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Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 29 January 2023

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1

Nunes, RA, and GW Lennon. "Physical property distributions and seasonal trends in Spencer Gulf, South Australia: an inverse estuary." Marine and Freshwater Research 37, no. 1 (1986): 39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/mf9860039.

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Results are described from the first long-term, systematic program of oceanographic measurements in Spencer Gulf, South Australia. The gulf belongs to a subset of semi-enclosed seas that are characterized by a net fluid loss, in this case induced by excess evaporation, and a resulting circulation that is the reverse of that found in a classical estuary. In Spencer Gulf, this inverse estuary character involves the production of salinities as high as 48 at the head in late summer. The seasonal variations of temperature and salinity, from both large-scale CTD surveys and time-series observations at a fixed station, reveal the manner in which the gulf responds to seasonal influences. From such information, the gulf's dispersive capabilities are quantitatively assessed, and the implications of thermohaline processes for gulf-ocean exchange are discussed.

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2

Prowse, Thomas A. A., Bronwyn M. Gillanders, Barry W. Brook, Anthony J. Fowler, Karina C. Hall, Michael A. Steer, Camille Mellin, et al. "Evidence for a broad-scale decline in giant Australian cuttlefish (Sepia apama) abundance from non-targeted survey data." Marine and Freshwater Research 66, no. 8 (2015): 692. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/mf14081.

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Little is known about the population trajectory and dynamics of many marine invertebrates because of a lack of robust observational data. The giant Australian cuttlefish (Sepia apama) is IUCN-listed as Near Threatened because the largest known breeding aggregation of this species in northern Spencer Gulf, South Australia, has declined markedly since the turn of the century. We used by-catch records from long-term trawl surveys to derive abundance data for S. apama and commercial cuttlefish harvest data as a measure of exploitation. Using Bayesian hierarchical models to account for zero-inflation and spatial dependence in these abundance counts, we demonstrated a high probability of broad-scale declines in the density of S. apama, particularly surrounding the primary aggregation site, which supports the recent closure of the entire S. apama fishery in northern Spencer Gulf. Historical harvest data were positively correlated with S. apama density estimated from the trawl surveys, suggesting that the commercial cuttlefish catch tracks the species abundance. Our results also indicated the possibility that the known S. apama breeding grounds might be supplemented by individuals that were spawned elsewhere in northern Spencer Gulf.

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3

Gillanders, Bronwyn M., and Tanya C. Joyce. "Distinguishing aquaculture and wild yellowtail kingfish via natural elemental signatures in otoliths." Marine and Freshwater Research 56, no. 5 (2005): 693. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/mf04133.

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Naturally occurring elemental signatures (or composition) of otoliths may enable aquaculture and wild-caught yellowtail kingfish (Seriola lalandi) to be distinguished from one another, so that in the event of aquaculture escapes, escaped fish could be identified. Yellowtail kingfish were obtained from aquaculture ventures in three regions of Spencer Gulf and from nine areas external to aquaculture throughout the inner and outer Spencer Gulf, South Australia. Elemental signatures (Mg, Mn, Sr, Ba) of otoliths were analysed via LA-ICP-MS (laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry). A highly significant difference was detected between elemental signatures of the aquaculture and wild-caught fish, but this difference was largely attributable to wild fish from Port Augusta being different from the other groupings. For individual elements, it was difficult to detect differences between aquaculture and wild-caught fish, as there was considerable variation between locations within each group. When comparisons between aquaculture and wild fish were made of the inner and outer Spencer Gulf, aquaculture fish could be distinguished from wild fish and classified correctly with a high degree of accuracy (82–100%); the same level of accuracy was not achieved with wild fish. Comparison of elemental transects showed considerable variability between locations, with no features distinguishing aquaculture or wild-caught fish. It would be beneficial to combine naturally occurring signatures with other identification approaches (e.g. artificial elemental signatures) to accurately distinguish aquaculture from wild-caught fish. The impacts of escaped fish could then be determined.

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4

O'CONNELL, LAURA G., NOEL P. JAMES, ADELA S. HARVEY, JOHN LUICK, YVONNE BONE, and SCORESBY A. SHEPHERD. "REEVALUATION OF THE INFERRED RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LIVING RHODOLITH MORPHOLOGIES, THEIR MOVEMENT, AND WATER ENERGY: IMPLICATIONS FOR INTERPRETING PALEOCEANOGRAPHIC CONDITIONS." PALAIOS 35, no. 12 (December 17, 2020): 543–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.2110/palo.2019.101.

