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Journal articles on the topic 'Somatotropin Metabolism'

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Published: 10 December 2022

Last updated: 28 January 2023

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1

Bulgakova, S. V., E. V. Treneva, N. O. Zakharova, and S. G. Gorelik. "AGING AND GROWTH HORMONE: ASSUMPTIONS AND FACTS (LITERATURE REVIEW)." Russian Clinical Laboratory Diagnostics 64, no. 12 (December 15, 2019): 708–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.18821/0869-2084-2019-64-12-708-715.

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Growth hormone is a powerful metabolic hormone with pleiotropic effects, which is positioned as a “source of youth”. Somatotropin has various functions: stimulation of bone growth, regulation of carbohydrate, protein, lipid metabolism, metabolic function of the liver and energy balance. At the cellular level, somatotropic hormone regulates cell growth, differentiation, apoptosis, and cytoskeleton reorganization. The review article presents the results of topical studies that reflect the relationship of growth hormone deficiency or resistance to it with the development of aging and diseases associated with age, as well as with an increase in life expectancy.

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2

Sterle, JA, C. Boyd, JT Peacock, AT Koenigsfeld, WR Lamberson, DE Gerrard, and MC Lucy. "Insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-I, IGF-II, IGF-binding protein-2 and pregnancy-associated glycoprotein mRNA in pigs with somatotropin-enhanced fetal growth." Journal of Endocrinology 159, no. 3 (December 1, 1998): 441–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1677/joe.0.1590441.

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Fetal growth is increased when pregnant gilts are treated with recombinant porcine somatotropin. The mechanism for increased fetal growth was examined by measuring the expression of IGF-I and -II and IGF-binding protein-2 (IGFBP-2) mRNA in liver and reproductive tissues of somatotropin- and saline-treated pregnant gilts. Twenty-four pregnant gilts received daily injections of either saline (control; n=12) or 5 mg recombinant porcine somatotropin (n=12) from day 30 to day 43 of gestation. Gilts were slaughtered on day 44 of gestation and liver, ovary, placenta, placental uterus (uterus with adjacent placental tissue) and non-placental uterus (region of the necrotic tip) were collected. The mRNAs for somatotropin receptor, IGFs -I and -II, IGFBP-2 and pregnancy-associated glycoprotein (a marker of trophoblast tissue) were analyzed by Northern blotting or ribonuclease protection assay. Gilts treated with somatotropin had heavier fetuses and placentas. The concentration of mRNA for the components of the IGF system was tissue-dependent. The uterine IGF-I mRNA concentration was greater in non-placental than in placental uterus. The greatest IGF-II mRNA concentration was observed in placenta, and adjacent uterine tissue expressed IGFBP-2 mRNA intensely. In non-placental uterus, IGFBP-2 mRNA was nearly undetectable. Somatotropin-dependent regulation of IGF-I was only observed in liver, where the greatest somatotropin receptor mRNA concentration was found. In the pregnant uterus, somatotropin failed to change the concentration of IGF or IGFBP-2 mRNA. Pregnancy-associated glycoprotein mRNA concentration was decreased by somatotropin. In summary, increased fetal growth in somatotropin-treated pregnant pigs was not associated with changes in IGF or IGFBP-2 mRNA concentration in reproductive tissues. Other mechanisms, therefore, lead to enhanced fetal growth in somatotropin-treated pregnant pigs.

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3

Roberts, T. J., M. J. Azain, G. J. Hausman, and R. J. Martin. "Interaction of insulin and somatotropin on body weight gain, feed intake, and body composition in rats." American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism 267, no. 2 (August 1, 1994): E293—E299. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpendo.1994.267.2.e293.

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This study investigated the interaction of insulin and somatotropin on body weight gain and feed conversion in rats. Female rats (initial wt 215 g) were assigned to one of the following four treatments for a 2-wk period: 1) control; 2) 40 U protamine zinc insulin.kg-1.day-1; 3) 2 mg/day somatotropin; 4) insulin + somatotropin. Relative to the control group (gain, 1.4 g/day; intake, 16.7 g/day) insulin stimulated the rate of gain (250%), feed intake (73%), and fat pad weight (215%). Insulin caused a 270% increase in carcass fat and a 30% increase in carcass protein. Somatotropin also increased gain (178%) but did not have a significant effect on intake or fat pad weight. Somatotropin increased carcass protein 28% but had no effect on carcass fat. The greatest stimulation of body weight gain (392%) was observed with the insulin plus somatotropin combination treatment, indicating an additive effect. There were also additive effects on protein accretion and organ weights. However, feed intake and carcass fat in the combination group were intermediate between that of the control and insulin alone groups, indicating that somatotropin attenuated the ability of insulin to stimulate these parameters. These results indicate that certain effects of insulin and somatotropin, such as the promotion of lean tissue accretion, are additive, whereas other effects, such as those associated with lipid metabolism, oppose each other.

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4

Wolverton, C. K., M. J. Azain, J. Y. Duffy, M. E. White, and T. G. Ramsay. "Influence of somatotropin on lipid metabolism and IGF gene expression in porcine adipose tissue." American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism 263, no. 4 (October 1, 1992): E637—E645. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpendo.1992.263.4.e637.

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The present study was designed to evaluate the effects of porcine somatotropin (pST) treatment (2 mg/day) and dietary fat (10%) separately and in combination on the metabolic activity of subcutaneous adipose tissue, serum adipogenic activity, and insulin-like growth factor (IGF) gene expression within adipose tissue from growing 5- to 6-mo-old barrows. This study attempted to determine how these factors might contribute to the reported changes in adiposity of treated swine. Biopsies of adipose tissue were collected after 28 days of treatment following anesthesia with thiopental sodium (15 mg/kg iv). Somatotropin inhibited in vitro glucose oxidation and lipogenesis in adipose tissue but did not affect fatty acid esterification. Adipogenic activity of serum was not altered by pST treatment. Subcutaneous adipose tissue contained mRNA for IGF-I and -II, and pST administration increased the abundance of IGF-I mRNA. Dietary fat had no effect on these variables. Thus somatotropin reduces glucose metabolism in porcine subcutaneous adipose tissue. Preadipocyte proliferation and differentiation are not affected by somatotropin through its actions on systemic factors. Dietary fat provides no additional benefit in combination with pST administration to affect accretion of adipose tissue in growing swine.

