relearning after initial learning is termed “savings.” Here we studied how savings of a novel walking pattern develops over several days of practice and how this process can be accelerated. We introduced participants to a split-belt treadmill adaptation paradigm for 30 min for 5 consecutive days. By training day 5, participants were able to produce near-perfect performance when switching between split and tied-belt environments. We found that this was due to their ability to shift specific elements of their stepping pattern to account for the split treadmill speeds from day to day. We also applied a state-space model to further characterize multiday locomotor savings. We then explored methods of achieving comparable savings with less total training time. We studied people training only on day 1, with either one extended split-belt exposure or alternating four times between split-belt and tied-belt conditions rapidly in succession. Both of these single-day training groups were tested again on day 5. Experiencing four abbreviated exposures on day 1 improved the performance on day 5 compared with one extended exposure on day 1. Moreover, this abbreviated group performed similarly to the group that trained for 4 consecutive days before testing on day 5, despite only having one-quarter of the total training time. These results demonstrate that we can leverage training structure to achieve a high degree of performance while minimizing training sessions. NEW & NOTEWORTHY Learning a new movement requires repetition. Here, we demonstrate how to more efficiently train an adapted walking pattern. By compressing split-belt treadmill training delivered over 4 days to four abbreviated bouts of training delivered on the first day of training, we were able to induce equivalent savings over a 5-day span. These results suggest that we can manipulate the delivery of training to most efficiently drive multiday learning of a novel walking pattern.

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Hoogkamer, Wouter, Sjoerd M. Bruijn, Stefan Sunaert, Stephan P. Swinnen, Frank Van Calenbergh, and Jacques Duysens. "Adaptation and aftereffects of split-belt walking in cerebellar lesion patients." Journal of Neurophysiology 114, no. 3 (September 2015): 1693–704. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.00936.2014.

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To walk efficiently and stably on different surfaces under various constrained conditions, humans need to adapt their gait pattern substantially. Although the mechanisms behind locomotor adaptation are still not fully understood, the cerebellum is thought to play an important role. In this study we aimed to address the specific localization of cerebellar involvement in split-belt adaptation by comparing performance in patients with stable focal lesions after cerebellar tumor resection and in healthy controls. We observed that changes in symmetry of those parameters that were most closely related to interlimb coordination (such as step length and relative double stance time) were similar between healthy controls and cerebellar patients during and after split-belt walking. In contrast, relative stance times (proportions of stance in the gait cycle) were more asymmetric for the patient group than for the control group during the early phase of the post-split-belt condition. Patients who walked with more asymmetric relative stance times were more likely to demonstrate lesions in vermal lobules VI and Crus II. These results confirm that deficits in gait adaptation vary with ataxia severity and between patients with different types of cerebellar damage.

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Scarano, Stefano, Luigi Tesio, Viviana Rota, Valeria Cerina, Luigi Catino, and Chiara Malloggi. "Dynamic Asymmetries Do Not Match Spatiotemporal Step Asymmetries during Split-Belt Walking." Symmetry 13, no. 6 (June 19, 2021): 1089. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/sym13061089.

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While walking on split-belt treadmills (two belts running at different speeds), the slower limb shows longer anterior steps than the limb dragged by the faster belt. After returning to basal conditions, the step length asymmetry is transiently reversed (after-effect). The lower limb joint dynamics, however, were not thoroughly investigated. In this study, 12 healthy adults walked on a force-sensorised split-belt treadmill for 15 min. Belts rotated at 0.4 m s−1 on both sides, or 0.4 and 1.2 m s−1 under the non-dominant and dominant legs, respectively. Spatiotemporal step parameters, ankle power and work, and the actual mean velocity of the body’s centre of mass (CoM) were computed. On the faster side, ankle power and work increased, while step length and stance time decreased. The mean velocity of the CoM slightly decreased. As an after-effect, modest converse asymmetries developed, fading within 2–5 min. These results may help to decide which belt should be assigned to the paretic and the unaffected lower limb when split-belt walking is applied for rehabilitation research in hemiparesis.

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Bhuiya, Md Musfiqur Rahman, Md Musleh Uddin Hasan, David J. Keellings, and Hossain Mohiuddin. "Application of Machine Learning Classifiers for Mode Choice Modeling for Movement-Challenged Persons." Future Transportation 2, no. 2 (April 2, 2022): 328–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/futuretransp2020018.