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ABSTRACT Free-living forms of crustose coralline algae (rhodoliths) accumulate on shallow-water marine shelves in many regions worldwide. They form their own benthic habitats termed ‘rhodolith beds' and their deposits are well preserved in the rock record. Characteristics of rhodolith deposits can be used to interpret ancient water depths, light levels, and water energies. Accurate paleoceanographic interpretations rely on large-scale, detailed studies of living rhodolith beds, but these studies are scarce. Spencer Gulf in South Australia has the largest living rhodolith beds in southeastern Australia (∼ 3,000 km2). Documentation of these rhodolith deposits includes facies analysis, coralline algal taxonomy, characterization of growth forms and morphometrics, and integration with oceanographic data. Extensive oceanographic data and hydrodynamic modeling enable comparisons between rhodolith morphologies and bottom water energies with unprecedented accuracy. Rhodolith deposits in the gulf are intermixed with carbonate sands and muds under diverse hydrodynamic conditions, with current speeds up to 1.04 m s−1. At least five coralline algal genera construct rhodoliths in Spencer Gulf. Growth forms include fruticose, lumpy, and warty. Rhodolith morphologies imply that water energy is not the only thing affecting rhodolith movement and growth; rhodoliths can also be shifted by fish and invertebrates. Linear regression models in this study evaluate relationships between rhodolith morphometrics (mean diameter, sphericity, and branch density) and maximum bottom water speeds in Spencer Gulf and their results support the idea that water energy is not a major control on rhodolith morphology under these water energy conditions. Previous studies have revealed that the relationship between rhodolith morphologies and water energy levels is complicated and many authors have cautioned to not rely solely on rhodolith morphologies to interpret paleoceanographic conditions. Results of this study demonstrate that accurate paleoceanographic interpretations cannot be made based on rhodolith morphologies alone, but should also include sedimentology, coralline taxonomy, and associated biota.

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5

O'CONNELL, LAURA G., NOEL P. JAMES, ADELA S. HARVEY, JOHN LUICK, YVONNE BONE, and SCORESBY A. SHEPHERD. "REEVALUATION OF THE INFERRED RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LIVING RHODOLITH MORPHOLOGIES, THEIR MOVEMENT, AND WATER ENERGY: IMPLICATIONS FOR INTERPRETING PALEOCEANOGRAPHIC CONDITIONS." PALAIOS 35, no. 12 (December 17, 2020): 543–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.2110/palo.2019.101.

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ABSTRACT Free-living forms of crustose coralline algae (rhodoliths) accumulate on shallow-water marine shelves in many regions worldwide. They form their own benthic habitats termed ‘rhodolith beds' and their deposits are well preserved in the rock record. Characteristics of rhodolith deposits can be used to interpret ancient water depths, light levels, and water energies. Accurate paleoceanographic interpretations rely on large-scale, detailed studies of living rhodolith beds, but these studies are scarce. Spencer Gulf in South Australia has the largest living rhodolith beds in southeastern Australia (∼ 3,000 km2). Documentation of these rhodolith deposits includes facies analysis, coralline algal taxonomy, characterization of growth forms and morphometrics, and integration with oceanographic data. Extensive oceanographic data and hydrodynamic modeling enable comparisons between rhodolith morphologies and bottom water energies with unprecedented accuracy. Rhodolith deposits in the gulf are intermixed with carbonate sands and muds under diverse hydrodynamic conditions, with current speeds up to 1.04 m s−1. At least five coralline algal genera construct rhodoliths in Spencer Gulf. Growth forms include fruticose, lumpy, and warty. Rhodolith morphologies imply that water energy is not the only thing affecting rhodolith movement and growth; rhodoliths can also be shifted by fish and invertebrates. Linear regression models in this study evaluate relationships between rhodolith morphometrics (mean diameter, sphericity, and branch density) and maximum bottom water speeds in Spencer Gulf and their results support the idea that water energy is not a major control on rhodolith morphology under these water energy conditions. Previous studies have revealed that the relationship between rhodolith morphologies and water energy levels is complicated and many authors have cautioned to not rely solely on rhodolith morphologies to interpret paleoceanographic conditions. Results of this study demonstrate that accurate paleoceanographic interpretations cannot be made based on rhodolith morphologies alone, but should also include sedimentology, coralline taxonomy, and associated biota.

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6

Deane, Grant B., Douglas H. Cato, and Paul Clarke. "Shallow‐water geoacoustic inversions of seafloor properties in Spencer Gulf." Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 104, no. 3 (September 1998): 1743. http://dx.doi.org/10.1121/1.423634.

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7

Currie, David R., and Shirley J. Sorokin. "The Distribution and Trophodynamics of Demersal Fish from Spencer Gulf." Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia 134, no. 2 (January 2010): 198–227. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/3721426.2010.10887143.

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8

Seddon, S., R. M. Connolly, and K. S. Edyvane. "Large-scale seagrass dieback in northern Spencer Gulf, South Australia." Aquatic Botany 66, no. 4 (April 2000): 297–310. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0304-3770(99)00080-7.