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5

Caperna, Thomas J., Debra Gavelek, and Jafar Vossoughi. "Somatotropin Alters Collagen Metabolism in Growing Pigs." Journal of Nutrition 124, no. 6 (June 1, 1994): 770–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jn/124.6.770.

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6

Vernon, Richard G., Anne Faulkner, Eric Finley, Paul W. Watt, and Victor A. Zammit. "Effects of prolonged treatment of lactating goats with bovine somatotropin on aspects of adipose tissue and liver metabolism." Journal of Dairy Research 62, no. 2 (May 1995): 237–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022029900030946.

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SUMMARYThe effects of prolonged (22 weeks) treatment of lactating goats with bovine somatotropin on the metabolism of adipose tissue and liver has been investigated. Somatotropin treatment resulted in smaller adipocytes, decreased rate of fatty acid synthesis and decreased total acetyl-CoA carboxylase activity of adipocytes, but with no change in the proportion of this enzyme in the active state. The rate of acylglycerol glycerol synthesis from glucose of adipocytes tended to decrease as did total glucose utilization by the tissue. Glucose conversion to lactate was unchanged by somatotropin treatment but glucose conversion to other products was decreased. Maximum response of adipose tissue to insulin was unchanged but the sensitivity to insulin decreased on somatotropin treatment. Treatment with somatotropin had no effect on basal lipolysis and decreased maximum response to the β-agonist isoproterenol, but this probably reflects the rate of isoproterenol-stimulated lipolysis varying with cell volume in adipocytes. No apparent change in response either to α2-adrenergic agonists or to adenosine was apparent. The number of β-adrenergic receptors was unchanged in adipocyte membranes but the number of α2-adrenergic receptors increased. The rate of hepatic gluconeogenesis in vitro, the activity of key gluconeogenic enzymes and the modulation of the rate of gluconeogenesis by butyrate were unchanged except for the effect of this latter agent on gluconeogenesis from propionate. Hepatic ketogenic activity, as indicated by the activity of carnitine palmitoyl-CoA-transferase-1 and the concentrations of carnitine and acyl carnitines, was unchanged by treatment. Thus at the end of a prolonged period of treatment with somatotropin in lactating goats, lipid synthesis in adipose tissue is still decreased but no effects on liver lipid and carbohydrate metabolism were apparent.

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7

Wang, Yanxin, Susan K. Fried, Robert N. Petersen, and Patricia A. Schoknecht. "Somatotropin Regulates Adipose Tissue Metabolism in Neonatal Swine." Journal of Nutrition 129, no. 1 (January 1, 1999): 139–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jn/129.1.139.

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8

BROZOS (Χ. Ν. ΜΠΡΟΖΟΣ), C. N., and Ph SARATSIS (Φ. ΣΑΡΑΤΣΗΣ). "The effectiveness and the consequences of the use of recombinant bovine somatotropin." Journal of the Hellenic Veterinary Medical Society 48, no. 1 (January 31, 2018): 9. http://dx.doi.org/10.12681/jhvms.15788.

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Growth hormone (also known as somatotropin) plays a dominant role on the development and metabolism of mammalians. Since the early 1950's it has been known that the administration of somatotropin in milk productive animals leads to an increase in milk yield. Nevertheless, its high cost of manufacture didn't allow the massive application, until recently. Genetic engineering achieved the production of recombinant bovine somatotropin (bST) and therefore has permitted the commercial use. Numerous of publications confirm a 10-30% increase in dairy cattle milk yield after bST administration. The mechanism of action of bST involves a series of orchestrated changes in the metabolism of body tissues so that more nutrients can be used for milk synthesis. Long-term bST administration has no effects on animal welfare. The reproductive system od bST treated cows seems to be prone to disorders. These disorders have been found to be insignificant. Advanced quality of management is necessary to accomplish maximum bST response in dairy cattle. BST is homologous to that of sheep and therefore can be successfully used in ewes as well. Due to the large number of dairy ewes in Greece, this is of great importance to Greek animal industry.

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9

Acosta, Diego Andres Velasco, Luiz Francisco Machado Pfeifer, Eduardo Schmitt, Augusto Schneider, Pedro Augusto Silva Silveira, Carolina Bespalhok Jacometo, Cassio Cassal Brauner, Viviane Rohrig Rabassa, Marcio Nunes Corrêa, and Francisco A. B. Del Pino. "Effect of prepartum somatotropin injection in late pregnant Holstein heifers with high body condition score on metabolic parameters, resumption of ovulation and milk production." Canadian Journal of Animal Science 93, no. 2 (June 2013): 287–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.4141/cjas2012-118.

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Acosta, D. A. V., Pfeifer, L. F. M., Schmitt, E., Schneider, A., Silveira, P. A. S., Jacometo, C. B., Brauner, C. C., Rabassa, V. R., Corrêa, M. N. and Del Pino, F. A. B. 2013. Effect of prepartum somatotropin injection in late pregnant Holstein heifers with high body condition score on metabolic parameters, resumption of ovulation and milk production. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 93: 287–292. In the early post-partum period of dairy cows the duration and intensity of negative energy balance, the level of body condition score (BCS) loss and the milk yield are strongly associated with the timing of the first ovulation. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of pre-partum injections of somatotropin in dairy heifers with high BCS on the metabolism, resumption of ovarian activity and milk production. Holstein heifers (n=20) with high BCS, were divided randomly into two groups: somatotropin (n=10), which received two doses of somatotropin (500 mg) at −28 and −14 d from calving and Control (n=10), which received placebo. Blood samples were collected for evaluation of β-hydroxybutyrate (BHBA) and non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA) concentrations. Follicular development was also monitored via ultrasound. Somatotropin had no effect on plasma NEFA (P=0.35 and P=0.46) or BHBA (P=0.20 and P=0.44,) concentrations in the pre-partum and post-partum period, respectively. Milk production was not different between control (17.53±0.66 kg cow−1 d−1) and somatotropin groups (16.13±0.67 kg cow−1 d−1) (P=0.14). Pre-partum somatotropin administration did not affect (P=0.28) the time of the first post-partum ovulation. The proportion of cows ovulating the first post-partum follicular wave was not different between groups (P=0.49). In conclusion, pre-partum somatotropin treatment in dairy heifers with high body condition score seems not to have any effect on markers of energy balance, milk production or development of the first follicular wave in the early post-partum period.

