Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Spatial variation'

As social scientists have become increasingly aware of the welfare implications of firms' locations in space there has been a considerable amount of renewed interest in the issues pertaining to the geography of price. In the short time since Hay and Johnston (1980) lamented the insufficient attention being given to the theoretical background of geographic pricing, there has been impressive amounts of progress in certain analytical areas. However, within this bulk of literature, we still know remarkably little about the determinants of geographic price variation in spatial markets containing numerous sellers (firms) and buyers (consumers). Perhaps this should not be surprising given that much of the current research is being carried out by economists (who generally tend to emphasize market process in classically constructed structural-conduct-performance modes) rather than geographers (who tend to emphasize market description and locational patterns/properties arising from spatially defined economic and behavioral market processes). This dissertation focuses on geographic price variations in competitive oligopolies, where firms react under alternative pricing conjectures/strategies. Using computer aided simulation, the analytics of equilibrium price levels are examined in one-dimensional bounded and unbounded markets to uncover the algebraic properties of spatial markets, the effects of firm density, firm location, and demand elasticity on prices, the perversities associated with consumer-related transportation costs, and the distorting effects of mixed or asymmetrical rivals' pricing strategies. The modeling of spatial price competition is regarded as essential in the evaluation of equilibrium price as a function of boundary complications, market description, and the spatial arrangement of interdependent rivals. Long-run implications of spatial price competition are discussed with the intention of developing a model (beyond the scope of this dissertation) that not only recognizes rivals' price reactions, but also stresses locationally competitive strategies. Some empirical evidence on the nature of spatial price dependence amongst rival food chains in a metropolitan area is also examined.

This thesis contains explanations about the reasons why residents prefer apartment housing to low rise housing far away from the central business district. And it also investigates the facts that affect residents&rsquo
and producers&rsquo
apartment housing choice. As a dominant housing provision type, apartment housing is produced every location in urban space in Ankara. Therefore the study begins with investigating the formation and growth of apartment housing in Ankara by introducing spatial variation of apartment housing. With the help of building and population censuses, distribution of 400 quarters in the Greater Ankara Municipality borders with respect to building and population density, building features, share of apartment housing and average number of storeys are analyzed. FAR values are calculated and analyzed from the CBD to western direction to introduce the change in building densities. Lastly a questionnaire survey is done to find out whether differentiation of building and environment attributes of apartment housing that are produced in different location of urban area are well-matched with their residents&rsquo
preferences. At the end of the analysis differentiation of housing structure of the city clearly comes out. While it is expected that the height of housing structure is decreasing by going far away from the CBD, it is found increasing along certain directions such as western and south-western. However by moving at western direction FAR decreases from 2 to 0,75 which states different characteristics of housing structure even if high average number of storey. As a result apartment housing provisions at different locations offer different lifestyles with their building and environmental characteristics.

Rapidly improving the yield of today's complicated manufacturing process is a key challenge to ensure profitability for the IC industry. In this thesis, we propose accurate and efficient modeling techniques for spatial variation, which is becoming increasing important in the advanced technology nodes. Based on the spatial model, we develop algorithms for two applications that help identify the important yield-limiting factors and prioritize yield improvement efforts. Variation decomposition narrows down the sources of variation by decomposing the overall variation into multiple different components, each corresponding to a different subset of variation sources. Wafer spatial signature clustering automatically partitions a large number of wafers into groups exhibiting different spatial signatures, which helps process engineers find important factors that prevent the process from stably maintaining a high yield across different lots and wafers. An important problem in variation decomposition is to accurately model and extract the wafer-level and within-die spatially correlated variation. Towards this goal, we first develop a physical basis function dictionary based on our study of several common physical variation sources. We further propose the DCT dictionary to discover spatially correlated systematic patterns not modeled by the physical dictionary. Moreover, we propose to apply sparse regression to significantly reduce the over-fitting problem posed by a large basis function dictionary. We further extend the sparse regression algorithm to a robust sparse regression algorithm for outlier detection, which provides superior accuracy compared to the traditional IQR method. Finally, we propose several efficient methods to make the computational cost of sparse regression tractable for large-scale problems. We further develop an algorithm for the wafer spatial signature clustering problem based on three steps. First, we re-use the spatial variation modeling technique developed for variation decomposition to automatically capture the spatial signatures of wafers by a small number of features. Next, we select a complete-link hierarchical clustering algorithm to perform clustering on the features. Finally, we develop a modified L-method to select the number of clusters from the hierarchical clustering result.

This study evaluated the temperature variability that existed in refrigerated table grape consignments over a two-day journey from two suppliers in southern Spain, to client managed facilities in England. In order to inhibit senescence, perishable foods are transported in temperature-controlled transport to maximize shelf life. However, thermal dynamics suggests that uniform spatial temperature is not necessarily achieved despite a constant set point. As fruit exposed to suboptimal temperatures is more likely to exhibit undesirable quality issues, knowledge of spatial temperature can direct quality control team members to these potentially problematic pallets within an inbound shipment. Warmer temperatures were identified on the passenger side of both trailers, at the rear of both trailers, and in lower pallet layers. Furthermore, heightened temperature was recorded in lower pallet layers in close proximity to the refrigeration return unit. The Supplier 2 shipment, set at 4oC, exhibited more spatially uniform temperatures compared to the Supplier 1 shipment set at 1oC. This implies that an operational compromise may exist: a higher but more uniform temperature or a lower but more variable temperature. In addition, analysis of airflow distribution suggested that airflow could be improved specifically in lower pallet layers and towards the rear of the trailer. Improved circulation will promote improved temperature uniformity for quality maintenance.

Quantify the magnitude, sources and distribution of variation in fruit quality traits within kiwifruit populations and identify opportunities for the management of this variation. Near-infrared (NIR) grading was used as a tool for monitoring fruit quality, and measurements combined with orchard/vine information to investigate opportunities for the management of the variation in fruit quality traits with a particular focus on fruit DM. NIR enabled non-destructive assessment of the quality characteristics of individual fruit from 96 commercial orchards, comprising 550 fruit-lines, across four consecutive seasons, resulting in a dataset of measurements made on 146.7 million individual fruit. The distribution of quality traits within fruit populations and the relationships between quality traits were examined. The spatial component of variation in fruit quality was investigated to assess the potential for zonal management practices. Finally, the effects of growth temperatures on fruit quality were studied. Significant variation in fruit quality was observed between-seasons, between-orchards, and between-vines within an orchard. From comparison of CVs between quality traits, cropload was more variable than fruit weight which varied more than fruit DM, independent of the production scale considered (between-orchard or between-vine). Across a hierarchy of fruit populations (individual vine, fruit-line and orchard), the majority of fruit quality distributions demonstrated significant deviations from normality. However, departures from normality can be tolerated for estimation of the proportion of fruit with specific quality criteria. The sources of variation in fruit weight and DM populations were investigated at both a between-orchard scale and a within-orchard scale. Between-orchard variation was significant, however, the majority of variation occurred within-fruitlines, within-orchards and within seasons. The within-fruitline component of variation was investigated separately. Both between-vine and within-vine variation were significant, but within-vine variation was dominant. The focus of management should be on reducing variation occurring within-fruitlines within-orchards, which is largely attributable to variation occurring within the individual vine. Higher croploads per vine have negative consequences for fruit weight but variable effects on DM. Increasing croploads reduce both FW and DW allocations for each fruit, therefore the effect of cropload on DM is dependent on the relative reductions in FW and DW. The DW allocations to fruit are not limited by DW production, at least up to the croploads observed in this study (≤65 fruit m-2). The potential for zonal management was investigated. Variation in fruit quality characteristics between-orchards across the Te Puke growing region, and between-vines within an individual orchard area were investigated using geostatistics. A spatial component to variation was identified both between-orchard and between-vine. However, the effect of spatial variation was diluted by that of non-spatial variation and therefore, zonation between orchards or between areas within-orchards should not be where the effort in managing variation is concentrated. Orchard altitude correlated with some aspects of fruit quality. Mean fruit weight declined 0.5g and within-orchard variation in fruit weight declined 0.25 units with a 25m increase in orchard altitude. Mean fruit DM was independent of orchard altitude and within-orchard variability in DM declined 0.023 units per 25m increase in orchard altitude. Differences in orchard altitude equated with differences in growth temperatures. Warm spring and cool summer temperatures favour the growth of high DM fruit. The effects of spring temperatures on canopy development and maturation were investigated to elucidate potential physiological mechanisms for temperatures effects on fruit growth. Higher spring growth temperatures increased the rate of total leaf area development and promoted development of leaf photosynthesis. Higher spring growth temperatures favoured a more positive carbon balance, which has beneficial effects on the development of fruit quality characteristics. Post-harvest, the traditional practice of grading fruit into count sizes generally also segregates for DM, and large count size fruit will often have higher DM than small sized fruit. Between fruit populations, a positive correlation was identified between fruit DM and acidity; therefore, segregation of the inventory by DM will also segregate for acidity. High DM fruit are also more acidic with a higher, more favourable brix/acid ratio when ripe. It is recommended that fruit DM status be managed in the inventory, not by maturity area as is the current practice, but by groups of similar count sizes within maturity areas.