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9

Rodgers, G. G., S. D. Roberts, and C. D. Dixon. "The effects of temperature on larval size in the western king prawn, Penaeus (Melicertus) latisulcatus Kishinouye, from Spencer Gulf, South Australia: implications for fishery management." Marine and Freshwater Research 64, no. 10 (2013): 976. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/mf13020.

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Temperature, salinity and food availability are generally considered to have the most influence on larval growth and survival in penaeid species. Larval size has previously been used as a measure of animal quality in a range of crustacean species. The aim of this project was to investigate the effects of temperature (17°C, 20°C, 22.5°C and 25°C) on stage-specific larval size in Penaeus latisulcatus collected from the Spencer Gulf, in South Australia. Five different measurements of larval size were assessed: body length, body width, antenna length, carapace length and abdomen length. Results showed that larval growth rate was dependant on temperature, with growth rate greater at higher temperatures. Despite this, larvae reared at 20°C reached the largest size, while those at the temperature extremes (17°C and 25°C) were smallest. When considering average annual temperature, the spawning time that would most likely maximise larval size in the Spencer Gulf is approximately December. This coincides with current management arrangements for the fishery that protect the spawning biomass at this time of year.

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10

Long, M., R. J. Reid, and C. M. Kemper. "Cadmium Accumulation and Toxicity in The Bottlenose Dolphin Tursiops truncatus, The Common Dolphin Delphinus delphis, and Some Dolphin Prey Species in South Australia." Australian Mammalogy 20, no. 1 (1998): 25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/am97025.

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Twenty Tursiops truncatus and 20 Delphinus delphis from South Australia were analysed for cadmium levels, as were some fish and squid species which form part of their diet. In the dolphins, cadmium was accumulated mainly in the kidneys (range 0-38 μg/g), with levels in many individuals exceeding 20 μg/g (wet weight). On average, levels in kidney were three-fold higher than in liver and 26-fold higher than in muscle. Cadmium concentrations related to dolphin body length, but the relationship with tooth development class was less clear. 80% of the prey fish species analysed from Spencer Gulf exceeded NH & MRC health recommendations of 0.2 μg/g (wet weight) for human consumption. Sepioteuthis australis from upper Spencer Gulf contained significantly higher cadmium levels than Ceduna samples (0.21 ± 0.01 μg/g versus 0.13 ± 0.01 μg/g, p<0.001) (wet weight). On histological examination, 32% of adult dolphin kidneys showed pathological changes, proteinuria being the most common abnormality. High levels of cadmium were found in dolphins from widely spaced locations in South Australia.

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11

DURHAM, PJK, MJ ALLANSON, and WG HUTCHINSON. "Lymphocystis disease in snapper (Pagrus auratus) from Spencer Gulf, South Australia." Australian Veterinary Journal 74, no. 4 (October 1996): 312–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-0813.1996.tb13787.x.

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12

Williams, Samantha R., Michael J. Kokkinn, Stephen R. Fricker, Melanie J. Schneemilch, Matthew J. Humphrey, and Craig R. Williams. "Mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) Of the Spencer Gulf Coast of South Australia." Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia 133, no. 1 (January 2009): 51–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03721426.2009.10887110.

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13

O'Connell, Laura G., Noel P. James, Mark Doubell, John F. Middleton, John Luick, David R. Currie, and Yvonne Bone. "Oceanographic controls on shallow‐water temperate carbonate sedimentation: Spencer Gulf, South Australia." Sedimentology 63, no. 1 (December 18, 2015): 105–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/sed.12226.

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14

Robbins, William D., Charlie Huveneers, Guido J. Parra, Luciana Möller, and Bronwyn M. Gillanders. "Anthropogenic threat assessment of marine-associated fauna in Spencer Gulf, South Australia." Marine Policy 81 (July 2017): 392–400. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2017.03.036.

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15

Kämpf, Jochen, Craig Brokensha, and Toby Bolton. "Hindcasts of the fate of desalination brine in large inverse estuaries: Spencer Gulf and Gulf St. Vincent, South Australia." Desalination and Water Treatment 2, no. 1-3 (February 2009): 335–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2009.264.

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16

Cann, J. H. "LATE QUATERNARY PALEOSEALEVELS AND PALEOENVIRONMENTS INFERRED FROM FORAMINIFERA, NORTHERN SPENCER GULF, SOUTH AUSTRALIA." Journal of Foraminiferal Research 30, no. 1 (January 1, 2000): 29–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.2113/0300029.

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17

O'Connell, Laura G., and Noel P. James. "Composition and Genesis of Temperate, Shallow-Marine Carbonate Muds: Spencer Gulf, South Australia." Journal of Sedimentary Research 85, no. 10 (October 2015): 1275–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.2110/jsr.2015.73.

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18

Saunders, Richard J., Anthony J. Fowler, and Bronwyn M. Gillanders. "The spawning dynamics of snapper (Chrysophrys auratus) in northern Spencer Gulf, South Australia." New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 46, no. 4 (December 2012): 491–510. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00288330.2012.709522.