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10

Lee, K. C., M. J. Azain, D. B. Hausman, and T. G. Ramsay. "Somatotropin and adipose tissue metabolism: substrate and temporal effects." Journal of Animal Science 78, no. 5 (2000): 1236. http://dx.doi.org/10.2527/2000.7851236x.

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11

Marty, Bruno J., and Elliot Block. "Effects of dietary fat supplementation and recombinant bovine somatotropin on milk production, nutritional status and lipid metabolism of dairy cows." Canadian Journal of Animal Science 72, no. 3 (September 1, 1992): 633–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.4141/cjas92-075.

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Sixty dairy cows were used to evaluate the effect on performance, metabolism and liver function of adding dietary fat during early lactation (weeks 3–15 postpartum) and injecting recombinant bovine somatotropin (rbST) over the entire lactation. Fat was added to an 18% protein concentrate that was offered in a 1:1 ratio of haylage:concentrate and fed as a total mixed ration. Corn in the control (CRT) concentrate was exchanged for either 2.5% animal fat (AFA), 2.5% Megalac™ calcium salts of fatty acids (CSFA) (ML1), 2.5% Purina CSFA (RP1) or 5% Purina CSFA (RP2). RbST treatment consisted of a subcutaneous injection of either a placebo, 10.3 mg rbST daily or 350 mg rbST every 14 d. Fat-corrected milk production was higher (P < 0.05) in RP2-fed cows than CTR-fed cows and higher for cows injected with rbST daily than in those injected biweekly. Plasma-urea nitrogen and insulin concentrations were lower in RP2-fed cows than in CTR-fed cows and were also lower in rbST-injected cows than in placebo-injected cows (P < 0.05). Plasma triglyceride (TG) and cholesterol concentrations, but not non-esterified fatty acid and phospholipid concentrations, were higher (P < 0.05) in RP2-fed cows than in CTR-fed cows. CSFA supplementation increased C16:0 of the plasma TG fraction and decreased that of C18:0. Dietary fat supplementation did not affect hepatic lipid composition, but liver-TG concentration increased (P < 0.05) with rbST injections. Dietary fat supplementation together with somatotropin injections did not change production parameters from those found with fat supplementation or somatotropin alone. Key words: Dietary fat, dairy cows, bovine somatotropin, lipids

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12

Ronge, H., J. Blum, C. Clement, F. Jans, H. Leuenberger, and H. Binder. "Somatomedin C in dairy cows related to energy and protein supply and to milk production." Animal Science 47, no. 2 (October 1988): 165–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s000335610000324x.

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ABSTRACTSomatomedin C and other hormones, as well as blood metabolites, were measured during the dry period and during lactation in dairy cows, given different amounts of energy and protein, to study metabolic and endocrine adaptations. Somatomedin C, specifically measured by radioimmunoassay after separation from its binding protein, did not exhibit typical diurnal variations, in contrast to somatotropin and insulin, which increased particularly after concentrate intake. Somatomedin C markedly decreased at parturition and reached lowest values around the peak of lactation, while levels of somatotropin, nonesterified fatty acids and ketone bodies were high and those of glucose, insulin, thyroxine and triiodothyronine were low. Thereafter somatomedin C values slowly increased up to the 12th week of lactation and remained elevated. Low energy and protein balances were characterized by particularly low somatomedin C concentrations. An additional protein deficit at peak lactation, when cows were already provided with low amounts of energy, did not further decrease somatomedin C levels. However, when high amounts of energy were given in the form of starch or crystalline fat, somatomedin C increased. Overall, there was a positive correlation of somatomedin C primarily with energy, but also with protein balances and a negative correlation with milk yield. Conversely, somatotropin increased markedly after parturition and was positively correlated with milk production and negatively with protein and energy balances. Thus, somatomedin C levels were paradoxically low in the presence of high circulating somatotropin. Insulin most closely paralleled somatomedin C levels. Therefore the anabolic state of metabolism at the end of pregnancy was characterized by high somatomedin C and insulin and relatively low somatotropin, whereas the catabolic state of early lactation was characterized by high somatotropin, low somatomedin C, insulin and thyroid hormones.

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13

Pankova, S. S., Т. I. Buraya, and N. Р. Goncharov. "Use of dexamethasone for the differential diagnosis of dwarfism." Problems of Endocrinology 41, no. 1 (February 15, 1995): 12–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.14341/probl11330.

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The capacity of somatotrophs to respond with secretion of growth hormones to dexamethasone administration was studied in children with different forms of dwarfism. In cases of growth delay caused by deficiency of growth hormone the content of STH during dexamethasone test was at the basal level. In the rest cases blood plasma (serum) STH levels increased at the 180th min after dexamethasone administration. A 6 to 50-fold increase of blood STH level was observed in the presence of intact somatotropic function of the hypophysis. Dexamethasone is recommended for the assessment, of the function of somatotrophic state in practical medicine.

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14

Smith, L. A., D. L. Thompson, D. D. French, and B. S. Leise. "Effects of recombinant equine somatotropin on wound healing, carbohydrate and lipid metabolism, and endogenous somatotropin responses to secretagogues in geldings." Journal of Animal Science 77, no. 7 (1999): 1815. http://dx.doi.org/10.2527/1999.7771815x.

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15

Davenport, G. M., J. A. Boling, and K. K. Schillo. "Nitrogen metabolism and somatotropin secretion in beef heifers receiving abomasal arginine infusions." Journal of Animal Science 68, no. 6 (1990): 1683. http://dx.doi.org/10.2527/1990.6861683x.

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16

Rabassa, Viviane Rohrig, Elizabeth Schwegler, Eduardo Schmitt, Augusto Schneider, Camila Pizoni, Cláudia Demarco, Vinícius Farias Campos, et al. "Effect of porcine somatotropin on metabolism and testicular characteristics of prepubertal pigs." Brazilian Journal of Veterinary Research and Animal Science 51, no. 1 (August 9, 2014): 60. http://dx.doi.org/10.11606/issn.2318-3659.v51i1p60-67.