Monocular cues are spatial sensory inputs which are picked up exclusively from one eye. They are in majority static features that provide depth information and are extensively used in graphic art to create realistic representations of a scene. Since the spatial information contained in these cues is picked up from the retinal image, the existence of a link between it and the theory of direct perception can be conveniently assumed. According to this theory, spatial information of an environment is directly contained in the optic array. Thus, this assumption makes possible the modeling of visual perception processes through computational approaches. In this thesis, angular variation is considered as a monocular cue, and the concept of direct perception is adopted by a computer vision approach that considers it as a suitable principle from which innovative techniques to calculate spatial information can be developed. The expected spatial information to be obtained from this monocular cue is the position and orientation of an object with respect to the observer, which in computer vision is a well known field of research called 2D-3D pose estimation. In this thesis, the attempt to establish the angular variation as a monocular cue and thus the achievement of a computational approach to direct perception is carried out by the development of a set of pose estimation methods. Parting from conventional strategies to solve the pose estimation problem, a first approach imposes constraint equations to relate object and image features. In this sense, two algorithms based on a simple line rotation motion analysis were developed. These algorithms successfully provide pose information; however, they depend strongly on scene data conditions. To overcome this limitation, a second approach inspired in the biological processes performed by the human visual system was developed. It is based in the proper content of the image and defines a computational approach to direct perception. The set of developed algorithms analyzes the visual properties provided by angular variations. The aim is to gather valuable data from which spatial information can be obtained and used to emulate a visual perception process by establishing a 2D-3D metric relation. Since it is considered fundamental in the visual-motor coordination and consequently essential to interact with the environment, a significant cognitive effect is produced by the application of the developed computational approach in environments mediated by technology. In this work, this cognitive effect is demonstrated by an experimental study where a number of participants were asked to complete an action-perception task. The main purpose of the study was to analyze the visual guided behavior in teleoperation and the cognitive effect caused by the addition of 3D information. The results presented a significant influence of the 3D aid in the skill improvement, which showed an enhancement of the sense of presence.
Las señales monoculares son entradas sensoriales capturadas exclusivamente por un solo ojo que ayudan a la percepción de distancia o espacio. Son en su mayoría características estáticas que proveen información de profundidad y son muy utilizadas en arte gráfico para crear apariencias reales de una escena. Dado que la información espacial contenida en dichas señales son extraídas de la retina, la existencia de una relación entre esta extracción de información y la teoría de percepción directa puede ser convenientemente asumida. De acuerdo a esta teoría, la información espacial de todo le que vemos está directamente contenido en el arreglo óptico. Por lo tanto, esta suposición hace posible el modelado de procesos de percepción visual a través de enfoques computacionales. En esta tesis doctoral, la variación angular es considerada como una señal monocular, y el concepto de percepción directa adoptado por un enfoque basado en algoritmos de visión por computador que lo consideran un principio apropiado para el desarrollo de nuevas técnicas de cálculo de información espacial. La información espacial esperada a obtener de esta señal monocular es la posición y orientación de un objeto con respecto al observador, lo cual en visión por computador es un conocido campo de investigación llamado estimación de la pose 2D-3D. En esta tesis doctoral, establecer la variación angular como señal monocular y conseguir un modelo matemático que describa la percepción directa, se lleva a cabo mediante el desarrollo de un grupo de métodos de estimación de la pose. Partiendo de estrategias convencionales, un primer enfoque implanta restricciones geométricas en ecuaciones para relacionar características del objeto y la imagen. En este caso, dos algoritmos basados en el análisis de movimientos de rotación de una línea recta fueron desarrollados. Estos algoritmos exitosamente proveen información de la pose. Sin embargo, dependen fuertemente de condiciones de la escena. Para superar esta limitación, un segundo enfoque inspirado en los procesos biológicos ejecutados por el sistema visual humano fue desarrollado. Está basado en el propio contenido de la imagen y define un enfoque computacional a la percepción directa. El grupo de algoritmos desarrollados analiza las propiedades visuales suministradas por variaciones angulares. El propósito principal es el de reunir datos de importancia con los cuales la información espacial pueda ser obtenida y utilizada para emular procesos de percepción visual mediante el establecimiento de relaciones métricas 2D- 3D. Debido a que dicha relación es considerada fundamental en la coordinación visuomotora y consecuentemente esencial para interactuar con lo que nos rodea, un efecto cognitivo significativo puede ser producido por la aplicación de métodos de L estimación de pose en entornos mediados tecnológicamente. En esta tesis doctoral, este efecto cognitivo ha sido demostrado por un estudio experimental en el cual un número de participantes fueron invitados a ejecutar una tarea de acción-percepción. El propósito principal de este estudio fue el análisis de la conducta guiada visualmente en teleoperación y el efecto cognitivo causado por la inclusión de información 3D. Los resultados han presentado una influencia notable de la ayuda 3D en la mejora de la habilidad, así como un aumento de la sensación de presencia.

Thesis (M.S.)--Worcester Polytechnic Institute.
Keywords: spatial variations; nested random effects models; semivariogram models; kriging methods; multiple logistic regression models; missing; multiple imputation. Includes bibliographical references (p. 35-36).

Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2014.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: To estimate nutrient budgets and model nutrient cycling at a whole ecosystem level on sub-Antarctic Marion Island requires information on the spatial variability of plant nutrient concentrations on the island. The complexity of constructing budgets and models will also be reduced if, instead of considering each plant species individually, the species can be grouped on the basis of their similarities/differences in nutrient concentrations. This thesis presents the results of an investigation into both these aspects. Altitude and distance from the sea are highly correlated with each other and thus influence the concentrations of all the nutrients considered (N, P, K, Ca, Mg and Na) very similarly. Concentrations of N, P and Na in living leaves, dead leaves, stems and roots decrease going inland, due to a decline in the influence of animal manuring and of sea spray. Ca concentration increases going inland, away from the organic peats characteristic of the lowland regions toward the mineral rawmark inland soils. Declining sea spray and increasing soil minerality going inland both affect plant Mg concentration; the net effect is a slight decrease in Mg concentration going away from the coast. K concentration in living leaves and roots did not change going inland; dead leaf and stem K concentrations showed a weak decline. Bryophyte shoot nutrient concentrations do not show such marked patterns of change going inland. Considering the bryophyte species as a whole, the only significant effect is that shoot Na concentration decreases, and Ca concentration increases, going inland. Although information on nutrient concentrations in all plant organs from all four (N, E, W and S) sides of the island was available for only a few species, and in many instances the between-side effect was not significant for individual species, the pattern of between-side differences is quite clear. Living leaf N, P and Mg concentrations are higher in west side than east side plants, with south and north side plants having intermediate concentrations. Leaf K concentrations are highest on the north and lowest on the west side, with east and south side concentrations being intermediate. Leaf Ca concentrations are highest on the south side and lowest on the north side, with east and west side Ca concentrations being intermediate. Leaf Na concentration declines more sharply with distance inland on the island's western and southern sides than on its eastern and northern sides, so that closer than 450 m from the shore leaf Na concentration is higher on the west and south than on the east or north sides, but further inland than that the difference lessens. There was sufficient information for dead leaf, stem and root nutrient concentrations only for the west and east sides of the island. West-east differences in nutrient concentrations of dead leaves are the same as for living leaves. Stem and root west-east concentration differences are also similar to those for living leaves, except for P and Mg concentrations, which were similar on the two sides. All organs showed the same steeper decline in Na concentration on the west than on the east side of the island. Bryophytes show somewhat different between-side nutrient concentration patterns to the vascular plants. South side (not west) bryophytes have highest N and P concentrations but, like for the vascular plants, east side bryophytes have the lowest N and P concentrations. Also similar to the vascular plants, bryophyte K concentration is highest on the north side and lowest on the west side, although south side concentrations are nearly as high as the north side ones. Unlike the vascular plant leaves, bryophyte Mg concentration is highest on the south (not west) side and lowest on the north (not east) side, with east and west side concentrations being intermediate. South side bryophytes have highest Ca and Na concentrations, similar to the vascular plant pattern. Ordination and clustering analyses of leaf nutrient concentrations suggested five nutrient type clusters amongst the island's plant species. The clusters differ in the amount (low, moderate or high) of N, P, K and Na versus the amount of Ca and Mg. Species membership of the clusters is strongly related to what major taxonomic group (bryophyte, pteridophyte, monocot or dicot) the species belongs to, but habitat factors, especially the intensity of animal manuring, also play a role. Plant guilds compiled previously for the island and which have been suggested might prove useful for modeling nutrient standing stocks on a whole island basis associate poorly with the clusters. Where a particular guild does associate closely with a cluster it is mostly an effect of taxonomic group (the guild members are all from a single taxonomic group) or habitat (the guild members are typical for a particular habitat). It is suggested that in order to reduce the complexity and arduousness of constructing whole island plant nutrient standing stock budgets, the species should be grouped according to their taxonomy – as bryophytes, dicots, monocots, club mosses or pteridophytes (the ferns proper). Subgroups of these taxonomic groups can be constructed on the basis of habitat. Mostly, this will be necessary to distinguish plants from manured habitats from plants of the same species from unmanured ones.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Ten einde die voedingstofvoorrade en modelvoedingstofsiklus op die sub-Antarktiese Marioneiland op 'n algehele ekosisteemvlak te raam, word inligting oor die ruimtelike variasie in plantvoedingstofkonsentrasies op die eiland benodig. Die raming van voorrade en die konstruksie van modelle sal ook minder ingewikkeld wees indien plantspesies op grond van hul ooreenkomste/verskille in voedingstofkonsentrasies gegroepeer word eerder as om elke spesie individueel te beskou. Hierdie tesis bied 'n uiteensetting van die ruimtelike variasie (hoogte, afstand van die see én kant van die eiland) in die chemiese samestelling (N, P, K, Ca, Mg en Na) van plante, en probeer die plantspesies op grond daarvan in voedingstoftipes klassifiseer. Hoogte en afstand van die see is nou verwant en beïnvloed dus voedingstofkonsentrasies op feitlik dieselfde manier. N-, P- en Na-konsentrasies in lewende blare, dooie blare, stingels en wortels neem af in die rigting van die binneland weens 'n afname in die invloed van dierebemesting en seesproei. Ca-konsentrasies styg weer namate daar vanaf die organiese veengrondkenmerke van die laagliggende streke na die mineraalryke binnelandse grond beweeg word. Sowel die afname in seesproei as die toename in grondmineraalgehalte in die rigting van die binneland beïnvloed die Mg-konsentrasie in plante; die netto uitwerking is 'n effense afname in Mg-konsentrasie namate daar wegbeweeg word van die kus. Die K-konsentrasie in lewende blare en wortels verander nie in die rigting van die binneland nie, terwyl dié in dooie blare en stingels 'n geringe afname toon. Die voedingstofkonsentrasies in briofietspruite toon egter nie dieselfde merkbare veranderingspatrone in die rigting van die binneland nie. Wat die briofietspesie in die geheel betref, is die enigste beduidende uitwerking dat die Na-konsentrasie in spruite afneem en die Ca-konsentrasie toeneem namate daar na die binneland beweeg word. Die N-, P- en Mg-konsentrasies in lewende blare is hoër by plante in die weste as in die ooste van die eiland, en plante in die suide en noorde toon tussenkonsentrasies. K-konsentrasies in blare is die hoogste in die noorde en die laagste in die weste, met tussenkonsentrasies in die ooste en suide. Ca-konsentrasies in blare is weer die hoogste in die suide en die laagste in die noorde, met tussenkonsentrasies in die ooste en weste. Aan die weste- en suidekant van die eiland toon Na-konsentrasies in blare 'n skerper afname namate daar verder van die see beweeg word as aan die ooste- en noordekant. Verskille in die voedingstofkonsentrasies van dooie blare in die weste en ooste is dieselfde as vir lewende blare. Konsentrasieverskille in stingels en wortels in die weste en ooste is ook soortgelyk aan dié in lewende blare, buiten P- en Mg-konsentrasies, wat dieselfde was aan albei kante. Alle plantorgane toon dieselfde skerper afname in Na-konsentrasies in die weste as in die ooste van die eiland. Die voedingstofkonsentrasiepatrone tussen die verskillende kante van die eiland was ietwat anders vir briofiete as vir vaatplante. Briofiete in die suide (nie die weste nie) het die hoogste N- en P-konsentrasies. Soos die vaatplante, het die briofiete in die ooste die laagste N- en P-konsentrasies. Óók soortgelyk aan die vaatplante, is die K-konsentrasie van briofiete die hoogste in die noorde en die laagste in die weste, hoewel konsentrasies in die suide bykans so hoog is as dié in die noorde. In teenstelling met die blare van vaatplante, is die Mg-konsentrasie van briofiete die hoogste in die suide (nie die weste nie) en die laagste in die noorde (nie die ooste nie), met tussenkonsentrasies in die ooste en weste. Briofiete in die suide het die hoogste Ca- en Na-konsentrasies, wat weer ooreenstem met die vaatplantpatroon. Ordinasie- en trosvormingsontledings van voedingstofkonsentrasies in blare dui op vyf voedingstoftipes onder die plantspesies op die eiland, op grond van die (klein, matige of groot) hoeveelheid N, P, K en Na teenoor die hoeveelheid Ca en Mg. Die klas waartoe 'n spesie behoort, hou sterk verband met sy hoof- taksonomiese groep (briofiet, pteridofiet, monokotiel of dikotiel), hoewel habitatfaktore (veral die intensiteit van dierebemesting) ook 'n rol speel. Die plantgildes wat voorheen vir die eiland opgestel is, toon weinig ooreenkoms met die klasse wat uit hierdie studie na vore kom.

As cyanobacteria can be found in a wide variety of environments and can cause great damage to ecosystems, human health, and economy, it is important to monitor and understand their behaviour. In this case, the study aims to understand the spatial variations of cyanobacteria communities in the Gulf of Bothnia, by analysing environmental factors that affect them. I hypothesize that the variations from north to south and coast to offshore of nutrients such as phosphorus and nitrogen promote the occurrence of different cyanobacteria orders, i.e. Chroococcales, Oscillatoriales, and Nostocales. The methods used were 16S amplicon DNA sequencing and the traditional microscopy method. Both showed similar results: Nostocales seem to predominate south-offshore zones and Oscillatoriales coast-north stations. Nevertheless, contrary to what was hypothesized on the beginning, Chroococcales were widely distributed between the stations. Both analysis methods used have limitations and strengths, thus, they should complement each other. Moreover, the DNA method must be implemented in cyanobacterial monitoring for the Baltic Sea. On the other hand, it can be said that environmental variables such as nutrients, jointly with other parameters, such as salinity, pH, humic substances and DOC (dissolved organic carbon), influence cyanobacteria communities’ composition. Overall, the environmental factors in the Baltic Sea give cyanobacteria the perfect conditions for living and develop. Therefore, it is important to implement water management and monitoring plans, as temperatures are predicted to rise globally with climate change, thus, cyanobacterial blooms are also predicted to be more common.

