Academic literature on the topic 'Spanish language – To 1500 – Lexicology'

The article examines the phenomenon of globalization and its impact on the language policy of Spain. The processes of neologization underlying the Spanish language policy are analyzed. It is shown how, in the conditions of the dominant role of the English language, the national languages of Spain resist external pressure in the form of Anglicisms. Purpose. The purpose of the study is a theoretical and practical study of the influence of factors of linguistic globalization on the official languages of Spain. Materials and methods. The texts of modern periodicals of Spain (El País, El Mundo, El ABC, LA Vanguardia) and the data of the explanatory dictionary of the Spanish Academy (Diccionario Real Academia Española) served as practical material for the study. To achieve the purpose of the study, the following methods were applied: analysis of scientific literature, continuous sampling method, method dictionary definitions, descriptive method. Results. As a result of the study, it was revealed that Spanish national languages, influenced by the factors of linguistic globalization and the English language dominating in the international arena, are changing the familiar picture of the world in all spheres of life of modern Spanish society. The analysis of the data obtained showed that the Spanish language policy is not effective enough in the context of the current processes of linguistic globalization. Despite the active resistance to foreign-language borrowings and neologisms of foreign origin, Spanish language policy institutes do not have time to develop appropriate traditional equivalents. Practical implications. The results of the study can be used in lecture courses on lexicology, lexicography, and linguistics, as well as in practical classes on the lexicology of the Spanish language.

Summary The aim of this article is to give an account of the work in progress concerning the Spanish electronic dictionaries of the DELA system. We describe the process of construction and maintenance of the dictionary of simple words (DELASs) and these of compound words (DELACs), which the latter comprising different modules for nouns (monolingual and French-Spanish bilingual), adverbs, verbs and adjectives. We also present a nominal determiners dictionary and we make some remarks about French-Spanish comparative lexicology.

The present investigation is an exercise in historical lexicology working with a group of voices with the usual coinage of Americanisms and the objective is to examine whether from the diasystem or from synchrony they can be understood, precisely. The methodology consists of two parts: first being a process of collation and lexical filtering with some linguistic tools in Spanish such as dictionaries, linguistic monographs and linguistic corpus and second being strictly lexicological-lexicographical phase, where semantics, polysemy and possible homonymy are explored. The information collected, therefore, comes from the textual level, which is why, most often, found data may contradict Spanish as a fact of architecture or official lexicography. In short, these units are a group of voices neither exemplary or standard nor provincial relative to the standard language.

The language errors could potentially hinder the transmission of information and disturb theconcretization of the act of communication. In the contemporary context, many factors exercise influence on thelanguage especially the social media triggering disregard of the linguistic norms, devaluing the correct use of thelanguage and disrupting the normal flow of communication. These irregularities in the use of the Spanish languageare known as language vices. The subject of this paper is a broad view of the irregularities (that could be of differentgrammatical nature) that could result from the improper use of the Modern Spanish language and encompasses thedefinition, review of the most common types of language vices (pleonasm, solecism, amphibology, barbarism,archaism, and neologism) supported by a series of examples excerpted from relevant sources among whichOrtografía de la lengua Española (RAE:2010). Diccionario panhispánico de dudas (RAE:2005), Gran diccionariode sinónimos, voces afines e incorrecciones (Fernando Corripio, Bruguera, 1979), etc. The purpose of the paper is,in absence of Spanish grammar(s) in Macedonian language and published comparative papers in particular in thefield of lexicology, to fill to some extant the vacuum and shed light on the language vices in the Modern Spanishlanguage, thus arousing the interest of the Macedonian linguists, especially those with knowledge of Spanish forfuture more profound research and their systematization.

Phraseological units which include colour names in Spanish language are investigated. The author analyses how color terms may influence on the total meaning of a phraseological unit. The article deals with the national cultural component “colour” in the phraseological units in Spanish language. The subject of the research determines the application of the comparative method. In this connection we use the linguistic facts of some national variants in Spanish language as well as in Ukrainian language. The results of the article confirm the forming of the national symbolism of colour in Spanish under the influence of the extralinguistic factors, transforming the colour into the national cultural component. The research materials and results can be applied in the sphere of such contiguous disciplines as intercultural communication, linguistics, translation theory and practice, studying Spanish by Ukrainian-speaking students, as well as in writing test books and other teaching material on lexicology. Research of colour names in Spanish language with its comparison with Ukrainian colour names shows that phraseological units with colour names are characterized with some similarity. Phraseological knowledge facilitates the reading of political essays as well as works of literature. The process of thinking in the educational progress cannot be overrated. In this learning the images are the material for solving the tasks. These images are phraseological units with colour names. They are the means of figurative images of ambient reality and simultaneously they enrich the intellect and spiritual inner awarenesses of an individual.