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17

Wilson, Fiona A., Renán A. Orellana, Agus Suryawan, Hanh V. Nguyen, Asumthia S. Jeyapalan, Jason Frank, and Teresa A. Davis. "Stimulation of muscle protein synthesis by somatotropin in pigs is independent of the somatotropin-induced increase in circulating insulin." American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism 295, no. 1 (July 2008): E187—E194. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpendo.90253.2008.

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Chronic treatment of growing pigs with porcine somatotropin (pST) promotes protein synthesis and doubles postprandial levels of insulin, a hormone that stimulates translation initiation. This study aimed to determine whether the pST-induced increase in skeletal muscle protein synthesis was mediated through an insulin-induced stimulation of translation initiation. After 7–10 days of pST (150 μg·kg−1·day−1) or control saline treatment, pancreatic glucose-amino acid clamps were performed in overnight-fasted pigs to reproduce 1) fasted (5 μU/ml), 2) fed control (25 μU/ml), and 3) fed pST-treated (50 μU/ml) insulin levels while glucose and amino acids were maintained at baseline fasting levels. Fractional protein synthesis rates and indexes of translation initiation were examined in skeletal muscle. Effectiveness of pST treatment was confirmed by reduced urea nitrogen and elevated insulin-like growth factor I levels in plasma. Skeletal muscle protein synthesis was independently increased by both insulin and pST. Insulin increased the phosphorylation of protein kinase B and the downstream effectors of the mammalian target of rapamycin, ribosomal protein S6 kinase, and eukaryotic initiation factor (eIF)4E-binding protein-1 (4E-BP1). Furthermore, insulin reduced inactive 4E-BP1·eIF4E complex association and increased active eIF4E·eIF4G complex formation, indicating enhanced eIF4F complex assembly. However, pST treatment did not alter translation initiation factor activation. We conclude that the pST-induced stimulation of skeletal muscle protein synthesis in growing pigs is independent of the insulin-associated activation of translation initiation.

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Bush, Jill A., Douglas G. Burrin, Agus Suryawan, Pamela M. J. O'Connor, Hanh V. Nguyen, Peter J. Reeds, Norman C. Steele, Johannes B. Van Goudoever, and Teresa A. Davis. "Somatotropin-induced protein anabolism in hindquarters and portal-drained viscera of growing pigs." American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism 284, no. 2 (February 1, 2003): E302—E312. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpendo.00309.2002.

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To differentiate the effect of somatotropin (ST) treatment on protein metabolism in the hindquarter (HQ) and portal-drained viscera (PDV), growing swine ( n = 20) treated with ST (0 or 150 μg · kg−1 · day−1) for 7 days were infused intravenously with NaH13CO3 and [2H5]phenylalanine and enterally with [1-13C]phenylalanine while in the fed state. Arterial, portal venous, and vena cava whole blood samples, breath samples, and blood flow measurements were obtained for determination of tissue and whole body phenylalanine kinetics under steady-state conditions. In the fed state, ST treatment decreased whole body phenylalanine flux, oxidation, and protein degradation without altering protein synthesis, resulting in an improvement in whole body net protein balance. Blood flow to the HQ (+80%), but not to the PDV, was increased with ST treatment. In the HQ and PDV, ST increased phenylalanine uptake (+44 and +23%, respectively) and protein synthesis (+43 and +41%, respectively), with no effect on protein degradation. In ST-treated and control pigs, phenylalanine was oxidized in the PDV (34–43% of enteral and arterial sources) but not the HQ. In both treatment groups, dietary (40%) rather than arterial (10%) extraction of phenylalanine predominated in gut amino acid metabolism, whereas localized blood flow influenced HQ amino acid metabolism. The results indicate that ST increases protein anabolism in young, growing swine by increasing protein synthesis in the HQ and PDV, with no effect on protein degradation. Differing results between the whole body and the HQ and PDV suggest that the effect of ST treatment on protein metabolism is tissue specific.

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19

Dunshea, F. R., D. M. Harris, D. E. Bauman, R. D. Boyd, and A. W. Bell. "Effect of somatotropin on nonesterified fatty acid and glycerol metabolism in growing pigs2." Journal of Animal Science 70, no. 1 (January 1, 1992): 132–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.2527/1992.701132x.

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20

Gusakova, E. A., and I. V. Gorodetskaya. "Influence of glucocorticoid hormones on the thyroid gland function." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of Belarus, Medical series 18, no. 1 (February 23, 2021): 117–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.29235/1814-6023-2021-18-1-117-126.

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The injection of exogenous analogues of glucocorticoid hormones (cortisone, hydrocortisone, corticosterone, dexamethasone, betamethasone, etc.) leads to a change in thyroid function at all levels (biosynthesis and secretion of hormones by the thyroid gland, the transport, interaction with receptors in target organs, biological action, their metabolism and excretion). Glucocorticoid hormones change regulationof the thyroid function: transhypophysially (glucocorticoids block the secretion of thyroliberin, thyroid stimulating hormone, corticotropin releasing hormone, somatoliberin and the production of somatotropin under the influence of the last one) and parahypophysially (glucocorticoids stimulate formation of insulin in β-cells of the pancreas).

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21

Squires, E. J., L. G. Young, R. R. Hacker, and O. Adeola. "The role of growth hormones, ß-adrenergic agents and intact males in pork production: A review." Canadian Journal of Animal Science 73, no. 1 (March 1, 1993): 1–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.4141/cjas93-001.