Els patrons de variabilitat espacial en comunitats naturals han sigut habitualment estudiats en escales espacials grans, comparant hàbitats, on la distribució d’espècies està bàsicament relacionada amb factors ambientals. Tot i això, dintre un hàbitat és possible trobar variabilitat espacial a petita escala. La variació en la ocurrència i l’abundància de les espècies al llarg de l’espai afectarà l’estructura de les interaccions ja que diferents espècies varien en les seves característiques i amb el nombre i identitat de les espècies amb qui poden interactuar. La variabilitat espacial en les comunitats pot tenir també conseqüències ecològiques i evolutives ja que la variació en la distribució de les espècies afecta el funcionament dels ecosistemes. La pol·linització és un procés clau als ecosistemes terrestres, ja que al menys el 90% de les espècies d’angiospermes depenen de la pol·linització per animals. L’objectiu general d’aquesta tesi és analitzar la relació entre l’estructura de les comunitats planta-pol·linitzador, la funció ecosistèmica, i els patrons d’interacció al llarg de l’espai. Primer, volem veure el grau de variabilitat espacial a escala local en una comunitat planta-pol·linitzador en un hàbitat uniforme i entendre els factors afectant la variabilitat. Amb tal fi analitzem l’heterogeneïtat espacial d’una comunitat de plantes i els seus pol·linitzadors en un matollar mediterrani. Mostrem que, tot i l’aparent uniformitat, tant flors com pol·linitzadors mostren uns alts nivells de variabilitat resultant en un mosaic de comunitats locals. Els recursos no són limitants, i l’abella de la mel no afecta la distribució de la comunitat de pol·linitzadors silvestres. En general mostrem que la variabilitat de la comunitat floral no és el major predictor de la comunitat de pol·linitzadors, indicant que altres factors són importants per explicar la distribució dels pol·linitzadors a escala local. Segon, ens aprofitem de la variabilitat espacial en la comunitat de pol·linitzadors en el mateix matollar mediterrani i analitzem els efectes en la funció pol·linitzadora i l’èxit reproductiu de l’espècie ginodioica Thymus vulgaris. La deposició de pol·len es veu afectada per l’estructura de la comunitat de pol·linitzadors en els dos morfs, però no hem trobat efecte dels pol·linitzadors en l’èxit reproductiu de cap dels dos morfs indicant que la pol·linització és adequada en la majoria de poblacions estudiades. El nostre estudi mostra que la variabilitat local en la composició dels pol·linitzadors pot tenir conseqüències importants en la funció pol·linitzadora, especialment en les plantes que són més dependents dels pol·linitzadors. Finalment estudiem si hi ha una relació entre les característiques florals i les visites dels pol·linitzadors en comunitats naturals, centrant-nos en el color. Tot i que els pol·linitzadors presenten preferències de color innates, la idea de que els colors d’una flor poden ser un predictor important dels seus principals pol·linitzadors és molt controvertit ja que l’elecció de flor és dependent del context. Trobem associacions consistents entre grups de pol·linitzadors i determinats colors, i aquestes associacions coincideixen amb les predites per la teoria dels síndromes de pol·linització. Tot i això, les flors amb colors similars no atreuen assemblatges de pol·linitzadors similars. L’explicació d’aquest resultat paradoxal seria que la majoria d’espècies de flors són generalistes. Veiem que a pesar de que les preferències de color dels pol·linitzadors sembla que condicionin les interaccions planta-pol·linitzador, les forces selectives sota aquestes preferències no són suficientment fortes com per mediar l’aparició i manteniment d’associacions estretes entre plantes i pol·linitzadors basades en el color.
Los patrones de variabilidad espacial en comunidades naturales han sido habitualmente estudiados en escalas espaciales grandes, comparando hábitats, donde la distribución de especies está básicamente relacionada con factores ambientales. Aun así, dentro de un hábitat es posible encontrar variabilidad espacial a pequeña escala. La variación en la ocurrencia y abundancia de las especies a lo largo del espacio afectará la estructura de las interacciones ya que las diferentes especies varían en sus características y en el nombre e identidad de las especies con quien pueden interactuar. La variabilidad espacial en las comunidades puede tener también consecuencias ecológicas y evolutivas ya que la variación en la distribución de las especies afecta el funcionamiento de los ecosistemas. La polinización es un proceso clave en los ecosistemas terrestres, donde al menos el 90% de las especies de angiospermas dependen de la polinización por animales. El objetivo general de esta tesis es analizar la relación entre la estructura de las comunidades planta-polinizador, la función ecosistémica y los patrones de interacción a lo largo del espacio. Primero, queremos ver el grado de variabilidad espacial a escala local en una comunidad planta-polinizador en un hábitat uniforme y entender los factores que afectan dicha variabilidad. Con tal objetivo analizamos la heterogeneidad espacial de una comunidad de plantas y sus polinizadores en un matorral mediterráneo. Mostramos que, a pesar de la aparente uniformidad, tanto flores como polinizadores muestran unos elevados niveles de variabilidad resultando en un mosaico de comunidades locales. Los recursos no son limitantes, y la abeja de la miel no afecta la distribución de las comunidades de polinizadores silvestres. En general mostramos que la variabilidad en la comunidad floral no es el mayor predictor de la comunidad de polinizadores, indicando que otros factores son más importantes para explicar la distribución de los polinizadores a escala local. Segundo, aprovechamos la variabilidad espacial en la comunidad de polinizadores en el mismo matorral mediterráneo y analizamos los efectos en la función polinizadora y el éxito reproductivo de la especie ginodioica Thymus vulgaris. La deposición de polen se ve afectada por la estructura de la comunidad de polinizadores en los dos morfos, pero no hemos encontrado efectos de los polinizadores en el éxito reproductivo de ninguno de los dos morfos indicando que la polinización es adecuada en la mayoría de poblaciones estudiadas. Nuestro estudio muestra que la variabilidad local en la composición de los polinizadores puede tener consecuencias importantes en la función polinizadora, especialmente en las plantas que son más dependientes de los polinizadores. Finalmente estudiamos si hay una relación entre las características florales y las visitas de los polinizadores en comunidades naturales, centrándonos en el color. Aunque los polinizadores presentan preferencias de color innatas, la idea de que el color de la flor puede ser un predictor importante de sus principales polinizadores es muy controvertida ya que la elección de flor es dependiente del contexto. Encontramos asociaciones consistentes entre grupos de polinizadores y ciertos colores, y estas asociaciones coinciden con las predichas por la teoría de los síndromes de polinización. Aun así, las flores con colores similares no atraen ensamblajes de polinizadores similares. La explicación de este resultado paradójico seria que la mayoría de especies de flores son generalistas. Vemos que a pesar de que las preferencias de color de los polinizadores parece que condicionen las interacciones planta-polinizador, las fuerzas selectivas bajo estas preferencias no son suficientemente fuertes como para mediar la aparición y mantenimiento de asociaciones estrechas entre plantas y sus polinizadores basadas en el color.
Patterns of spatial variation in species communities have been usually studied at large spatial scales, comparing different habitats, where the distribution of species is mostly related to environmental factors. However, even within a habitat is possible to find important levels of spatial variability at the local scale. Variability in species occurrence and abundance across space will affect interaction structure because species differ in their functional traits and therefore in the number and identity of species with which they may interact. Furthermore, within-habitat spatial heterogeneity in species community structure may have far-reaching ecological and evolutionary consequences because variability in the spatial distribution of the species affects the functioning of ecosystems. Pollination is a key function in terrestrial ecosystems, with almost 90% of the angiosperm species depending on animal pollinators for sexual reproduction. The general objective of this thesis is to analyze the relationship between plant-pollinator community structure, ecological function, and interaction patterns across space. First, we aim to highlight the degree of spatial variation at the local scale in a plant-pollinator community across a uniform habitat and to understand the deterministic factors affecting this variation. For this purpose we analyse the spatial heterogeneity of a community of flowering plants and their pollinators within an uninterrupted Mediterranean scrubland. Also, since the study area is a honey producing area we want to know whether wild pollinator communities were affected by honey bee abundance. We show that, in spite of the apparent physiognomic uniformity, both flowers and pollinators display high levels of heterogeneity, resulting in a mosaic of idiosyncratic local communities. Resources appear to be non-limiting, and honey bee visitation rate did not affect the distribution of the wild pollinator community. Overall, our results show that the spatial variation of the flower community is not the main predictor of the pollinator community, indicating that other factors besides flower community composition are important to explain pollinator distribution at the local scale. Second, we take advantage of the spatial variability in local pollinator community across the same Mediterranean scrubland and analyse its effects on pollination function and reproductive success in the gynodioecious Thymus vulgaris. Pollen deposition is affected by pollinator assemblage structure and composition in both morphs, but we found no effect of the pollinator assemblage on plant reproductive success in either of the two morphs, showing that pollination appears to be adequate in most of the populations sampled. Our study shows that local variation in pollinator composition may have important consequences on pollination function, especially on plants that are more dependent on pollinators. Finally, we aim to establish whether there is a relationship between floral traits and pollinator visitation in natural communities, specifically focusing on floral colour. Although pollinators show innate colour preferences, the view that the colour of a flower may be considered an important predictor of its main pollinators is highly controversial because flower choice is highly context-dependent. We found consistent associations between pollinator groups and certain colours, and these associations matched predictions of the pollination syndrome theory. However, flowers with similar colours did not attract similar pollinator assemblages. The explanation for this paradoxical result is that most flower species are pollinator generalists. We conclude that although pollinator colour preferences seem to condition plant-pollinator interactions, the selective force behind these preferences has not been strong enough to mediate the appearance and maintenance of tight colour-based plant-pollinator associations.