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In this study, we aimed to evaluate the performance of various machine learning (ML) classifiers to predict mode choice of movement-challenged persons (MCPs) based on data collected through a questionnaire survey of 384 respondents in Dhaka, Bangladesh. The mode choice set consisted of CNG-driven auto-rickshaw, bus, walking, motorized rickshaw, and non-motorized rickshaw, which was found as the most prominent mode used by MCPs. Age, sex, income, travel time, and supporting instrument (as an indicator of the level of disability) utilized by MCPs were explored as predictive variables. Results from the different split ratios with 10-fold cross-validation were compared to evaluate model outcomes. A split ratio of 60% demonstrates the optimum accuracy. It was found that Multi-nominal Logistic Regression (MNL), K-Nearest Neighbors (KNN), and Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA) show higher accuracy for the split ratio of 60%. Overfitting of bus and walking as a travel mode was found as a source of classification error. Travel time was identified as the most important factor influencing the selection of walking, CNG, and rickshaw for MNL, KNN, and LDA. LDA and KNN depict the supporting instrument as a more important factor in mode choice than MNL. The selection of rickshaw as a mode follows a relatively normal probability distribution, while probability distribution is negatively skewed for the other three modes.

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Malone, Laura A., Amy J. Bastian, and Gelsy Torres-Oviedo. "How does the motor system correct for errors in time and space during locomotor adaptation?" Journal of Neurophysiology 108, no. 2 (July 15, 2012): 672–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.00391.2011.

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Walking is a complex behavior for which the healthy nervous system favors a smooth, symmetric pattern. However, people often adopt an asymmetric walking pattern after neural or biomechanical damage (i.e., they limp). To better understand this aberrant motor pattern and how to change it, we studied walking adaptation to a split-belt perturbation where one leg is driven to move faster than the other. Initially, healthy adult subjects take asymmetric steps on the split-belt treadmill, but within 10–15 min people adapt to reestablish walking symmetry. Which of the many walking parameters does the nervous system change to restore symmetry during this complex act (i.e., what motor mappings are adapted to restore symmetric walking in this asymmetric environment)? Here we found two parameters that met our criteria for adaptive learning: a temporal motor output consisting of the duration between heel-strikes of the two legs (i.e., “when” the feet land) and a spatial motor output related to the landing position of each foot relative to one another (i.e., “where” the feet land). We found that when subjects walk in an asymmetric environment they smoothly change their temporal and spatial motor outputs to restore temporal and spatial symmetry in the interlimb coordination of their gait. These changes in motor outputs are stored and have to be actively deadapted. Importantly, the adaptation of temporal and spatial motor outputs is dissociable since subjects were able to adapt their temporal motor output without adapting the spatial output. Taken together, our results suggest that temporal and spatial control for symmetric gait can be adapted separately, and therefore we could potentially develop interventions targeting either temporal or spatial walking deficits.

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Lee, Myunghyun, Heewon Park, and Sukyung Park. "Reproduction of Walking Asymmetry in Knee Osteoarthritis with Split-Belt Conditions." Journal of the Korean Society for Precision Engineering 32, no. 10 (October 1, 2015): 885–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.7736/kspe.2015.32.10.885.

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Choi, J. T., E. P. G. Vining, D. S. Reisman, and A. J. Bastian. "Walking flexibility after hemispherectomy: split-belt treadmill adaptation and feedback control." Brain 132, no. 3 (January 21, 2009): 722–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/brain/awn333.

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Roemmich, Ryan T., Elizabeth L. Stegemöller, and Chris J. Hass. "Lower extremity sagittal joint moment production during split-belt treadmill walking." Journal of Biomechanics 45, no. 16 (November 2012): 2817–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jbiomech.2012.08.036.

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Jensen, L., T. Prokop, and V. Dietz. "Adaptational effects during human split-belt walking: influence of afferent input." Experimental Brain Research 118, no. 1 (January 7, 1998): 126–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s002210050262.

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Roemmich, Ryan, Elisa Gonzalez-Rothi, Virginia Little, Jonathan Elrod, Joe Nocera, and Chris Hass. "Adaptation Strategies to Split-Belt Treadmill Walking in Healthy Young Adults." Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 43, Suppl 1 (May 2011): 924–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1249/01.mss.0000402582.72831.c2.

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Bondi, Moshe, Gabi Zeilig, Ayala Bloch, Alfonso Fasano, and Meir Plotnik. "Split-arm swinging: the effect of arm swinging manipulation on interlimb coordination during walking." Journal of Neurophysiology 118, no. 2 (August 1, 2017): 1021–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.00130.2017.

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Control mechanisms for four-limb coordination in human locomotion are not fully known. To study the influence of arm swinging (AS) on bilateral coordination of the lower limbs during walking, we introduced a split-AS paradigm in young, healthy adults. AS manipulations caused deterioration in the anti-phased stepping pattern and impacted the AS amplitudes for the contralateral arm, suggesting that lower limb coordination is markedly influenced by the rhythmic AS during walking.

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Ishikawa, Shuya, and Yusuke Ikemoto. "Effects of the Mechanical Closed-Loop Between the Body and the Ground on the Postural Balance of Gaits." Journal of Robotics and Mechatronics 34, no. 4 (August 20, 2022): 808–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.20965/jrm.2022.p0808.