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In this review, the physiological actions and efficacy of porcine somatotropin (PST) and β-adrenergic agonists as repartitioning agents and the use of intact males to improve the production efficiency of pork are discussed. The strengths and weaknesses of these methods are highlighted to provide insight into the potential benefits and problems from their commercial applications. The repartitioning agents alter nutrient metabolism in pigs, producing dramatic increases in lean- and decreases in adipose-tissue growth. The PST-induced decrease in adipose-tissue growth results from the reduction in rates of lipogenesis, glucose oxidation and insulin-stimulated glucose metabolism. In general, β-adrenergic agonists reduce the rate of lipogenesis through a reduction in the number of insulin receptors and in the binding of insulin to adipocytes. β-adrenergic agonists also stimulate synthesis of myofibrillar protein while depressing its degradation. The natural anabolic androgens produced in the testes account for the increased lean and decreased adipose tissue of intact males compared with castrates. The effects of androgens are mediated by their interaction with specific receptors in the target tissues. The main limitation to the use of intact male pigs is the occasional presence of objectionable boar taint in the meat. The causes of and methods for measuring boar taint are discussed in this review. The implementation of effective measures for measuring and controlling taint in pork will allow the pork industry to take advantage of the biological effects of the naturally produced androgens in intact males. Key words: Pigs, production efficiency, somatotropin, β-adrenergic agonists, intact males, review

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22

Villanueva, D., S. A. Olmos-Hern, D. Mota-Rojas, M. Gonzalez-L, M. E. Trujillo-O, B. Acosta, D. L. Reyes, R. Ramirez, and Ma Alonso-Spi. "Biochemical Effects of Recombinant Porcine Somatotropin on Pig Fetal Growth and Metabolism: A Review." American Journal of Biochemistry and Biotechnology 2, no. 4 (April 1, 2006): 129–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.3844/ajbbsp.2006.129.137.

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23

Davenport, G. M., J. A. Boling, K. K. Schillo, and D. K. Aaron. "Nitrogen metabolism and somatotropin secretion in lambs receiving arginine and ornithine via abomasal infusion." Journal of Animal Science 68, no. 1 (1990): 222. http://dx.doi.org/10.2527/1990.681222x.

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24

Early, R. J., B. W. McBride, and R. O. Ball. "Growth and metabolism in somatotropin-treated steers: I. Growth, serum chemistry and carcass weights." Journal of Animal Science 68, no. 12 (December 1, 1990): 4134–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.2527/1990.68124134x.

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25

Early, R. J., B. W. McBride, and R. O. Ball. "Growth and metabolism in somatotropin-treated steers: III. Protein synthesis and tissue energy expenditures." Journal of Animal Science 68, no. 12 (December 1, 1990): 4153–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.2527/1990.68124153x.

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26

Rabassa, V. R., J. O. Feijó, D. Perazzoli, C. M. Pereira, A. L. P. Schild, T. Lucia Júnior, C. D. Corcini, et al. "Effect of porcine somatotropin on metabolism, testicular size and sperm characteristics in young boars." Arquivo Brasileiro de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia 70, no. 1 (January 2018): 73–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1678-4162-9481.

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ABSTRACT The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of pST injections on metabolism, testicular size, and sperm characteristics in young boars. Sixty 22-day old piglets were divided into two groups: pST (n=30) and Control (n=30). The pST group was submitted to pST injections (90µg/kg body weight) every three days up to 330 days of age. Blood collections were performed weekly. Testicular weight was measures at 22, 82, 142, 202 and 365 days of age. Libido and fresh semen characteristics were evaluated between 150 and 210 days of age. Semen characteristics were also evaluated during a 72h storage period (15ºC). Testosterone, albumin, and phosphorus blood concentrations were higher in the pST group (P<0.05). The pST group had a higher IGF-I concentration in seminal plasma (P=0.05) and higher testicular weight (P<0.001) compared to the Control group. The pST group had higher ejaculate volume (P<0.001), total sperm count (P=0.047) and number of inseminating doses/ejaculate (P=0.047). During the 72h storage period, the pST group had a lower number of morphological alterations (P<0.001) compared to the Control group. In sum, pST injection in young boars increased testosterone concentration, testicular size, and sperm quality.

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27

Knapp, J. R., H. C. Freetly, B. L. Reis, C. C. Calvert, and R. L. Baldwin. "Effects of Somatotropin and Substrates on Patterns of Liver Metabolism in Lactating Dairy Cattle,." Journal of Dairy Science 75, no. 4 (April 1992): 1025–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.3168/jds.s0022-0302(92)77846-1.

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28

Vann, Rhonda C., Hanh V. Nguyen, Peter J. Reeds, Norman C. Steele, Daniel R. Deaver, and Teresa A. Davis. "Somatotropin increases protein balance independent of insulin's effects on protein metabolism in growing pigs." American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism 279, no. 1 (July 1, 2000): E1—E10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpendo.2000.279.1.e1.

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Somatotropin (ST) administration enhances protein deposition and elicits profound metabolic responses, including hyperinsulinemia. To determine whether the anabolic effect of ST is due to hyperinsulinemia, pair-fed weight-matched growing swine were treated with porcine ST (150 μg · kg body wt−1 · day−1) or diluent for 7 days ( n = 6/group, ∼20 kg). Then pancreatic glucose-amino acid clamps were performed after an overnight fast. The objective was to reproduce the insulin levels of 1) fasted control and ST pigs (basal insulin, 5 μU/ml), 2) fed control pigs (low insulin, 20 μU/ml), and 3) fed ST pigs (high insulin, 50 μU/ml). Amino acid and glucose disposal rates were determined from the infusion rates necessary to maintain preclamp blood levels of these substrates. Whole body nonoxidative leucine disposal (NOLD), leucine appearance (Ra), and leucine oxidation were determined with primed, continuous infusions of [13C]leucine and [14C]bicarbonate. ST treatment was associated with higher NOLD and protein balance and lower leucine oxidation and amino acid and glucose disposals. Insulin lowered Ra and increased leucine oxidation, protein balance, and amino acid and glucose disposals. These effects of insulin were suppressed by ST treatment; however, the protein balance remained higher in ST pigs. The results show that ST treatment inhibits insulin's effects on protein metabolism and indicate that the stimulation of protein deposition by ST treatment is not mediated by insulin. Comparison of the protein metabolic responses to ST treatment during the basal fasting period with those in the fully fed state from a previous study suggests that the mechanism by which ST treatment enhances protein deposition is influenced by feeding status.

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29

Vallimont, J. E., G. A. Varga, A. Arieli, T. W. Cassidy, and K. A. Cummins. "Effects of Prepartum Somatotropin and Monensin on Metabolism and Production of Periparturient Holstein Dairy Cows." Journal of Dairy Science 84, no. 12 (December 2001): 2607–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.3168/jds.s0022-0302(01)74715-7.

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30

Glenn, K. C., J. J. Shieh, and D. M. Laird. "Characterization of 3T3-L1 storage lipid metabolism: effect of somatotropin and insulin on specific pathways." Endocrinology 131, no. 3 (September 1992): 1115–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/endo.131.3.1505455.