Herbivores may affect plants directly through foraging, trampling and fertilization or indirectly through altered competitive relationships between plant species. In addition, herbivores may cause indirect interactions between species that do not compete for the same resources, but are object to grazing from a shared herbivore. A reintroduction of a large herbivore, the Svalbard reindeer (Rangifer tarandus platyrhynchus), was found to generate a strong trophic top-down effect on the vegetation, including a reduction in cover of mosses, vascular plants and lichens. This supports the “exploitation ecosystem hypothesis”. This caused a reduction in reindeer carrying capacity K and sustained reduction in herbivore densities. Plant groups differed in the rate of recovery after the reindeer population peak, and lichens did not show any sign of recovery. Consequently, the irruption caused a shift in the composition of the vegetation.

In addition to top-down effects of herbivores on plants, plant-herbivore interactions may work through variation in foraging resources caused by variation in environmental conditions. We investigated which climatic variables were able to explain local growth of two long-lived evergreen plant species Cassiope tetragona and juniper (Juniper communis), sampled over a large geographic area at Svalbard and Finnmark (Norway), respectively. Both species responded positively to high summer temperatures. C. tetragona growth was also negatively related to the summer Arctic Oscillation (AO) index and number of overcast days in July. Juniper growth was positively associated with a high winter AO, September temperature and precipitation. Juniper growth was positively correlated with a rapid phenological development and high net primary production (measures derived from satellite images), growing conditions that are generally recognised to decrease nutritional value of plants as forage for ungulates. Juniper with high average growth responded more to high a winter AO/NAO, summer temperature and derived spring NDVI than plants with low average growth. We found that juniper was able to capture important environmental factors and can thus be used as a proxy for foraging conditions.

Because temporal variation in climate affects plants at both temporal and spatial scales, it may cause synchronised population growth rates among plants and subsequently ungulate populations over large distances. We analysed whether growth of C. tetragona and juniper was correlated among localities and to what extent this correlation decreased with distance was performed. In addition, we analysed which climatic variables could be capable of generating synchronised growth. The spatial synchrony was high over large areas for C. tetragona. However, which climatic variable caused this synchrony was not possible to identify. The spatial correlation in juniper growth was on the other hand low and even increased slightly with increasing distance.

Body growth in ungulates is influenced by both demographic and environmental variability. The effect of demographic stochasticity is density dependent. Autumn body mass (measured as carcass weight) of semi-domesticated reindeer calves (R. t. tarandus) in Finnmark, northern Norway, was negatively affected by high population density. Furthermore, there was a negative relationship between calf body mass and unfavourable winter conditions (mainly through heavy snow accumulation), whereas body mass was positively associated with slow plant development during summer. Accounting for the within-herd variation in population density did not affect the relationship between environment variables and body mass to any extent. There was a negative relationship between calf body mass and juniper growth, indicating that juniper can capture environmental variation of importance for reindeer growth. Accounting for both density and juniper growth resulted in several changes in how environmental variables affected reindeer body mass, but still the general impression of negative effects of snow rich winters persisted.

Global climate is warming rapidly. One result of the change in global climate is the frequency of periods with temperature above 0°C during winter will increase in arctic regions. If above zero temperatures are combined with precipitation, this can cause formation of ground-ice or crusty, hard snow. This will directly affect forage availability for herbivores, but little is known about how it may affect plant species of importance for herbivores. We experimentally constructed ground-ice during early winter on high arctic heath vegetation to simulate the effect of an icing event on plant performance. Growth response of a small willow (Salix polaris) and a rush (Luzula confusa) was measured the following summer. Both species showed some response to icing. S. polaris that had been subject to experimental icing, showed increased growth later in season compared to the control groups. L. confusa showed a weak negative response throughout the summer to the experimental icing event.

This study examined what separates a crossing site from an available crossing site and investigate when and where roads are more likely to be crossed by moose (Alces alces). Five seasonal models for two sexes were selected using an information-theoretic approach based on Akaike’s Information Criteria. Crossings were expected to be more likely during times of increased moose activity, and in areas of preferred moose habitat.There were clear temporal effects of moose road-crossing probability, both within and between seasons: crossings were most likely to occur during the twilight hours. The influence of habitat and climate was much lower than expected, which lead to difficulties in creating spatially predictive statistical models. Nevertheless, high quality forage attracted crossings, while ruggedness, human disturbance and snow depth dissuaded them. It is therefore possible to predict spatially varying crossing probabilities across varying seasons, but it is difficult to produce management recommendations on this basis. Moose-vehicle collision-mitigating actions should therefore be focused on the temporal scale and management of the moose population density.

Little is known of the ecological structure of macro-invertebrate assemblages that live in the soil and leaf litter of British woodlands. This is the first study to investigate these assemblages at the whole community level, examining them at a range of resolutions from higher taxonomic unit (HTU) to species-level diversity and abundance across seven major groups including beetles, spiders and earthworms. Using the National Vegetation Classification (NVC) as a framework, 17 different wet and dry woodland types were sampled across England to examine the macro-invertebrate soil and litter communities, to compare and contrast the range of functional roles in each case, and to uncover the complex vegetational and environmental factors that influence invertebrate assemblage composition and structure. As the most widespread and invertebrate diverse woodland in the UK, an additional ten oak woodlands were sampled to explore the influence of geographic and climatic variables upon the patterns of soil/litter macro-invertebrates. The key findings suggest that soil moisture is most influential in determining the invertebrate species composition in all woodland types, indicating the wet woodlands are not only different to each other but to all other woodlands, and that the dry woodlands are more similar. Geographic location and soil type were found to have most influence on the diversity and abundance of both plant and invertebrate species in the dry woodlands. Air temperature is a key environmental influence on the oak woodlands as they can be grouped by geographic area, namely northern, western and central England localities. An oak woodland was further investigated for temporal patterns of soil invertebrates over a 12-month period. Findings indicate that most invertebrate species and functional groups peak in abundance at two key periods during the year: spring/early summer and later summer/autumn, this coincides with food availability for these groups at these times.

Osteoporosis IS a common condition of the elderly population. No study has investigated factors that may influence the extent of geographical variation of osteoporosis diagnosis. Objectives This study aims to quantify the relationship between an individual's bone mineral density, osteoporosis and fragility fracture status and the distance between the dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) scanner and their place of residence and general practice. This study also aims to quantify the extent to which osteoporosis is diagnosed in the study region's 50-75 years of age population. Methods Data was collated from the DXA scanner of the Royal Lancaster Infirmary. Generalized linear modelling was used to investigate the factors that influence the following: osteoporosis status, previous fragility fracture status, lumbar spine T-score, femoral neck T-score and probability of undergoing a DXA scan. The proportion of osteoporotic individuals aged 50-75 years that have been diagnosed with a DXA scan was estimated by dividing the number of osteoporotic individuals aged 50-75 that were diagnosed with a DXA scan by the estimated number of osteoporotic individuals in the study region.