AbstractThis article compares the use of calques modelled on anglicisms in different European languages, especially Spanish and German, which do not only show structural differences (e.g. with regard to the use of noun-noun compounds, which are more common in German) but also reflect different attitudes towards English. Aspects covered range from the factors generally favouring the coinage of such replacive forms, to the reasons for the emergence of different types of calques, to variations in their use and challenges concerning their identification. To unravel the main patterns and trends in calquing, this study includes numerous examples from written and oral language, i.e. items of different register affiliation, age, length, and semantic transparency. On a theoretical level, the article incorporates findings from the fields of lexicology, contact linguistics and sociolinguistics.

Abstract Applying a sociolinguistic approach to the study of neologisms, this paper discusses the actuation and diffusion of new words in Early Modern English (EModE; 1500–1700) and draws some parallels with word coining in the comparable but more recent period of Early Modern Finnish (EModF; 1810–1880). The success of this exercise ultimately depends on the data and tools available for ascertaining the status of neologisms in a broader synchronic and diachronic context. The use of historical dictionaries and digital databases shows that many words that were earlier considered particular innovations in EModE are now up for re-evaluation. Determining their actual moments of coinage and entry into the language may be beyond historical lexicology and lexicography, but the new tools make it possible to better monitor their provenance and process of diffusion over time.

Based on an ontological frame for comparative onomasiological lexicology which embeds the RAIN eventity type as an exponent-shaped activity into a general linguistic ontology as well as an ontology of motion, the words for RAIN in two Germanic and two Romance languages are compared with respect to their semantic and syntactic variability. It turns out that the Germanic forms are more flexible than the Romance forms. English rain has the highest variability: It can be used with eight valencies, a nominal and seven verbal ones, and with five different meanings, and it is the only one to display a valence that combines an expletive subject with a cognate object as well as a causativized eventity meaning. On the other hand only German regnen has a resultativized meaning. The Romance languages too show some internal variance: In allowing both an impersonal construction with a generalized meaning and a source construction, Spanish llover is slightly more flexible than Italian piovere. Finally, an Optimality Theoretic account of the data is adumbrated in terms of three principles: Avoid linking mismatches, Avoid heterogeneity of sentence patterns, and Avoid redundancy.

The purpose of this study is to propose a lexical analysis of inflection and cliticization in Spanish within the framework of Categorial Grammar, and to show how morphology and syntax interplay with one another in this language. I postulate that inflectional suffixes and clitics are syntactic expressions in their own right; inflectional suffixes are the instantiation of the grammatical relation, subject, whereas certain clitics, i.e. DAT and ACC clitics, are of the object. In this regard, inflection and cliticization can be conceived as functions from one set of syntactic expressions into another. I assume that inflectional suffixes and clitics are stored in the lexicon assigned to categories which specify their syntactic (and semantic) properties. These elements are combined to form complex expressions by two kinds of operations: (1) Function/argument application, and (2) Functional Composition. Three lexical rules are proposed in order to account for the distribution of the morphological properties at issue: (1) Inflection, (2) Cliticization, and (3) Complex Verb Formation. These rules make an explicit statement of what syntactic processes take place as morphologically complex expressions are formed. One consequence of my analysis is the redefinition of nominals commonly referred to as "subject NP" and "object NP" (doubled by a clitic) as elements which mark a referential contrast. This way, the formal variation as to the presence or absence of these nominals in Spanish sentences has a coherent explanation. Two rules of nominal adjunction are proposed in order to account for "clitic doubling" and "subject doubling". These two rules apply under certain conditions. With a lexical treatment of inflection and cliticization proposed, all the word formation processes in the Spanish language are now relegated to one single component, the lexicon. Morphology in Spanish, thus, has a clearly delineated domain of its own as an integral part of the lexicon. Furthermore, inflection and cliticization are morphological processes which, at the same time, construct syntactically complex expressions. This direct interplay between morphology and syntax is what uniquely characterizes the so-called "pro-drop" languages, of which Spanish is one, and distinguishes them from the "non-pro-drop" languages.