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19

Fuller, M. K., Y. Bone, V. A. Gostin, and C. C. Von Der Borch. "Holocene cool‐water carbonate and terrigenous sediments from southern Spencer Gulf, South Australia." Australian Journal of Earth Sciences 41, no. 4 (August 1994): 353–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08120099408728144.

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20

Dimmlich, W. F., and T. M. Ward. "Ontogenetic shifts in the distribution and reproductive patterns of Australian anchovy (Engraulis australis) determined by otolith microstructure analysis." Marine and Freshwater Research 57, no. 4 (2006): 373. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/mf05184.

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Upwelling systems can provide ideal conditions for survival and growth of larval fishes. However, these unstable environments are highly dispersive and mortalities can be high. Anchovies (Engraulis spp.) utilise a range of behavioural strategies to increase egg and larval survival. Ontogenetic shifts in distribution have been proposed for Australian anchovy (Engraulis australis), but no supporting otolith-based age studies have been published to date. The present study used otolith increment counts to age larval, juvenile and adult Australian anchovy, which spawn throughout South Australian gulf and shelf waters. Only fish up to 1 year of age occurred in the northern Spencer Gulf, where eggs and larvae in high densities are retained in a nursery area favourable to anchovies. The southern gulf area was inhabited by 1, 2 and 3 year olds. Older anchovy were found in offshore shelf waters, where upwelling occurs and larval survivorship may be high. We hypothesise that Australian anchovy move offshore with age to utilise the wide range of environments that provide suitable spawning and nursery areas for this species.

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21

Lent, R. M., A. L. Herczeg, S. Welch, and W. B. Lyons. "The history of metal pollution near a lead smelter in Spencer gulf, South Australia." Toxicological & Environmental Chemistry 36, no. 3-4 (October 1992): 139–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02772249209357837.

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22

Binnie, M. N., and J. H. Cann. "A Record of Holocene Benthic Foraminifera in Vibrocore SG#279, Spencer Gulf, South Australia." Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia 134, no. 2 (January 2010): 147–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/3721426.2010.10887139.

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23

Noell, Craig J., Matt K. Broadhurst, and Steven J. Kennelly. "Refining a Nordmøre-grid bycatch reduction device for the Spencer Gulf penaeid-trawl fishery." PLOS ONE 13, no. 11 (November 21, 2018): e0207117. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0207117.

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24

Fernandes, M., A. Cheshire, and A. Doonan. "Sediment geochemistry in lower Spencer Gulf, South Australia: implications for southern bluefin tuna farming." Australian Journal of Earth Sciences 53, no. 3 (June 2006): 421–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08120090500499321.

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25

Taylor, Judy, and Jeff Fuller. "Rural practitioners as researchers: The Spencer Gulf experience of research development in primary health." Australian Journal of Primary Health 10, no. 1 (2004): 104. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/py04015.

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In a health service environment that is becoming more focussed on primary health care, there is a need to underpin new primary health care models with research evidence. This paper draws on the experience of the Spencer Gulf Rural Health School in developing rural primary health care practitioners and consumers as novice researchers. Through the experience of seed-funding 18 novice researchers, several themes have emerged that underpin the success of the program. These are described as establishing a spirit of inquiry, using a broad definition of primary health care research, supporting inquiry with resources and recognition, and demystifying the research process. The value of this research development program is that it has brought research opportunities and supports to rural practitioners and consumers that were not previously available.

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26

Gibbs, Susan E., Robert G. Harcourt, and Catherine M. Kemper. "Niche differentiation of bottlenose dolphin species in South Australia revealed by stable isotopes and stomach contents." Wildlife Research 38, no. 4 (2011): 261. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wr10108.

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Context Animal species with overlapping ranges are common worldwide, but how these species coexist is less obvious. Dolphins are protected in Australia and yet little information is available on their resource use which is essential for successful management and conservation. Aim The aim of this study was to determine the degree of overlap in diet and feeding ecology of the two Tursiops spp. that have overlapping ranges in South Australia. Methods Stomach content (91 Tursiops sp. and 14 T. truncatus) and stable isotope (δ13C, δ15N) analyses (39 Tursiops sp. and 14 T. truncatus) were conducted. Carcasses of dolphins were opportunistically collected between 1974 and 2005. Diet was quantified by frequency of occurrence (FOO) and numerical abundance (NA) of prey. Key results Delta13C from teeth revealed distinct differences in primary source of carbon, corresponding to coastal (Tursiops sp. n = 39, = –12.24, s.d. = 1.32) and offshore habitats (T. truncatus n = 14, = –14.21, s.d. = 0.55). Differences in δ15N revealed Tursiops sp. ( = 11.66, s.d. = 0.58) feeds at a lower trophic level than T. truncatus ( = 14.29, s.d. = 0.88). Stomach content analyses for Tursiops sp. corroborated stable isotope results. There was a significant difference between the diets of Tursiops sp. from north Spencer Gulf and south Spencer Gulf (ANOSIM R = 0.249, P = 0.001). Prey were generally demersal in habit with the most important from the cephalopod families Octopodidae, Sepiidae and Loliginidae and fish families Carangidae, Clupeidae, Terapontidae and Apogonidae. For T. truncatus there were insufficient stomach contents for assessment. Conclusions South Australian bottlenose dolphin species exhibit distinct niche differentiation with clear evidence of regional variation in the diet of Tursiops sp. Implications The between and within species diet differentiation demonstrated, highlights the importance of regional management. Such results are internationally significant as coastal and offshore forms of Tursiops spp. occur worldwide.