Despite the rich knowledge surrounding risk factors for malaria, the spatial processes of malaria transmission and vector control interventions are underexplored. This thesis aims 1) to describe the spatial variation of risk factor effects on malaria infection, and 2) to determine the presence and range of any community effect from malaria vector control interventions. Data from a cluster-randomized control trial in Tanzania were analyzed to determine the geographically-weighted odds of malaria infection in children at trial baseline and post-intervention. The spatial range of intervention effects on malaria infection was estimated post-intervention using semivariance models. Spatial heterogeneities in malaria infection and each covariate under study were found. The median effective semivariance range of intervention effects was approximately 1200 meters, suggesting the presence of a community effect that may cause contamination between trial clusters. Trials should consider these spatial effects when examining interventions and ensure that clusters are adequately insulated from contamination.

In this study, the relative influences of selection, gene flow, and other evolutionary forces on the spatial structure of genetic variation within a eucalypt species complex (the spotted gums: genus Corymbia, section Politaria) were assessed. The study investigated the spatial genetic structure among four putative species of spotted gum (broad-scale), as well as within a single population (fine-scale)of one species, using both molecular and quantitative markers. The spotted gum complex occurs naturally across a range of 2500 km in eastern Australia. Spatial genetic variation within and between the four putative spotted gum species was examined using both chloroplast and nuclear markers. No significant differentiation was found between the three northern species of the complex, C. citriodora, C. variegata and C. henryi. The southern species, C. maculata, shared no haplotypes with any of the three northern species. These results disagree in part with those reported in a previous allozyme based study in which C. henryi was found to be significantly divergent from C. variegata (with which it is sympatric) and more closely aligned with C. maculata. Re-analysis of the allozyme data provided evidence of selection acting at the PGM2 locus within populations of C. variegata and C. henryi. The exclusion of this locus from the data set led to concordance between the cpDNA and nDNA analyses. Restricted gene flow and evidence of isolation by distance were identified as the dominant processes influencing the contemporary distribution of the cpDNA haplotypes. No geographic structure of haplotypes was found and complex genealogical relationships between haplotypes indicated the combined effects of past fragmentation, range expansion and possible long distance dispersal events. The variation and spatial structure in both neutral molecular markers and quantitative genetic traits were compared to explore the relative influences of dispersal and selection within a single eucalypt population. Both mature trees (n=130) from a natural population of C. variegata and their progeny (n=127) were sampled. A very high outcrossing rate (98%) was estimated for the population based on data from seven microsatellite loci. This suggested regular pollen–mediated gene flow into the population, further supported by the observed high levels of genetic diversity and polymorphism. Significant positive spatial structure was found between parent trees occurring up to 150 m apart in the natural forest, although genetic distance between these individuals suggested limited relatedness (i.e. less than half-sib relatedness). The effect of pollen-mediated gene flow appears, therefore, to swamp any effect of nearest neighbour inbreeding which has been reported in other studies of eucalypt populations and has been attributed to limited seed dispersal. Resistance to the fungal disease Sporothrix pitereka (Ramularia Shoot Blight) was measured on progeny from each of the population study trees. Substantial resistance variability was found, along with a high estimate in heritability of resistance (0.44 ± 0.06), indicating significant additive genetic variation within the population. Spatial analysis showed no significant spatial structure with resistant and susceptible genotypes apparently distributed randomly throughout the population. The lack of concordance between the molecular and quantitative markers suggests that there may be a cost to resistance. Temporal variation in the severity of disease outbreaks may have then led to differential selection of seedlings across many generations, maintaining variability in disease resistance and facilitating the apparent random distribution of disease resistant and susceptible genotypes throughout the population. C. variegata is an important commercial forestry species. The identification of strong genetic control in the disease resistance trait, as well as significant adverse genetic and phenotypic correlations between susceptibility and growth traits, will aid future breeding programs. Controlled crosses between resistant genotypes from this population should result in strong genetic gains in both resistance and growth, with little costs associated with inbreeding depression due to the highly outcrossed nature of the population.

In this thesis I investigate the heterogeneity of population abundance by using the Taylor’s power law relationship of mean and variance, in time and space. Within the framework of stochastic population dynamics, the existence of a temporal Taylor’s power law were confirmed for a large number of British bird populations. Theoretical expectations predicted that environmental stochasticity would increase the slope of the mean-variance relationship while demographic stochasticity would reduce it. In addition, the slope should also be influenced by the strength of density dependence. Here, species specific slopes were mainly explained by the effect of life history variation on interspecific variation in demographic variance. It is generally acknowledged that the spatial power law depend on scale, however, few studies have accounted for this. By using a model which incorporates both the local point process and spatial covariance of population densities, the variance was estimated as a function of area and parameters characterizing the underlying density process, thus generating a non-linear Taylor’s spatial scaling law. Using a novel method to estimate the underlying density field, the spatial aggregation pattern was investigated by the slope of the variance-area relationship in populations of birds and fish. For the bird species no effect of behavioural characteristics was found to influence interspecific differences in the spatial aggregation patterns. Instead, interspecific differences in overall abundance in the UK influenced the slopes, thus indicating a link between local processes and variation of abundance patterns at a regional level. For the fish species, interspecifc differences in the spatial aggregation of the distributions were related to behavioural differences. Consequently, the effect of sampling area on the spatial distribution may be predicted from basic behavioural characteristics. The work of this thesis contributes to the ongoing discussion of Taylor’s power laws. It introduces framework to aid interpretation of future research, which is especially important in the context of other macroecologial pattern.

The role of parasites as agents of selection on their hosts has been well established, but less is known about how parasites facilitate divergence among host populations. In this thesis, I used the three-spined stickleback, Gasterosteus aculeatus, as a model organism to explore spatial variation in host-parasite interactions and the consequences for divergence of host traits. First, I established the extent of spatial variation in natural infection in the study system, North Uist, Outer Hebrides, Scotland, by conducting a survey of macroparasite communities in twelve freshwater lochs over two years. I found substantial geographic variation in parasite communities that was remarkably stable in time. Assuming that differences in parasite community composition correspond to differences in parasite-mediated selection, it suggests that North Uist stickleback populations experience divergent parasite-mediated selection that is consistent in time. Next, I carried out a series of artificial infection experiments with lab-reared sticklebacks from five populations using three widespread macroparasite species (Gyrodactylus gasterostei, Diplostomum spathaceum and Schistocephalus solidus), to assess geographic variation in parasite resistance and a component of the innate immune system, the respiratory burst response. There was significant variation among populations in resistance to G. gasterostei and D. spathaceum, and the innate immune response. To some extent the variation was related to natural infection levels, suggesting that divergent parasite-mediated selection may drive investment in these traits. Lastly, I conducted a growth experiment with the five stickleback populations and showed that there was significant population-level variation in juvenile growth rate, an important life history trait. In spite of considerable variation in all traits, I found no evidence for genetic trade-offs across populations between juvenile growth rate, and macroparasite resistance or the innate immune response. This thesis adds to a growing body of work that emphasises the importance of space in shaping host-parasite interactions.

Alopecurus myosuroides Huds. (black-grass) grows in patches within fields. This presents an opportunity for site-specific management by patch spraying. Despite the economic and environmental benefits of this type of management, it is not being readily taken up by farmers, largely due to the risk of missing weeds that fall outside of established patches. I focus on the environmental determinants of patch location in A. myosuroides and the scale-dependence of relationships between A. myosuroides and environmental properties. Understanding these relationships allowed me to determine which abiotic factors can be used to identify A. myosuroides vulnerable zones within fields and if these relationships occur at scales appropriate for management. This presents a more conservative approach than patch spraying according to observations of previous years’ infestations, as a greater area of the field is sprayed, yet the overall use of pesticide is still reduced. By combining field work, pot experiments, and modelling, I discovered that soil organic matter, water, and pH, amongst other environmental properties, show strong scale-dependent relationships with the within-field distribution of A. myosuroides. These relationships between A. myosuroides and soil properties were often strongest at coarse scales making them particularly useful for the implementation of management practices, which are often limited to coarse-scale implementation by the available machinery. The effects of these soil properties on A. myosuroides are both direct (affecting the plant’s life-cycle) and indirect (altering herbicide efficacy). The incremental changes I observed to different aspects of the life-cycle due to soil properties may seem too small to be of consequence when studied independently, yet when combined in a modelling approach their additive nature revealed them as important determinants of the withinfield distribution of this species and the coarse-scale relationships observed in the field are an emergent property of the model.