Other-directed emotions, both positive (e.g. love, pity, admiration) and negative (e.g. hatred, anger, disgust), play an important role in communication due to their social nature and involvement of another party. Emotive discourse regulates social encounters and triggers response in participants of such encounters. When learning a new language, one needs to be able to interpret correctly emotive discourse and, ideally, to articulate adequately one's own emotions. Therefore, it is important to know what emotion concepts exist in a given language and if they differ in any way from the speaker's first language. From the sociolinguistic point of view, other-directed discontent is extremely culture-dependent: there are strict rules of what, how and when can or should be expressed and consequently interpreted by an illocutor and reacted upon. Moreover, according to the Russian National Corpus frequency chart, emotion terms of discontent are the most frequent ones among the other-directed emotions in Russian: obida “offence/resentment” is extremely salient, only surpassed by the lexemes denoting "love", "hope", "happiness", “joy” and "fear". The present study seeks to fill the gap in studies on the conceptualisation of other-directed discontent in Russian, compared to English and Spanish. For this purpose, relevant research papers, lexicographical sources and corpora studies have been employed. The results show that power relations are crucial for the lexical choice when expressing other-directed discontent in Russian, i.e. emotion words are chosen according to the social status of both the experiencer and the causer. Moreover, there are different classifications of discontent-related words in Russian: 'rational' vs. irrational, 'expressive' vs. 'inexpressive', 'high', i.e. connected to the 'soul', and 'low', i.e. connected to the body. The comparative analysis of Russian, English and Spanish other-directed discontent has revealed both similarities and differences in the respective versions of the concept. All three languages have 'low vs. high intensity', 'external vs. internal' and 'significant vs. insignificant' dichotomies. Also metaphorical conceptualisation is similar, mostly as 'a substance in a container', although the theme of 'elements' prevails in Russian, 'hot fluid in a container' in English and 'possessed object' in Spanish. Etymology plays a certain role in conceptualisation in all three languages, especially in English (e.g. anger) and Russian (e.g. obida). In addition, differences in synonymic groups and recurrent antonyms (mir “peace” in Russian, paciencia “patience” in Spanish, and pleasure in English) reflect differences in respective naïve pictures of the world. On the morphosyntactic level, specific traits of Russian are 1) fusion with active verbs caused by conceptualisation of emotions as actions, and 2) derivation being the main means of lexical replenishment and the main salience indicator of a term. In reference to the discursive representation of other-directed discontent, the outline of the social component in the conceptual structure and the qualitative Russian, English and Spanish corpora studies resulted in the reconstruction of the subtextual discourse. The discourse is motivated by 'archaic', rural morality in Russian, which constructs the world as a common house, by patriarchal morality in Spanish, which propagates action as a sign of power, and by the rule of law in English, postulating anger as a valid means of self-assertion.
Les emocions dirigides cap als altres, tant les positives (per exemple, amor, pietat, admiració) com les negatives (per exemple odi, ràbia, fàstic), juguen un paper important a la comunicació a causa de la seva naturalesa social i l'involucrament d'un altre. El discurs emotiu regula encontres socials i provoca resposta en els participants d'aquests encontres. A l'hora d'aprendre un nou idioma, és necessari poder interpretar correctament el discurs emotiu i articular adequadament les seves emocions. Així doncs, és important per un parlant saber quins conceptes d'emocions existeixen a l'dioma en qüestió i si són diferents dels conceptes de la seva primera llengua. Des del punt de vista sociolingüístic, el descontentament dirigit cap als altres (tradicionalment anomenat anger en anglès i en la recerca internacional) és extremadament dependent de la cultura: hi ha regles estrictes sobre com, quan i què es pot expressar. A més, segons el Corpus Nacional Rus, les paraules del descontentament són les més freqüents entre les emocions dirigides cap als altres, només superades pels lexemes amb significat “amor”, “esperança”, “felicitat”, “alegria” i “por”. El treball present té com a objectiu estudiar la conceptualització del descontentament dirigit cap als altres en rus, comparat amb l'anglès i el castellà. Amb aquesta finalitat, s'han utilitzat articles de recerca rellevants, recursos lexicogràfics i estudis de corpus. Els resultats demostren que les relacions de poder són crucials per a l'elecció lèxica a l ´hora d'expressar el descontentament en rus. Això vol dir que les paraules emocionals s'escullen segons l'estatus social de l'experimentador del descontentament i del causador del descontentament. A més, hi ha classificacions diferents de les paraules del descontentament en rus: racionals o irracionals, expressives o inexpressives, 'altes' (relacionades amb l'ànima) i 'baixes' (relacionades amb el cos). L'anàlisi comparatiu del descontentament en rus, anglès i castellà ha revelat tant similituds com diferències en les seves respectives versions. En totes tres llengües apareixen dicotomies 'baixa o alta intensitat', 'extern-intern', 'significatiu-insignificatiu'. La conceptualització metafòrica del descontentament també és similar. Majoritàriament està conceptualitzat com a 'substància dins d'un recipient', tot i que el tema dels 'elements' predomina en rus, 'el líquid calent dins d'un recipient' en anglès i 'l'objecte en possessió' en castellà. L'etimologia juga un cert paper a la conceptualització en tots tres idiomes, especialment en anglès (per exemple anger) i en rus (per exemple obida). També, les diferències en grups sinonímics i en antònims recurrents (mir “pau” en rus, paciencia “paciència” en castellà, i pleasure “plaer” en anglès) reflecteixen diferències en els 'imatges naïfs del mon' en els tres idiomes. A nivell morfosintàctic, els trets específics del rus són 1) la fusió del lèxic emocional amb els verbs actius, causada per la conceptualització dels emocions com a accions, i 2) la derivació, sent el mitjà principal de l'enriquiment lèxic i l'indicador principal de la prominència d'un terme. En referència a la representació discursiva del descontentament dirigit cap als altres, la descripció del component social dins de l'estructura conceptual i l'estudi qualitatiu del corpus rus, anglès i castellà han donat com a resultat la reconstrucció del discurs subtextual. El discurs rus és motivat per la moral arcaica i rural i construeix el món com una casa comuna. El discurs castellà és motivat per la moral patriarcal, fent èmfasi en l'acció com a signe de poder. El discurs anglès és influenciat per l'imperi de la llei i postula anger com a mitjà vàlid d'autoafirmació.