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People and animals adapt their gait to the environment as they perform activities in a variety of environments. However, there are cases where the parts of the body necessary for walking are damaged in some way, resulting in walking difficulties. An example is paralysis caused by a stroke. A split-belt treadmill is occasionally used for the investigation to analyze how the stroke effects on the motion. However, the mechanical properties of the split-belt treadmill on the body have not been clarified. It is also unknown how the mechanical closed-loop between the body and the environment, generated by synchronizing the movements of the two belts, affects the gait. In this study, we investigated that the effect of the mechanical closed-loop structure between the body and the environment on walking using the robot and the mechanical effect of the floor reaction force on the body. Further, we conducted walking experiments using the developed robot, obtained body and environmental information, and analyzed the results. As the result, it was observed that the motion data differed based on the coupling of the treadmill. In other words, it was suggested that the mechanical closed-loop structure certainly influenced the physical balances on walking motion. Furthermore, it is confirmed that the coupling of treadmills increases the body’s sway. Although our results are given from a robotic experiment, it is expected that these measures would be one of the important index in human rehabilitations.

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Ouchi, Yo, Nobutaka Tsujiuchi, Akihito Ito, and Kiyoshi Hirose. "Gait Analysis Using Load-Controlled Single- and Split-Belt Treadmills." Proceedings 49, no. 1 (June 15, 2020): 48. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/proceedings2020049048.

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We developed a self-paced load-controlled treadmill with two built-in force plates to enhance lower limb muscles. Since the load can be changed freely with a load-controlled treadmill, it can be widely utilized in fields such as rehabilitation and training. In this paper, we experimentally investigated the difference between single-belt and split-belt load-controlled treadmills with two subjects, who walked 30 s with a constant load r = 0, 5, 10, 15% based on the maximum driving force on both treadmills. Our result showed that the angular range of the motion of the ankle joints when walking on a single-belt treadmill was up to 2.68 times larger than walking on a split-belt treadmill. The ground reaction force reading showed that the ankle joint moment on a single-belt was larger during the terminal stance, suggesting that single-belt treadmills more effectively enhance lower limb muscles.

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Finley, James M., Matthew A. Statton, and Amy J. Bastian. "A novel optic flow pattern speeds split-belt locomotor adaptation." Journal of Neurophysiology 111, no. 5 (March 1, 2014): 969–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.00513.2013.

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Visual input provides vital information for helping us modify our walking pattern. For example, artificial optic flow can drive changes in step length during locomotion and may also be useful for augmenting locomotor training for individuals with gait asymmetries. Here we asked whether optic flow could modify the acquisition of a symmetric walking pattern during split-belt treadmill adaptation. Participants walked on a split-belt treadmill while watching a virtual scene that produced artificial optic flow. For the Stance Congruent group, the scene moved at the slow belt speed at foot strike on the slow belt and then moved at the fast belt speed at foot strike on the fast belt. This approximates what participants would see if they moved over ground with the same walking pattern. For the Stance Incongruent group, the scene moved fast during slow stance and vice versa. In this case, flow speed does not match what the foot is experiencing, but predicts the belt speed for the next foot strike. Results showed that the Stance Incongruent group learned more quickly than the Stance Congruent group even though each group learned the same amount during adaptation. The increase in learning rate was primarily driven by changes in spatial control of each limb, rather than temporal control. Interestingly, when this alternating optic flow pattern was presented alone, no adaptation occurred. Our results demonstrate that an unnatural pattern of optic flow, one that predicts the belt speed on the next foot strike, can be used to enhance learning rate during split-belt locomotor adaptation.

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Reisman, Darcy S., Amy J. Bastian, and Susanne M. Morton. "Neurophysiologic and Rehabilitation Insights From the Split-Belt and Other Locomotor Adaptation Paradigms." Physical Therapy 90, no. 2 (February 1, 2010): 187–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.2522/ptj.20090073.

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Locomotion is incredibly flexible. Humans are able to stay upright and navigate long distances in the face of ever-changing environments and varied task demands, such as walking while carrying a heavy object or in thick mud. The focus of this review is a behavior that is critical for this flexibility: motor adaptation. Adaptation is defined here as the process of adjusting a movement to new demands through trial-and-error practice. A key feature of adaptation is that more practice without the new demand is required to return the movement to its original state. Thus, motor adaptation is a short-term motor learning process. Several studies have been undertaken to determine how humans adapt walking to novel circumstances. Many of these studies have examined locomotor adaptation using a split-belt treadmill. The results of these studies of people who were healthy and people with neurologic damage suggest that the cerebellum is required for normal adaptation of walking and that the role of cerebral structures may be less critical. They also suggest that intersegmental and interlimb coordination is critical but readily adaptable to accommodate changes in the environment. Locomotor adaptation also can be used to determine the walking potential of people with specific neurologic deficits. For instance, split-belt and limb-weighting locomotor adaptation studies show that adults with chronic stroke are capable of improving weight-bearing and spatiotemporal symmetry, at least temporarily. Our challenge as rehabilitation specialists is to intervene in ways that maximize this capacity.

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Journal articles on the topic 'Split-walking'

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