The reproduction of the two-spot ladybird, Adalia bipunctata, is inhibited by a sexually transmitted ectoparasitic mite Coccipolipus hippodamiae that sterilizes female hosts, and a range of heritable microbes that kill male hosts during embryogenesis for instance Spiroplasma. Historical sampling indicated these two parasites were present commonly in A. bipunctata in the south of Sweden but were absent or rare in northern populations. In this thesis, I first established that the distribution of the mite was still stable over time, with a boundary to mite presence at 61˚N, as found 10 years previously. The incidence of male-killing Spiroplasma, in contrast, showed a small northward shift in its presence. I then examined the causes of mite presence/absence, and concluded ladybirds from northern populations were competent to carry and transmit mite infection, but that host phenology prevented its persistence in natural populations. I then explored the hypothesis that mite presence might select for increased reluctance of females to mate by comparing mating behaviour between mite present/mite absent populations. I observed that whilst rejection behaviour was protective against mite transmission, it was not more commonly observed in ladybirds derived from mite present populations. Finally, I examined whether the presence of male-killing Spiroplasma might affect mite epidemiology, and whether the mite itself might impact on the dynamics of the male-killing Spiroplasma. I observed that Spiroplasma did not affect individual competence to acquire and transmit mite infection, and did not protect its host against mite induced sterility. However, Spiroplasma was observed to mildly prolong host longevity, which may enhance the capacity of the mite to pass from overwintered to new generation cohorts of its host. Further, population sex ratio biases induced by Spiroplasma were predicted to influence mite epidemiology, through altering mating rate and per contact mite transmission probability. I therefore conclude first that mite incidence can be explained through host phenological variation, and that sex ratio distorting symbionts may impact on the dynamics of the mite infection. Future studies should explore the causes of high prevalence Spiroplasma infection in A. bipunctata in southern Sweden, and the features that prevent the establishment of infection in the north of the country.

Removal experiments were conducted to determine particular spatial and temporal conditions that can influence competitive interactions in several desert winter annual species. During the 1987-88 season, variation in the magnitude of competition at three habitats along a topographic gradient was demonstrated in two co-occurring species of winter annuals, Plantago patagonica and Pectocarya recurvata. Density effects on the survival and reproductive success of either species were weakest at the slope. However, the habitats where the two species experienced the most intense competition differed. Plantago was most affected by competition at the wash while Pectocarya was most affected at the base of the hill. The most striking pattern observed was that, for both species, the habitat with the highest reproductive success for plants that were not experiencing competition tended to be the worst habitat for plants in competition. A comparison of results from two experiments performed on Plantago patagonica during two growing seasons showed that competition occurred despite large seasonal differences in weather and plant performance. When wet and dry conditions of different year types were simulated by artificial irrigation during a dry season, competition was still detected in both rainfed and irrigated plants regardless of the marked differences in plant size as a result of the irrigation treatment. A neighborhood density roughly equivalent to 8 plants/dm² appeared sufficient to create competitive conditions for Plantago. Effects of competition were consistently manifested in reduced plant growth and fecundity. There was no evidence for density-dependent seedling mortality (self-thinning) even with seedling densities as high as 48 plants/dm². In two pairs of species tested, Plantago patagonica-Schismus barbatus and Plantago patagonica-Pectorcarya recurvata, there was no statistically detectable effect of neighbor species identity on target plants of Plantago and Pectocarya suggesting the possible equivalence of competitive effects in these species of desert winter annuals.

In this study, the relative influences of selection, gene flow, and other evolutionary forces on the spatial structure of genetic variation within a eucalypt species complex (the spotted gums: genus Corymbia, section Politaria) were assessed. The study investigated the spatial genetic structure among four putative species of spotted gum (broad-scale), as well as within a single population (fine-scale)of one species, using both molecular and quantitative markers. The spotted gum complex occurs naturally across a range of 2500 km in eastern Australia. Spatial genetic variation within and between the four putative spotted gum species was examined using both chloroplast and nuclear markers. No significant differentiation was found between the three northern species of the complex, C. citriodora, C. variegata and C. henryi. The southern species, C. maculata, shared no haplotypes with any of the three northern species. These results disagree in part with those reported in a previous allozyme based study in which C. henryi was found to be significantly divergent from C. variegata (with which it is sympatric) and more closely aligned with C. maculata. Re-analysis of the allozyme data provided evidence of selection acting at the PGM2 locus within populations of C. variegata and C. henryi. The exclusion of this locus from the data set led to concordance between the cpDNA and nDNA analyses. Restricted gene flow and evidence of isolation by distance were identified as the dominant processes influencing the contemporary distribution of the cpDNA haplotypes. No geographic structure of haplotypes was found and complex genealogical relationships between haplotypes indicated the combined effects of past fragmentation, range expansion and possible long distance dispersal events. The variation and spatial structure in both neutral molecular markers and quantitative genetic traits were compared to explore the relative influences of dispersal and selection within a single eucalypt population. Both mature trees (n=130) from a natural population of C. variegata and their progeny (n=127) were sampled. A very high outcrossing rate (98%) was estimated for the population based on data from seven microsatellite loci. This suggested regular pollen–mediated gene flow into the population, further supported by the observed high levels of genetic diversity and polymorphism. Significant positive spatial structure was found between parent trees occurring up to 150 m apart in the natural forest, although genetic distance between these individuals suggested limited relatedness (i.e. less than half-sib relatedness). The effect of pollen-mediated gene flow appears, therefore, to swamp any effect of nearest neighbour inbreeding which has been reported in other studies of eucalypt populations and has been attributed to limited seed dispersal. Resistance to the fungal disease Sporothrix pitereka (Ramularia Shoot Blight) was measured on progeny from each of the population study trees. Substantial resistance variability was found, along with a high estimate in heritability of resistance (0.44 ± 0.06), indicating significant additive genetic variation within the population. Spatial analysis showed no significant spatial structure with resistant and susceptible genotypes apparently distributed randomly throughout the population. The lack of concordance between the molecular and quantitative markers suggests that there may be a cost to resistance. Temporal variation in the severity of disease outbreaks may have then led to differential selection of seedlings across many generations, maintaining variability in disease resistance and facilitating the apparent random distribution of disease resistant and susceptible genotypes throughout the population. C. variegata is an important commercial forestry species. The identification of strong genetic control in the disease resistance trait, as well as significant adverse genetic and phenotypic correlations between susceptibility and growth traits, will aid future breeding programs. Controlled crosses between resistant genotypes from this population should result in strong genetic gains in both resistance and growth, with little costs associated with inbreeding depression due to the highly outcrossed nature of the population.
Thesis (PhD Doctorate)
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
Australian School of Environmental Studies
Full Text

With the increasing degradation of rivers worldwide, an understanding of spatial and temporal patterns in freshwater quality is important. Water quality is highly variable in space and time, yet this is largely overlooked at the scale of stream catchments. I employed a landscape ecology approach to examine the spatial patterning of water quality in complex, impacted stream networks on the Canterbury Plains of the South Island of New Zealand, with the goal of understanding how land-use effects proliferate through stream systems. In particular, I used “snapshot” sampling events in conjunction with spatial modelling and longitudinal profiles to investigate the ways in which spatial and environmental factors influence the variability of water quality in stream networks. Spatial eigenfunction analyses showed that distance measures, which took into account variable connectivity by flow and distance along the stream between sites, explained more spatial variance in water quality than traditional distance metrics. Small upstream reaches were more spatially and temporally variable than main stems (under summer base-flow conditions). The extent of spatial variation in water quality differed between stream networks, potentially depending on linkages to groundwater and the surrounding landscape. My results indicated that the water quality of headwater streams can have a disproportionate influence over water quality throughout an entire network. I investigated spatio-temporal patterns in water quality more intensively in one stream network, the Cam River, in which I found consistent spatial pattern through time. The relative balance between nutrient inputs (pollution and groundwater) and in-stream conditions influenced the spatial pattern of water quality, as well as that of several ecosystem processes which I measured simultaneously. The spatially intensive and explicit approach has allowed identification of key factors controlling water quality and ecosystem processes throughout the Cam River. This research highlights the importance of taking a spatially explicit approach when studying stream water quality and that such an approach could be insightful and will contribute to solving current stream management problems.