Clerical sexual incontinence was a prevalent satirical theme during the Middle Ages manifested by anticlerical sentiment towards reprobate clergymen and the laws that they disobeyed. This satirical genre of literature targeted not only the cleric of a small town, but bishops and cardinals who were also abusers of canon law. The anticlerical theme originated in Western Europe in the time of Constantine when early Christianity was competing with many religions for dominance. In the fourth century, Constantine, through the Edict of Milan, granted religious tolerance to all, thus allowing Christianity to become a major religion. Clerical celibacy originated from the writings of early church fathers such as Augustine of Hippo, Origen, and Tertullian, who determined that celibacy provided greater spiritual access to God. Early patristic church fathers supported the ideal of sexual celibacy for Christians in order to spiritually overcome the other religions. In the fourth century A.D., the church demanded that the clerics remain celibate even though they were married. By the twelfth century, canonical laws demanded that clerics not marry and remain celibate. These laws initiated an extreme sexual repression of clerics who began to sexually seek women, refusing them absolution for their sins if they refused the clerics' sexual advances. The purpose of this thesis is to establish that the corrupt clerics victimized the laity, who, although fearing for their salvation, produced satirical poetry expressing their anticlerical sentiment. This thesis also will present literature that discusses the pros and cons of clerical concubinage. There are three different forms of articulation in this thesis. The first is didactic and teaches the reader by demonstrating literature that encouraged clerical celibacy. The second illustration is satirical poems with the seven deadly sins as a recurrent theme. These poems are divided into two groups: the first is the poems written by the nobility, and the second is the popular anonymous poems, sung to music for peasant entertainment. The third articulation is the proponents of clerical concubinage. This poetry reflects the human side of companionship and need during a tumultuous time when people banded together in order to survive.