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27

Svane, I., S. Roberts, and T. Saunders. "Fate and consumption of discarded by-catch in the Spencer Gulf prawn fishery, South Australia." Fisheries Research 90, no. 1-3 (April 2008): 158–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fishres.2007.10.008.

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28

Tiller, K. G., R. H. Merry, B. A. Zarcinas, and T. J. Ward. "Regional geochemistry of metal-contaminated surficial sediments and seagrasses in upper Spencer Gulf, South Australia." Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 28, no. 5 (May 1989): 473–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0272-7714(89)90024-3.

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29

Saunders, Richard J., Anthony J. Fowler, and Bronwyn M. Gillanders. "The use of food resources by 0+ snapper, Chrysophrys auratus, from northern Spencer Gulf, South Australia." Marine and Freshwater Research 63, no. 8 (2012): 680. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/mf11266.

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Food availability is an important factor in survival and growth of juvenile fish and has been proposed as a major factor shaping the patterns of distribution and abundance of 0+ snapper, Chrysophrys auratus, in New Zealand and Japan. Thus, we tested the hypothesis that diet of 0+ snapper would exhibit spatial variation related to their abundance within a major nursery region. Therefore, we described the stomach contents of 0+ snapper collected from within a nursery region in areas of low and high abundance of 0+ snapper. The data also provided the opportunity to consider sized based differences in diet and temporal feeding patterns. 0+ snapper were generalist carnivores that preyed on a wide range of invertebrates and fish. No evidence of sized based dietary variation was identified but feeding either ceased or was much reduced during the hours of darkness. The major finding was that more polychaetes were present in the stomachs of 0+ snapper in the area of high 0+ snapper abundance than in the areas of low 0+ snapper abundance. The spatial differences in diet observed supports the hypothesis that prey availability is important as a driver of habitat selection by 0+ fish.

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30

Bye, John A. T., and I. Patricia Harbison. "Transfer of inland salts to the marine environment at the head of Spencer Gulf, South Australia." Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 84, no. 1-4 (May 1991): 357–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0031-0182(91)90054-u.

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31

Svane, Ib, Zoe Hammett, and Peter Lauer. "Impacts of trawling on benthic macro-fauna and -flora of the Spencer Gulf prawn fishing grounds." Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 82, no. 4 (May 2009): 621–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2009.03.009.

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32

Puttonen, I., and J. H. Cann. "Foraminiferal record of the postglacial (Holocene) marine transgression and subsequent regression, northern Spencer Gulf, South Australia." Australian Journal of Earth Sciences 53, no. 4 (August 2006): 565–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08120090600632433.

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33

Cann, J. H., and C. V. Murray-Wallace. "Holocene distribution and amino acid racemisation of the benthic foraminiferMassilina milletti, northern Spencer Gulf, South Australia." Alcheringa: An Australasian Journal of Palaeontology 10, no. 1 (January 1986): 45–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03115518608619041.

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34

Norrish, K., H. Rosser, and L. J. Warren. "A geochemical study of the forms of metals present in sediments from Spencer Gulf, South Australia." Applied Geochemistry 1, no. 1 (January 1986): 117–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0883-2927(86)90043-0.

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35

Botelho, D. A., M. E. Barry, G. C. Collecutt, J. Brook, and D. Wiltshire. "Linking near- and far-field hydrodynamic models for simulation of desalination plant brine discharges." Water Science and Technology 67, no. 6 (March 1, 2013): 1194–207. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2013.673.