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31

Morbeck, D. E., J. H. Britt, and B. T. McDaniel. "Relationships Among Milk Yield, Metabolism, and Reproductive Performance of Primiparous Holstein Cows Treated with Somatotropin." Journal of Dairy Science 74, no. 7 (July 1991): 2153–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.3168/jds.s0022-0302(91)78388-4.

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32

Liesman, J. S., J. P. Mcnamara, A. V. Capuco, M. Binelli, W. K. Vanderkooi, R. S. Emery, H. A. Tucker, and W. M. Moseley. "Comparison of Growth Hormone-Releasing Factor and Somatotropin: Lipid and Glucose Metabolism in Dairy Cows." Journal of Dairy Science 78, no. 10 (October 1995): 2159–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.3168/jds.s0022-0302(95)76843-6.

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33

He, P., F. X. Aherne, D. S. Nam, T. Nakano, A. L. Schaefer, and J. R. Thompson. "Effects of recombinant porcine somatotropin (rpST) on joint cartilage and axial bones in growing and finishing pigs." Canadian Journal of Animal Science 74, no. 2 (June 1, 1994): 257–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.4141/cjas94-036.

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Seventy-two gilts (PIC, Cambourough) weighing 20 kg were allocated to four pens, each with two electronic feeders. After a 20-d conditioning period, eight pigs (two pigs/pen) were slaughtered for initial carcass measurements. The remaining pigs in each pen, at an average liveweight of 33.0 ± 2.49 kg (mean ± SD), were randomly assigned to three treatments: daily saline injection (control), daily injection of recombinant porcine somatotropin (rpST) (100 μg kg−1 liveweight) and a treatment group in which rpST injected pigs were switched to a saline injection at approximately 63 kg liveweight (withdrawal). Eight control and eight rpST-treated pigs, two from each pen were slaughtered at an average liveweight of 62.8 ± 3.72 kg, and the remaining pigs were slaughtered at 100.3 ± 5.51 kg. Daily injection of rpST increased the average concentration of plasma somatotropin but did not increase the width of distal ulna epiphysis. Vertebrae and ribs of pigs injected with rpST from 33.0 to 100.3 kg liveweight showed a higher water content (P < 0.01), a lower ash content of moisture-free bone (P < 0.05), and lower dry matter (P < 0.01) and ash (P < 0.001) densities than those of control pigs. Withdrawal of rpST injection at 62.8 kg liveweight abolished the effect of rpST on all bone properties except for the ash density. Injection of pigs with rpST from 33.0 to 100.3 kg resulted in higher (P < 0.05) humeral condyle lesion score and decreased average concentrations of uronic acid (P < 0.05) and hydroxyproline (P < 0.005) in cartilage from both distal humeral and femoral condyles but had no significant effect on the ratio of uronic acid to hydroxyproline compared with control animals. Withdrawal of rpST treatment at 62.8 kg diminished the effect of rpST on cartilage soundness and uronic acid and hydroxyproline concentrations of the joint cartilage. The long-term use of rpST reduced chondrocyte metabolism, which may indirectly reduce compressive and tensile strength of cartilage and increase susceptibility to mechanical stress, leading to osteochondrosis. Key words: Osteochondrosis, growth rate, recombinant porcine somatotropin, bones, pigs

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34

Honda, J., Y. Manabe, R. Matsumura, S. Takeuchi, and S. Takahashi. "IGF-I regulates pro-opiomelanocortin and GH gene expression in the mouse pituitary gland." Journal of Endocrinology 178, no. 1 (July 1, 2003): 71–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1677/joe.0.1780071.

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IGF-I is expressed in somatotrophs, and IGF-I receptors are expressed in most somatotrophs and some corticotrophs in the mouse pituitary gland. Our recent study demonstrated that IGF-I stimulates the proliferation of corticotrophs in the mouse pituitary. These results suggested that somatotrophs regulate corticotrophic functions as well as somatotrophic functions by the mediation of IGF-I molecules. The present study aimed to clarify factors regulating pituitary IGF-I expression and also the roles exerted by IGF-I within the mouse anterior pituitary gland. Mouse anterior pituitary cells were isolated and cultured under serum-free conditions. GH (0.5 or 1 microg/ml), ACTH (10(-8) or 10(-7) M), GH-releasing hormone (GHRH; 10(-8) or 10(-7) M), dexamethasone (DEX; 10(-8) or 10(-7) M) and estradiol-17beta (e2; 10(-11) or 10(-9) M) were given for 24 h. IGF-I mRNA levels were measured using competitive RT-PCR, and GH and pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) mRNA levels were measured using Northern blotting analysis. GH treatment significantly increased IGF-I mRNA levels (1.5- or 2.1-fold). ACTH treatment did not alter GH and IGF-I mRNA levels. IGF-I treatment decreased GH mRNA levels (0.7- or 0.5-fold), but increased POMC mRNA levels (1.8-fold). GH treatment (4 or 8 microg/ml) for 4 days increased POMC mRNA levels. GHRH treatment increased GH mRNA levels (1.3-fold), but not IGF-I mRNA levels. DEX treatment significantly decreased IGF-I mRNA levels (0.8-fold). e2 treatment did not affect IGF-I mRNA levels. GH receptor mRNA, probably with GH-binding protein mRNA, was detected in somatotrophs, and some mammotrophs and gonadotrophs by in situ hybridization using GH receptor cDNA as a probe. These results suggested that IGF-I expression in somatotrophs is regulated by pituitary GH, and that IGF-I suppresses GH expression and stimulates POMC expression at the transcription level. Pituitary IGF-I produced in somatotrophs is probably involved in the regulation of somatotroph and corticotroph functions.

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35

van der Hoek, Joost, Steven W. J. Lamberts, and Leo J. Hofland. "Preclinical and clinical experiences with the role of somatostatin receptors in the treatment of pituitary adenomas." European Journal of Endocrinology 156, suppl_1 (April 2007): S45—S51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1530/eje.1.02350.

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The patho-physiological role of somatostatin receptor subtypes (sst) in neuro endocrine diseases has gained enhanced scientific interest in the past few years. The development of novel somatotropin-release inhibiting factor analogs, both sst-specific and universal ligands, seem promising as a tool to further increase fundamental insights in sst function. Eventually, this research should result in novel medical therapeutic opportunities in patients suffering from neuro-endocrine diseases. In the present review, the functional role of sst in all types of pituitary adenomas, based on recent preclinical and clinical studies, is being discussed.