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O presente trabalho tem como objetivo a investigação do léxico em romances policiais, com vistas a detectar e analisar a incidência de fatores pragmáticos na tradução (espanhol-português) de lexias simples e complexas, especificamente as consideradas tabus linguísticos. Como corpus de pesquisa elaboramos o MVM 4 composto pelas obras em espanhol, Milenio Carvalho I. Rumbo a Kabul e Milenio Carvalho II. Rumbo a las antípodas de Manuel Vázquez Montalbán e sua tradução para o português Milênio. Tendo como base a Lexicologia e a Pragmática, nosso estudo foi fundamentado no contexto do romance policial em que as lexias tabus foram encontradas. Assim, para o levantamento das unidades lexicais tabus (ULTs) utilizamos o método manual, dado que se fez necessário compreender o âmbito em que a lexia está inserida para que fosse possível classificá-la em uma das esferas de motivação de uso propostas. Desse modo, a análise das ULTs, iniciou-se após a separação das lexias conforme as cinco esferas de motivação de uso, de maneira que pudéssemos estabelecer uma relação entre as obras em espanhol e sua respectiva tradução para o português, atentando para as relações eufemísticas e disfemísticas presentes na tradução. Com foco nas ULTs e com base no modelo de divisão por esferas, proposto por Simão e Seregati (2016), foram examinadas as motivações de uso mais frequentes das ULTs, os recursos eufemísticos e disfemísticos utilizados na tradução das lexias tabu, as relações entre os eufemismos e os disfemismos e as esferas em que estão inseridas e, por fim, discutimos e propusemos a ampliação do modelo de divisão por esferas proposto por Simão e Seregati (2016).
This research aims to study the taboo lexicon in detective novels in order to observe and analyze the incidence of pragmatics factors in the translation (SpanishPortuguese) of simple and complex words, specifically the ones that are considered linguistic taboos. For this purpose, the MVM 4 has been created as a research corpus, being composed by the Brazilian Portuguese translation of the following Manuel Vázquez Montalbán's works: Milenio Carvalho I. Rumbo a Kabul and Milenio Carvalho II. Rumbo a las antípodas. Based on Lexicology and Pragmatics, this study was founded on the context of the detective novel in which the taboo lexicons were observed. Thus, a manual method was used for the taboo lexicons (ULTs) assessment, since it was necessary to understand the scope in which the lexicon was inserted, so that it could be classified in one of the proposed categories. Therefore, the analysis of the ULTs began after the lexicons were classified according to the taboo lexicon division of the use motives into five categories and in such a way that a relation between the novels in Spanish and their respective translations in Portuguese was established, highlighting the euphemistic and dysphemistic relations in the translation. Focusing on the ULTs and based on the division model proposed by Simão and Seregati (2016), the most frequent motives for the use of ULTs have been investigated, as well as the euphemistic and dysphemistic strategies used in the translation of taboo lexicons, the relation between euphemisms and dysphemism, and the categories in which they are inserted. And finally, after a discussion, an increase of the motives division model proposed by Simão and Seregati (2016).