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A desalination plant is proposed to be the major water supply to the Olympic Dam Expansion Mining project. Located in the Upper Spencer Gulf, South Australia, the site was chosen due to the existence of strong currents and their likely advantages in terms of mixing and dilution of discharged return water. A high-resolution hydrodynamic model (Estuary, Lake and Coastal Ocean Model, ELCOM) was constructed and, through a rigorous review process, was shown to reproduce the intricate details of the Spencer Gulf dynamics, including those characterising the discharge site. Notwithstanding this, it was found that deploying typically adopted ‘direct insertion’ techniques to simulate the brine discharge within the hydrodynamic model was problematic. Specifically, it was found that in this study the direct insertion technique delivered highly conservative brine dilution predictions in and around the proposed site, and that these were grid and time-step dependent. To improve the predictive capability, a strategy to link validated computational fluid dynamics (CFD) predictions to hydrodynamic simulations was devised. In this strategy, environmental conditions from ELCOM were used to produce boundary conditions for execution of a suite of CFD simulations. In turn, the CFD simulations provided the brine dilutions and flow rates to be applied in ELCOM. In order to conserve mass in a system-wide sense, artificial salt sinks were introduced to the ELCOM model such that salt quantities were conserved. As a result of this process, ELCOM predictions were naturally very similar to CFD predictions near the diffuser, whilst at the same time they produced an area of influence (further afield) comparable to direct insertion methods. It was concluded that the linkage of the models, in comparison to direct insertion methods, constituted a more realistic and defensible alternative to predict the far-field dispersion of outfall discharges, particularly with regards to the estimation of brine dilution in the immediate vicinity of an outfall location.

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36

Bryars, Simon R., and Mark Adams. "An allozyme study of the blue swimmer crab, Portunus pelagicus (Crustacea : Portunidae), in Australia: stock delineation in southern Australia and evidence for a cryptic species in northern waters." Marine and Freshwater Research 50, no. 1 (1999): 15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/mf98075.

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Allozyme analysis was used to examine the species-level systematics and stock structure of the Australian blue swimmer crab Portunus pelagicus. Fifty-seven crabs from eight sites were screened in an overview study for allozyme variation at 35 loci. This overview study revealed the presence of two species, differing at a Nei D of 0.14 (2% fixed differences), in the Darwin region of northern Australia. One of these species corresponds to the common P. pelagicus found throughout Australia, whereas the other is most likely either an undescribed ‘cryptic’ species, or the east-Asian species P. trituberculatus. In total, 609 P. pelagicus from 11 sites covering three regions in South Australia and two regions in the Northern Territory were then genotyped at seven polymorphic loci and these data assessed, using goodness- of-fit and F-statistics, for the existence of subpopulations. Four discrete subpopulations could be discerned, namely West Coast, Spencer Gulf, and Gulf St Vincent in South Australia, and Darwin–Gove in the Northern Territory. No evidence of population substructuring among sites within each subpopulation was evident from the allozyme data. The results support the current recognition of the three South Australian regions as separate stocks, and suggest that a taxonomic revision of Indo-Pacific Portunus is warranted.

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Seuront, Laurent, Mark Doubell, and Paul Van Ruth. "Virally-Mediated Versus Grazer-Induced Mortality Rates in a Warm-Temperate Inverse Estuary (Spencer Gulf, South Australia)." Open Journal of Marine Science 04, no. 04 (2014): 257–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ojms.2014.44024.

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Nursey-Bray, Melissa, Bronwyn M. Gillanders, and Jacob Maher. "Developing indicators for adaptive capacity for multiple use coastal regions: Insights from the Spencer Gulf, South Australia." Ocean & Coastal Management 211 (October 2021): 105727. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2021.105727.

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39

Petrusevics, Peter, John Bye, John Luick, and Carlos E. P. Teixeira. "Summer sea surface temperature fronts and elevated chlorophyll-a in the entrance to Spencer Gulf, South Australia." Continental Shelf Research 31, no. 7-8 (May 2011): 849–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.csr.2011.02.009.

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Carrick, N. A., and B. Ostendorf. "Development of a spatial Decision Support System (DSS) for the Spencer Gulf penaeid prawn fishery, South Australia." Environmental Modelling & Software 22, no. 2 (February 2007): 137–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2005.07.025.

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41

Messer, Lauren F., Mark V. Brown, Paul D. Van Ruth, Mark Doubell, and Justin R. Seymour. "Temperate southern Australian coastal waters are characterised by surprisingly high rates of nitrogen fixation and diversity of diazotrophs." PeerJ 9 (March 1, 2021): e10809. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.10809.