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36

Sysoyeva, I. I., and I. I. Dedov. "Dopaminergic regulation of the hypothalamohypophyseoadrenal system in Icenko-Cushing's disease." Problems of Endocrinology 40, no. 1 (February 15, 1994): 22–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.14341/probl11290.

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Nineteen patients with Icenko-Cushing’s disease aged 13 to 18 were examined during an active stage of the disease and during a remission after proton exposure of the hypophysis. Nine normal subjects were controls. Adeno- hypophyseal tropic hormones and hydrocortisone were radioimmunoassayed before and after administration of nakom, a dopaminergic agent. ACTH, hydrocortisone, TTH, parlodel secretion were found decreased and LH increased in patients with Icenko-Cushing’s disease, and no STH increase characteristic of normal subjects was observed. During remission after proton therapy adenohvpophyseal tropic hormones and hydrocortisone secretion normalized in response to nakom. Recovery of STH secretion was observed, but not in all patients, this being confirmed by the absence of a normal somatotropin response in nakom test in 26.32 % of patients.

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37

Lough, D. S., L. D. Muller, R. S. Kensinger, L. C. Griel, and C. D. Azzara. "Effect of Exogenous Bovine Somatotropin on Mammary Lipid Metabolism and Milk Yield in Lactating Dairy Cows." Journal of Dairy Science 72, no. 6 (June 1989): 1469–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.3168/jds.s0022-0302(89)79256-0.

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38

Early, R. J., B. W. McBride, and R. O. Ball. "Growth and metabolism in somatotropin-treated steers: II. Carcass and noncarcass tissue components and chemical composition." Journal of Animal Science 68, no. 12 (December 1, 1990): 4144–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.2527/1990.68124144x.

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39

Verstegen, M. W., W. van der Hel, A. M. Henken, J. Huisman, E. Kanis, P. van der Wal, and E. J. van Weerden. "Effect of exogenous porcine somatotropin administration on nitrogen and energy metabolism in three genotypes of pigs." Journal of Animal Science 68, no. 4 (April 1, 1990): 1008–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.2527/1990.6841008x.

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Abstract Effects of exogenous administration of porcine recombinant somatotropin (rpST) on protein gain and metabolic rate were measured in three genotypes (castrated males) of pigs (Pietrain, Duroc and a crossbreed between Dutch Yorkshire and Dutch Landrace). Six pigs of each genotype were assigned at approximately 60 kg to receive pST doses of either 0 (C) or 14 mg (T) administered i.m. twice weekly over 10 wk. Pigs were housed in individual metabolism cages at a room temperature of 20 to 22 ° C and received feed at 2.6 times maintenance. Protein gain (N × 6.25) was measured over the final 6 wk of the 10-wk test period. For 2 wk in the test period (wk 2 and wk 5), six pigs of each treatment × genotype group were placed in a large respiration chamber and energy balances (in protein and fat) and metabolic rate were measured. Rate of weight gain measured over the final 6 wk of the experimental period increased by 105 g/d (13%) with rpST administration (P < .01). Daily protein gain over 6 wk was increased by 48 g/animal with application of rpST (P < .001). There was a genotype × treatment interaction (P < .01) for protein gain. Daily protein gain in Durocs with pST treatment was increased (39%) more than in crossbreds (31%). Daily fat gain was decreased by 42 g/animal (P< .001) by T. Daily heat production with rpST was increased by 12 kcal/kg.75, which is comparable to a 12% increase in the maintenance energy requirement.

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40

Eisemann, J. H., A. C. Hammond, T. S. Rumsey, and D. E. Bauman. "Nitrogen and Protein Metabolism and Metabolites in Plasma and Urine of Beef Steers Treated with Somatotropin." Journal of Animal Science 67, no. 1 (1989): 105. http://dx.doi.org/10.2527/jas1989.671105x.

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41

Dunshea, F. R., Y. R. Boisclair, D. E. Bauman, and A. W. Bell. "Effects of bovine somatotropin and insulin on whole-body and hindlimb glucose metabolism in growing steers." Journal of Animal Science 73, no. 8 (August 1, 1995): 2263–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.2527/1995.7382263x.

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42

Azain, M. J., D. B. Hausman, T. R. Kasser, and R. J. Martin. "Effect of somatotropin and feed restriction on body composition and adipose metabolism in obese Zucker rats." American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism 269, no. 1 (July 1, 1995): E137—E144. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpendo.1995.269.1.e137.

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The objective of the present study was to determine whether exogenous somatotropin (STH) administration in conjunction with feed restriction could alter the composition of gain in the obese rat. Five-week-old female lean and obese Zucker rats were assigned to the following treatments for 6 wk: ad libitum fed (AL), restricted (approximately 75% of AL lean), and restricted with STH (2 mg STH/day). Growth rate was decreased in restricted groups and was normalized to that of the AL lean group in restricted rats treated with STH. In lean rats, restriction decreased protein accretion. Restriction plus STH treatment decreased lipid accretion but increased protein accretion and body weight gain compared with the AL lean group. As expected, feed restriction reduced body size in obese rats, but carcass lipid was maintained at 44%, a level similar to that of the AL obese rats. Lipid accretion rate was decreased with restriction in obese rats and was further reduced, to a level similar to that of the lean group, in the obese rats that were restricted and treated with STH. Protein accretion was decreased in the restricted obese group but was normalized in those treated with STH to a level similar to that in the AL lean group. Basal rates of lipolysis in isolated adipocytes were not affected by STH. However, STH treatment normalized the responsiveness of cells from the obese rats to stimulation of lipolysis by isoproterenol. The results demonstrate that a combination of caloric restriction and STH was effective in normalizing body weight and composition of gain in the obese Zucker rat.

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43

Porter, TE, CE Dean, MM Piper, KL Medvedev, S. Ghavam, and J. Sandor. "Somatotroph recruitment by glucocorticoids involves induction of growth hormone gene expression and secretagogue responsiveness." Journal of Endocrinology 169, no. 3 (June 1, 2001): 499–509. http://dx.doi.org/10.1677/joe.0.1690499.