La calidad textual se presenta insistentemente como un concepto complejo de describir tanto en lenguas primeras como en lenguas segundas, por cuanto resulta desafiante dilucidar qué criterios concretos aplican los evaluadores para catalogar si una producción concreta es un buen texto o un mal texto. Cuando producimos un texto, tanto oral como escrito, tomamos una serie de decisiones sobre la manera más adecuada de expresarnos orientadas, principalmente, a integrar elecciones léxicas, sintácticas y retóricas a nivel oracional en la organización global del discurso. En particular, el desarrollo léxico, central en la adquisición del lenguaje, desempeña una función fundamental en la consecución y mejora de las habilidades lingüísticas involucradas en la producción de textos. A pesar de ello, hasta el momento, las investigaciones previas no han podido determinar con exactitud qué rasgos léxicos específicos se asocian con un texto de calidad. En este sentido, la presente investigación se centra en examinar y caracterizar la calidad textual de hablantes nativos y no nativos de español, presentando especial atención a los aspectos léxicos que determinan que un texto sea considerado de calidad. El repertorio léxico estudiado incluye dispositivos que operan a nivel de palabra (longitud media de palabra, uso de adjetivos, uso de nominalizaciones, diversidad léxica, densidad léxica) y más allá del nivel de palabra (uso de colocaciones y uso de metáforas deliberadas). Dicho propósito general se concreta a su vez en dos objetivos específicos que suponen dos formas complementarias de abordar la producción textual: (1) analizar el desarrollo del repertorio de recursos léxicos considerado en hablantes nativos y no nativos de español en distintos géneros discursivos (narrativo y expositivo) y modalidades producción (oral y escrita) y (2) examinar cómo se relacionan estos recursos léxicos con las evaluaciones externas de la calidad textual en español nativo y no nativo en dichos contextos comunicativos. La muestra del estudio está formada por 30 hablantes nativos monolingües de español y 66 hablantes no nativos de español (L1 = árabe, coreano y chino) distribuidos en tres grupos de edad y nivel educativo: 9 años (cuarto de primaria), 12 años (primer curso de educación secundaria) y adultos estudiantes universitarios, y en cuatro niveles de competencia: inicial (A1-A2), intermedio (B1-B2), avanzado (C1-C2) y nativo. A los participantes se les pidió que, por una parte, narraran y escribieran una experiencia personal sobre una situación similar en la que habían estado involucrados y, por otra, que discutiesen también oralmente y por escrito el tipo de problemas que se mostraban en el video. De esta forma, cada participante produjo un total de cuatro textos: dos narrativos (en oral y por escrito) y dos expositivos (en oral y por escrito) sobre situaciones conflictivas en la escuela. De los 384 textos resultantes se obtuvieron evaluaciones holísticas y analíticas de los textos realizadas por jueces expertos, es decir, profesores experimentados de cada nivel educativo, como medidas externas de calidad textual. Los jueces se asignaron de forma aleatoria a dos condiciones de evaluación: condición normalizada y condición modificada. En relación con nuestro primer objetivo, se analizó el uso del conjunto de recursos léxicos considerado en español L1 y L2 según la edad, el nivel de competencia de los hablantes, el género discursivo y la modalidad de producción. Los resultados nos muestran un panorama evolutivo complejo por cuanto para cada recurso se observan patrones de desarrollo distintos. En relación con nuestro segundo objetivo, se analizó la relación entre el uso de los recursos léxicos considerados y las evaluaciones externas de calidad textual. Nuestros resultados indican que las características léxicas de los textos permiten explicar por sí mismas, esto es, con independencia de aspectos gramaticales y/o discursivos, variaciones en la calidad textual en L2. En el caso de los hablantes nativos, en cambio, a pesar de que se observen correlaciones fuertes (pero no significativas) entre el uso de dichos recursos y las evaluaciones de la calidad textual, los recursos léxicos analizados no alcanzan a explicar las variaciones de las puntuaciones que reciben sus textos.
Text quality is generally presented as a complex concept to describe both in first and second languages, since it is challenging to elucidate what specific criteria the evaluators apply to catalog whether a specific production is a good text or a bad text. When we produce a text, both oral and written, we make decisions about the most appropriate way of expressing ourselves focused on, mainly, integrating lexical, syntactic and rhetorical choices at the sentence level into the global organization of discourse. Lexical development, central to language acquisition, plays a fundamental role in achieving and improving the language skills involved in the production of texts. Despite this, so far, previous research has not been able to determine exactly which specific lexical features are associated to text quality. In this sense, the present research focuses on examining and characterizing the textual quality of native and non-native speakers of Spanish, giving special attention to the lexical aspects that determine that a text is considered to be good. The lexical repertoire studied includes devices that operate at the word level (average word length, use of adjectives, use of nominalizations, lexical diversity, lexical density) and beyond the word level (use of collocations and use of deliberate metaphors). This general purpose is in turn specified in two specific objectives that involve two complementary ways of addressing text quality: (1) analyze the development of the lexical resources repertoire considered in native and non-native speakers of Spanish in different discourse genres (narrative and expository) and modalities of production (oral and written) and (2) examine how these lexical resources relate to external evaluations of text quality in native and non-native Spanish in these communicative contexts. The study sample consists of 30 native monolingual speakers of Spanish and 66 non- native speakers of Spanish (L1 = Arabic, Korean and Chinese) distributed in three age groups and educational level: 9 years (fourth grade), 12 years (first year of secondary education) and adult university students, and in four levels of competence: initial (A1- A2), intermediate (B1-B2), advanced (C1-C2) and native. Participants were asked, on the one hand, to narrate and write a personal experience about a similar situation in which they had been involved and, on the other, to also discuss orally and in writing the type of problems that they were shown in the video. In this way, each participant produced a total of four texts: two narratives (oral and written) and two expository (oral and written) about conflict situations in the school. Furthermore, as an external measure of text quality, we obtained analytical and holistic evaluations of the 384 resulting texts by expert judges, that is, experienced teachers of each educational level. The judges were randomly assigned to two assessment conditions: normalized condition and modified condition. In relation to our first goal, we analyzed the use of the set of lexical resources in Spanish L1 and L2 according to age, the level of proficiency of the speakers, the discourse genre and the modality of production. The results show us a complex evolutionary panorama in that for each resource different development patterns are observed. In relation to our second goal, the relationship between the use of the lexical resources and the external evaluations of text quality were analyzed. Our results indicate that the lexical characteristics of the texts allow to explain for themselves, that is, regardless of grammatical and/or discursive aspects, variations in text quality in L2. In the case of native speakers, however, despite strong (but not significant) correlations between the use of these resources and text quality assessments, the lexical resources analyzed fail to explain the variations in the scores.