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Biological dinitrogen (N2) fixation is one mechanism by which specific microorganisms (diazotrophs) can ameliorate nitrogen (N) limitation. Historically, rates of N2 fixation were believed to be limited outside of the low nutrient tropical and subtropical open ocean; however, emerging evidence suggests that N2 fixation is also a significant process within temperate coastal waters. Using a combination of amplicon sequencing, targeting the nitrogenase reductase gene (nifH), quantitative nifH PCR, and 15N2 stable isotope tracer experiments, we investigated spatial patterns of diazotroph assemblage structure and N2 fixation rates within the temperate coastal waters of southern Australia during Austral autumn and summer. Relative to previous studies in open ocean environments, including tropical northern Australia, and tropical and temperate estuaries, our results indicate that high rates of N2 fixation (10–64 nmol L−1 d−1) can occur within the large inverse estuary Spencer Gulf, while comparatively low rates of N2 fixation (2 nmol L−1 d−1) were observed in the adjacent continental shelf waters. Across the dataset, low concentrations of NO3/NO2 were significantly correlated with the highest N2 fixation rates, suggesting that N2 fixation could be an important source of new N in the region as dissolved inorganic N concentrations are typically limiting. Overall, the underlying diazotrophic community was dominated by nifH sequences from Cluster 1 unicellular cyanobacteria of the UCYN-A clade, as well as non-cyanobacterial diazotrophs related to Pseudomonas stutzeri, and Cluster 3 sulfate-reducing deltaproteobacteria. Diazotroph community composition was significantly influenced by salinity and SiO4 concentrations, reflecting the transition from UCYN-A-dominated assemblages in the continental shelf waters, to Cluster 3-dominated assemblages in the hypersaline waters of the inverse estuary. Diverse, transitional diazotrophic communities, comprised of a mixture of UCYN-A and putative heterotrophic bacteria, were observed at the mouth and southern edge of Spencer Gulf, where the highest N2 fixation rates were observed. In contrast to observations in other environments, no seasonal patterns in N2 fixation rates and diazotroph community structure were apparent. Collectively, our findings are consistent with the emerging view that N2 fixation within temperate coastal waters is a previously overlooked dynamic and potentially important component of the marine N cycle.

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42

Fowler, A. J., L. McLeay, and D. A. Short. "Spatial variation in size and age structures and reproductive characteristics of the King George whiting (Percoidei : Sillaginidae) in South Australian waters." Marine and Freshwater Research 51, no. 1 (2000): 11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/mf99032.

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Adult King George whiting were sampled at 12 localities representing a range of habitat types across South Australia. Sampling was undertaken between March and May for a minimum of 2 years between 1995 and 1998. Fish were aged by otolith interpretation, and reproductive maturity was determined by gonad analysis using macroscopic and histological techniques. In total, 6961 fish comprising 3678 females and 3283 males were considered from four localities in each of three geographic regions. In both Gulf St Vincent and Spencer Gulf, age structures became more complex from north to south, associated with a shift in size towards larger fish. In the simplest age structures, >90% of fish were from the 3-year age class, whereas the age range of the most complex was 3–17 years, with the 3–5 age classes most numerous. Males were more abundant in smaller size classes and females in the larger. Although some fish from each locality showed some gonad development, only at three localities did spawning occur. At these places, populations had the broadest age and size distributions and were in deep water that experienced medium to high wave energy. Since spawning grounds and nursery areas are up to several hundred kilometres apart, the processes of larval advection and adult movement are implicated as obligate processes of the life history.

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Dupavillon, Jacqueline L., and Bronwyn M. Gillanders. "Impacts of seawater desalination on the giant Australian cuttlefish Sepia apama in the upper Spencer Gulf, South Australia." Marine Environmental Research 67, no. 4-5 (May 2009): 207–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marenvres.2009.02.002.

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Hall, Karina C., Anthony J. Fowler, and Michael C. Geddes. "Evidence for multiple year classes of the giant Australian cuttlefish Sepia apama in northern Spencer Gulf, South Australia." Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries 17, no. 2-3 (February 17, 2007): 367–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11160-007-9045-y.

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45

Sheppard, Charles. "Coral Reefs: Beyond Mortality?" Scientific World JOURNAL 1 (2000): 7–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1100/tsw.2000.6.

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The scale of the collapse of coral reef communities in 1998 following a warming episode (Wilkinson, 2000) was unprecedented, and took many people by surprise. The Indian Ocean was the worst affected with a coral mortality over 75% in many areas such as the Chagos Archipelago (Sheppard, 1999), Seychelles (Spencer et al., 2000) and Maldives (McClanahan, 2000). Several other locations were affected at least as much, with mortality reaching 100% (to the nearest whole number); this is being compiled by various authors (e.g., CORDIO, in press). For example, in the Arabian Gulf, coral mortality is almost total across many large areas of shallow water (Sheppard, unpublished; D. George and D. John, personal communication). The mortality is patchy of course, depending on currents, location inside or outside lagoons, etc., but it is now possible to swim for over 200 m and see not one remaining living coral or soft coral on some previously rich reefs.

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McGlennon, David, G. Keith Jones, Janine Baker, W. Bruce Jackson, and Martine A. Kinloch. "Ageing, catch-at-age and relative year-class strength for snapper (Pagrus auratus) in northern Spencer Gulf, South Australia." Marine and Freshwater Research 51, no. 7 (2000): 669. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/mf98095.