Harbour porpoise (Phocoena phocoena) are the most abundant cetacean in UK waters, and are likely to be affected by a variety of marine industries and activities. This research uses data collected by acoustic recorders (C-PODs) and aerial video surveys to investigate patterns in porpoise detection. The findings can be split into five key themes, and are used to support the development of spatial management and survey recommendations. 1. Porpoise detection changes based on time of day in different habitats, indicating possible differences in diel habitat use and highlighting potential issues with visual or video data collection methods for assessing distribution. 2. Porpoise exhibit seasonal shifts in detection, yet year-round data are often lacking, therefore seasonal changes in distribution are often unknown. 3. The highest proportions of buzzes (associated with foraging) are not detected in areas with the highest relative density of porpoise. I propose that porpoise use different foraging strategies in different habitats which are not equally detectable by acoustic recorders. 4. Porpoise distribution may be influenced by the distribution of perceived risk from predator / competitor species (dolphins). Temporal partitioning of sites may arise either from porpoise actively avoiding times when bottlenose dolphins are expected to be present, or from porpoise and bottlenose preferences for different environmental conditions. 5. The choice of spatial modelling method can influence the fine-scale predictions of areas with the highest density. Improving our understanding of top and mesopredator ecology is informative for management strategies. Each of the points raised above should be considered when determining management strategies to minimise the impact from fisheries, offshore developments and other industrial activities on harbour porpoise.

Denna avhandling behandlar den småskaliga rumsliga variationen av löst organiskt kol (DOC, engelsk term: dissolved organic carbon), dess koncentration, masstransport och karaktär, i bäckar inom två barrskogsbeklädda avrinningsområden (delavrinningsområden 0,01-78 km²). Provtagningen gjordes uppströms och nedströms varje bäckförgrening under sommarbasflöde. Koncentrationen av DOC varierade inom en tiopotens (4-66 mg/l), liksom flera andra kemiska parametrar. Vid riksinventeringen av vattendrag för 2000 i norra Sverige noterades en snarlik spännvidd. Enligt Naturvårdverkets bedömningsgrunder för sjöar och vattendrag återfanns alla tillståndsklasser för DOC och pH, samt mänsklig påverkansgrad till försurningen inom de två studerade områdena. Den specifika avrinningen (flöde per areaenhet) varierade kraftigt i källflödena och inverkade på deras bidrag till kemin nedströms. Vattenkemin och specifika avrinningen var stabila i delavrinningsområden större än 15 km². Det kan vara nödvändigt att provta så stora områden om generella värden för landskapet önskas, men källflödenas kemi kommer då inte att kunna karakteriseras, ehuru källflödena utgör den största delen av bäcksträckan och det akvatiska ekosystemet.

Nedströms är DOC-koncentrationen, och många andra kemiska parametrar, lika med summan av bidragen från källflödena och nedströms utspädning av inflödande vatten. Tillkommer gör processer inom bäcken och vattnets utbyte med botten/grundvatten (den hyporheiska zonen), men även DOC-förluster/transformationer vid vissa bäckförgreningar och sjöar. Ovanstående resonemang förklarade bäckvattenkemins minskande variation och vanligen lägre DOC-koncentrationer nedströms i ett landskapsperspektiv. Längs bäcksträckorna observerades ingen generell minskning av DOC-koncentration eller ändring av dess karaktär. Skillnaden i DOC-koncentration och relaterade parametrar mellan källflöden och nedströms styrdes i hög grad av vilka landskapselement (myrar, sjöar och skogsmark) som vattnet hade passerat innan det hamnade i bäckarna, samt samspelseffekter med den specifik avrinningen och platserna med DOC-förlust. Prognoser med multivariata modeller baserade på kartinformation testades men kunde inte förutsäga det rumsliga mönstret eller DOC-koncentrationen med erforderlig precision.

Lämpliga rutiner inom miljöövervakningen för att övervaka den rumsliga variationen av kemin i ytvatten saknas alltjämt. Vid planering av terrestra och akvatiska skötselåtgärder bör man beakta bäckvattnets naturliga kemiska variation.

This thesis quantifies the small-scale spatial variation of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentrations, fluxes and character in two boreal catchments (subcatchments 0.01-78 km²) using ”snapshots” of summer base flow where samples were taken upstream and downstream from every node in the stream network. An order of magnitude variation was found in DOC-concentrations, and many other chemical parameters. The range was similar to that found in all of northern Sweden by the national stream survey in 2000. According to the official assessment tools used in Sweden, the entire range of environmental status for DOC, pH and human acidification influence existed within these two study catchments. A large variability in specific discharge had a major impact on the contribution of headwaters to downstream chemistry. The water chemistry parameters were relatively stable at catchment areas greater than 15 km². Sampling at that scale may be adequate if generalised values for the landscape are desired. However the chemistry of headwaters, where much of the stream length and aquatic ecosystem is found would not be characterized.

Downstream DOC-concentrations, as well as many other chemical parameters, are the sum of headwater inputs, in combination with progressive downstream dilution by inflowing water with its own DOC-concentration and character. Superimposed upon this are in-stream and hyporheic processes, as well as discrete loci of DOC loss/transformation at lakes and stream junctions. At the landscape scale, this results in a decreased downstream variation in stream water chemistry and often, but not necessarily, lower average DOC-concentrations. Along stream reaches there was not a loss of DOC-concentration or a consistent change in character. While the importance of in-stream/hyporheic processes that consistently alter DOC-concentrations along the channel network cannot be ruled out, the differences between headwater and downstream DOC-concentrations and related parameters depend largely on the mosaic of landscape elements (mires, lakes and forest soil) contributing water to the channel network, combined with patterns of specific discharge and discrete loci of DOC loss. Assessment would be facilitated by map information that could predict spatial patterns. Multivariate models using maps, however, did not give satisfactory predictions.

Appropriate procedures for dealing with spatial variation in the environmental assessment of surface waters are not yet established. An awareness of stream water chemistry’s natural spatial variability should be considered when planning aquatic and terrestrial management.

Hybridization and introgression with non-native salmonids is one of the greatest factors threatening native cutthroat trout species. Westslope cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarkii lewisi; WSCT) were recently listed under the Canadian Species at Risk Act (SARA) as "special concern" (British Columbia populations) and "threatened" (Alberta populations). I employed a 10 locus-microsatellite DNA assay to investigate levels of hybridization between westslope cutthroat trout and introduced rainbow trout (O. mykiss; RT) at 159 sampling locations in southwestern Alberta and parts of southeastern British Columbia. My results revealed that hybridization is extensive across the region sampled. Admixture levels (qwsct of 0 = pure rainbow trout, 1.0 = pure westslope cutthroat trout) at sampling locations ranged from 0.01 to 0.99. An average qwsct below 0.99 is a criterion that has been used in previous work to designate a population as "hybridized." Landscape genetic analysis using regression trees indicate that water temperature, elevation, distance to the nearest stocking site and distance to the nearest railway were significant components of a model that described 34% of the variation in qwsct across 58 sites for which habitat variables were available. Building on this finding, I explored the role of water temperature, the best predictor of hybridization levels amongst the variables tested, in limiting the spread of admixture by evaluating cold tolerance in both species using critical thermal methods (CTM). Analysis of variance revealed a statistically significant difference between the critical thermal minima (CTMin) of WSCT and RT acclimated to 15 °C (1.0 ± 0.8 °C and 1.4 ± 1.0 °C respectively). The heritability of cold tolerance observed in this study appears to be complex and does not seem to behave in a simple additive manner. The identification of water temperature as a major factor influencing admixture and subsequent test for physiological differences in cold tolerance provide evidence to support a hypothesis that cold water habitats act as a natural barrier to hybridization between WSCT and RT. This information provides insight into the evolutionary history of WSCT and RT and will be useful in assisting conservation efforts aimed at mitigating the wide-spread loss of WSCT to genomic extinction.