Novelas, cuentos y poemas adensan metáforas; sin embargo, las metáforas no son novelerías o estrategias cuentísticas ni pueden considerarse patrimonio de la literatura o de la poesía. Antes al contrario, la lengua común y cotidiana está constelada de metáforas: se esquivan piedras, cuchillos, balas, también preguntas insidiosas; uno defiende aquello que ampara, a saber: una plaza estratégica o un punto de vista. Ante una realidad nueva, el ser humano metaforiza. La metáfora cubre con una pátina de familiaridad para aclarar la visión de las realidades insólitas. En ese sentido, la metáfora constituye una estrategia epistemológica universal. Para conocer un objeto hay que acercarlo, verlo, dotarlo de nombre. Nombrar los objetos de la realidad no sería posible sin metáforas. La denominación del objeto es clave: los objetos sin nombre no se ven y son informes, lo cual limita su pensabilidad. Muchas metáforas pasan desapercibidas. Un hispanohablante nativo tomará al pie de la letra que una carpa se haya plantado en un lugar, porque las carpas, las tiendas de campaña, las jaimas, etcétera, naturalmente, se plantan. Palabras como pez globo, rompecabezas y 豆腐心 [corazón de tofu] ‘bondadoso’ levantarán sospechas de metáfora; menos sospechosas parecen (pese a haber metáfora en ellas) celos, recordar o 火箭. Esta tesis doctoral trata el papel de la metáfora en la lexicogénesis de las lenguas española y china, así como su función en los procesos de gramaticalización, lexicalización y sinogramización del significado. «Cada palabra o grupo de palabras es una metáfora» (Paz 1972: 34). Más incluso: «casi no hallamos en la historia del hombre otra cosa que metáforas» (Ortega y Gasset 1966a: 453-454).
The opening of One Hundred Years of Solitude is abundant in metaphors: river stones transfigured into prehistoric eggs, Melquiades’ sparrow hands, the gypsy tent planted on the outskirts of the village. However, metaphors not only exist in literature: they have made language their home and it subsists on them. The common, everyday language is brimming with metaphors: stones, knives, and bullets are avoided, and so are insidious questions; one defends that which gives shelter, for example, a strategic square or a point of view. Of course, some metaphors have nested so deep into the language that they are barely noticed. Probably a native Spanish speaker takes it literally when a tent is planted in a place, because tents, camps, and bunks really are planted. Before a new reality, the human being metaphorize. The novelty is covered with a varnish of familiarity that dissipates the disturbing vision of the unusual. In this sense, the metaphor is a universal epistemological strategy. However, though every human being is a metaphorizer, each culture favors some cognitive domains, to the detriment of other cognitive domains that may be preferred by a different culture. They integrate a conceptual system of language, from which they derive their metaphors, such selected cognitive domains. Among culturally and linguistically distant languages such as Spanish and Mandarin, conceptual differences seem evident and worthy of study. For teachers of Spanish as a Foreign Language to Chinese speaking students, knowing the conceptual differences and similarities between the language that he teaches and the native language of his students may turn out useful.