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Commercial landings of Pagrus auratus declined to 25-year lows in South Australia in 1994, and sustainability of the fishery was questioned. This study investigated two potential explanations for the decline – changes in fishing effort and recruitment variability. Data for 1983–97 from northern Spencer Gulf, which contributes the majority of snapper catches in the State, showed that 74% of the variance in targeted catch was explained by catch per unit effort, and 20% by fishing effort. Recruitment variability was examined by analysis of age structures of the commercial catch. An ageing procedure was established by examining sectioned sagittal otoliths of 1046 snapper caught in 1991 and 1994/5; their use was first evaluated by assessing the bias and precision of multiple readings and by comparing annulus counts with ring counts from scales. The timing of annulus formation was determined by marginal increment analysis. Interpretation of the age structures suggests that year-class strength is highly variable and has a strong influence on catch patterns in the commercial fishery. A qualitative comparison of temperature with year-class strength did not show a strong relationship.

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Svane, Ib. "Occurrence of dolphins and seabirds and their consumption of by-catch during prawn trawling in Spencer Gulf, South Australia." Fisheries Research 76, no. 3 (December 2005): 317–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fishres.2005.07.012.

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Strong, WR, RC Murphy, BD Bruce, and DR Nelson. "Movements and associated observations of bait-attracted White Sharks, Carcharodon carcharias: A preliminary report." Marine and Freshwater Research 43, no. 1 (1992): 13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/mf9920013.

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Basic population parameters and behaviours of great white sharks, Carcharodon carcharias, were studied during four expeditions to Spencer Gulf, South Australia. In all, 58 white sharks were observed, ranging in length from about 2.2 to 5.5 m TL (X= 3.7 m TL � 0.7 s.d.); of these sharks, 32 were subsequently tagged. Many sharks were observed repeatedly, the most frequently resighted individual being seen on 22 days over a 197-day period spanning two expeditions. Sharks in the study area were segregated by sex but not by size. Females were most abundant at 'inshore' islands, whereas males occurred mainly at 'offshore' islands. Further, there were no marked differences in abundance between summer and winter. Nine ultrasonic trackings, lasting a maximum of 27.5 h, revealed three general horizontal movement patterns: downstream circling, island patrolling, and inter-island cruising. Average rate of movement was 3.2 km h-1 (n = 145 time intervals of 15 min each). Sharks generally remained near the surface or along the bottom (about 20 m), spending relatively little time in midwater. Daytime swimming depths were significantly shallower than those at night.

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49

Swinbourne, Michael J., David A. Taggart, David Peacock, and Bertram Ostendorf. "Historical changes in the distribution of hairy-nosed wombats (Lasiorhinus spp.): a review." Australian Mammalogy 39, no. 1 (2017): 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/am15046.

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We conducted a search of the historical records for any mention of hairy-nosed wombats in order to establish their likely distribution at the time of European settlement. The evidence suggests that there were two main groups of southern hairy-nosed wombats (Lasiorhinus latifrons) that were separated by Spencer Gulf in South Australia. The western group extended to Balladonia in Western Australia, while the eastern group extended along the Murray River to Euston in New South Wales. The Queensland population of northern hairy-nosed wombats (Lasiorhinus krefftii) was geographically large but highly patchy, and there was an abundant population in the New South Wales Riverina. Both species experienced a population decline between 1870 and 1920, with the main influences thought to be competition from rabbits and control actions by landholders. Our findings suggest that the ongoing control of rabbits via methods that do not harm wombats is critical for wombat conservation today. We also suggest that hairy-nosed wombats may be sensitive to climate change, and recommend more research on this topic.

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Fowler, A. J., G. K. Jones, and R. McGarvey. "Characteristics and consequences of movement patterns of King George whiting (Perciformes : Sillaginodes punctata) in South Australia." Marine and Freshwater Research 53, no. 7 (2002): 1055. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/mf02023.

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The characteristics of movement of the South Australian population of King George whiting (Sillaginodes punctata) were determined through analysis of tag and recapture records collected from three tagging periods: (i) 1968–1969; (ii) 1978–1985; and (iii) 1986–1987. The characteristics were compared between the northern and southern parts of two large fishery regions, and determined for fish tagged at different sizes and ages. Fish tagged in the northern Gulf St Vincent and Spencer Gulf moved southwards up to several hundred kilometres, but those tagged in the southern areas showed no systematic directional displacement. Most fish tagged were subadults or young, immature adults at 2–4 years of age. Small, young fish did not move far until a considerable period after tagging, whereas some fish >300 mm total length (TL) at tagging moved substantial distances within only a few weeks. Fish movement resulted in a significant ontogenetic habitat shift, from relatively protected shallow waters that support extensive meadows of seagrass, to southern, exposed, deeper waters and rocky reef. As a result of this systematic, directional displacement the age structures of the fishery catches also varied systematically throughout the two regions. In the northern areas these were simple and dominated by the 3+ age class, whereas in the south they were complex and consisted of the 2+ to 17+ age classes. Because the latter were the spawning populations, fish movement is an obligate step in the life history that ultimately results in supplementation of numbers on the spawning grounds. The consequences for fishery management are discussed.

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