This thesis is focused on the Czech prestigious hispanist Josef Dubský and his linguistic labour. It is divided into five chapters. The first chapter outlines the history of Spanish studies in the Czech Republic. The second chapter speaks about life of Josef Dubský. Next three chapters are dedicated to Dubský´s labour in the field of grammar, lexicology and semantics and stylistics. There are presented studies and articles published by Dubský in different Czech and international periodicals and also his Spanish textbooks and Czech-Spanish (Spanish-Czech) dictionaries. In the annex there is enclosed the summery of Dubsky´s publications including the front pages of the textbooks and dictionaries we used in this work.

Conversionary efforts in the New World mirrored attitudes and practices in the Old. Christendom remained as much a project in the New as in the Old, and thus religious differences remained as problematic in the Americas as they did in Europe. Images of military conflict—combat, battle, and victory—language familiar on the Continent—infused the outlook of early modern Catholic missionaries, whereas Spanish and French missionaries in the New World often had the arm of the state to protect them and, all too often, to coerce the natives. This chapter selectively examines initial missionary efforts in a variety of locations—Spanish missionary outreach in the Caribbean, Peru, and Alta California and French missions in North America. The depth of Native American conversions was as varied as the methods used to produce them. On a superficial level, conversion meant a transfer of loyalty or allegiance, often without a full knowledge of what that transfer entailed. Or, with defeat, conversion might represent a conscious acknowledgment of the more powerful Christian God over weaker traditional deities.

This essay aims at exploring and contextualising a phenomenon of Spanish Lexicology, the study of which remains incomprehensive: japonesismos, or terms borrowed from the Japanese language. The scope of this text will limit itself to terminology related to Martial Arts & Sports and Culinary Arts & Food. First, a compilation of Japanese loanwords that can be found in current Spanish (approaching the language from a panhispanic perspective) will be elaborated. In addition, the specific methodology employed to identify and compile said inventory of loanwords will be presented. In continuation, the consideration of relevant historical data regarding the contextualisation of these loanwords will be realized in order to provide an exhaustive historical analysis of 34 lexical items, comprised of 18 words related to Martial Arts & Sports and 16 words related to Culinary Arts & Food. Finally, maintaining a wider perspective of the historical study of Japanese loanwords, the conclusions derived from each term will organized and divided into the previously elaborated categories.

This chapter explores, for the first time, culturomics in Israeli. Culturomics is a trans-disciplinary form of computational lexicology that studies human behaviour, language, and cultural and historical trends through the quantitative analysis of texts. My term tarbutomics is based on תרבות‎ tarbút, Israeli for ‘culture’, thus calquing (loan-translating) the term culturomics. Tarbutomics ought to be a new tool for evaluating the linguistic, cultural, and social trends occurring throughout a historical period. To see how Hebrew lexis has changed from 1500 until 2009, the chapter analyses data from Google Books. To do this, the Google Books database was downloaded. Tarbutomics takes the raw Hebrew 1-gram data and puts it in a relational database, allowing us to ask more sophisticated questions. It can shed light on questions about Israeli culture, Hebrew language reclamation, and about the development of the Israeli language throughout the twentieth century.

Abstract No actual lute music from Britain survives before the earliest sixteenth-century tablatures. We must rely on literary and iconographical evidence to build a picture of lute practice in the medieval period. This chapter surveys what material there is. Conclusions are few and questions are many. There is no trace of the lute or gittern in Britain before 1285. Certainly these instruments were largely unknown, or at best insignificant, before the fourteenth century. They may have been introduced directly from Spain: the medieval English court had good contacts with those of Spain, and Plantagenet kings often intermarried with the northern Spanish to bolster themselves against the French. Richard I, the son of Henry II and Eleanor of Aquitaine, married Berengaria, daughter of Sancho VI of Navarre, in u91. Another of Henry II’s offspring, his daughter Eleanor, married Alfonso VIII of Castile in 1169. Perhaps more important was the unusually happy marriage of Edward I to Eleanor, sister of Alfonso X of Castile in 1254. This Alfonso was the king for whom the Cantigas manuscripts were compiled. Indeed it may be more than coincidence that it was during Edward’s reign that the lute is first mentioned in England. Alternatively, the instrument may have been introduced via France. The terms ‘leiit’ or ‘leiiz’ appear in the French language around 1270.2 Many of the English aristocracy had extensive lands and connections in France, and many did not begin to speak English as their first language or think of themselves as primarily English until the thirteenth century. French was the language at court until the late fourteenth century.