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Prior research indicates that growth hormone (GH) cell differentiation can be induced prematurely by treatment with glucocorticoids in vitro and in vivo. However, the nature of these responses has not been fully characterized. In this study, the time course of corticosterone induction of GH-secreting cells in cultures of chicken embryonic pituitary cells, responsiveness of differentiated somatotrophs to GH secretagogues, localization of somatotroph precursor cells within the pituitary gland, and the effect of corticosterone on GH gene expression were determined to better define the involvement of glucocorticoids in somatotroph recruitment during development. Anterior pituitary cells from embryonic day 12 chicken embryos were cultured in 10(-9) M corticosterone for 4 to 48 h and were then subjected to reverse haemolytic plaque assays (RHPAs) for GH. Corticosterone treatment for as short as 16 h increased the percentage of GH cells compared with the control. When corticosterone was removed after 48 h and cells were cultured for an additional 3 days in medium alone, the percentage of GH secretors decreased but remained greater than the proportion of somatotrophs among cells that were never treated with corticosterone. To determine if prematurely differentiated somatotrophs were responsive to GH secretagogues, cells were exposed to corticosterone for 48 h and then subjected to GH RHPAs in the presence or absence of GH-releasing hormone (GHRH) or thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH). Approximately half of the somatotrophs induced to differentiate with corticosterone subsequently released more GH in response to GHRH and TRH than in their absence. The somatotroph precursor cells were localized within the anterior pituitary by culturing cells from the caudal lobe and cephalic lobe of the anterior pituitary separately. Corticosterone induction of GH cells was substantially greater in cultures derived from the caudal lobe of the anterior pituitary, where somatotroph differentiation normally occurs. GH gene expression was evaluated by ribonuclease protection assay and by in situ hybridization. Corticosterone increased GH mRNA in cultured cells by greater than fourfold. Moreover, corticosterone-induced somatotroph differentiation involved GH gene expression in cells not expressing GH mRNA previously, and the extent of somatotroph differentiation was augmented by treatment with GHRH in combination with corticosterone. We conclude that corticosterone increases the number of GH-secreting cells within 16 h, increases GH gene expression in cells formerly not expressing this gene, confers somatotroph sensitivity to GHRH and TRH, and induces GH production in a precursor population found primarily in the caudal lobe of the anterior pituitary, a site consistent with GH localization in adults. These findings support the hypothesis that glucocorticoids function to induce the final stages in the differentiation of fully functional somatotrophs from cells previously committed to this lineage.

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44

Khizhnyak, Oksana, Myroslava Mikityuk, and T. N. Sulima. "PREDICTORS OF MYOCARDIAL REMODELING IN PATIENTS WITH ACROMEGALIA." Problems of Endocrine Pathology 38, no. 4 (December 29, 2011): 33–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.21856/j-pep.2011.4.05.

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The role of a number of clinical and laboratory indicators as possible predictors is analyzed type of myocardial remodeling in patients with acromegaly. Specific anamnesis data were revealed, levels of somatotropin, insulin-like growth factor-1, prolactin in the blood, as well as melatonin excretion, which promote the development of different types of myocardial remodeling. Results are presented in the form of prognostic estimates, the use of which makes it possible to improve early diagnosis of acromegaloid cardiomyopathy and prognosis for the patient by using modern pharmacological correction.

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45

Das, Pratyusa, Caitlin E. Stallings, and Buffy Sue Ellsworth. "Role of FOXO1 in Glucocorticoid-Induced Somatotrope Maturation." Journal of the Endocrine Society 5, Supplement_1 (May 1, 2021): A552—A553. http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/jendso/bvab048.1126.

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Abstract Growth hormone (GH) is a well-known metabolic factor secreted by pituitary somatotropes. Transcription factors such as POU1F1 and NEUROD4 promote somatotrope differentiation, maturation, and function. The forkhead transcription factor, FOXO1, is necessary for the proper timing of somatotrope differentiation and function, but the underlying mechanisms behind it have yet to be unraveled. Pituitary gland development also depends on regulation by signaling factors and hormones. Glucocorticoids have mixed effects on growth hormone production. However, when the effects of glucocorticoid signaling on the hypothalamus and pituitary gland are uncoupled, the direct effects of glucocorticoid signaling on pituitary somatotropes are not only stimulatory, but necessary for initiation of somatotrope maturation and for maintenance of somatotrope function. We find that FOXO1 is necessary for glucocorticoid induction of important somatotrope genes. Activation of glucocorticoid signaling in the somatotrope-derived MtT/S cell line induces transient expression of the bZIP transcription factor, Crebl2 within 2 hours. Interestingly, glucocorticoid induction of Crebl2 as well as the somatotrope genes Ghrhr and Gh1, is impaired in the presence of the FOXO1 inhibitor (AS1842856). There are several possible mechanisms underlying the requirement of FOXO1 in glucocorticoid induction of somatotrope maturation. One possible mechanism is that glucocorticoid signaling upregulates expression of Foxo1 and ultimately FOXO1 targets. Consistent with this possibility, Foxo1 expression is induced 8 hours after activation of glucocorticoid signaling. This does not appear to be the only mechanism underlying the role for FOXO1 in mediating glucocorticoid-induced somatotrope maturation, however, because many FOXO1 target genes, such as Neurod4 and Fosl2 are not affected by glucocorticoid signaling. We are currently investigating whether cooperative binding between FOXO1 and the glucocorticoid receptor contributes to transcriptional regulation of common targets genes. Together these data demonstrate that FOXO1 is a key factor mediating glucocorticoid induction of somatotrope maturation.

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46

Liu, L., and TE Porter. "Endogenous thyroid hormones modulate pituitary somatotroph differentiation during chicken embryonic development." Journal of Endocrinology 180, no. 1 (January 1, 2004): 45–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1677/joe.0.1800045.

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Growth hormone cell differentiation normally occurs between day 14 and day 16 of chicken embryonic development. We reported previously that corticosterone (CORT) could induce somatotroph differentiation in vitro and in vivo and that thyroid hormones could act in combination with CORT to further augment the abundance of somatotrophs in vitro. The objective of the present study was to test our hypothesis that endogenous thyroid hormones regulate the abundance of somatotrophs during chicken embryonic development. Plasma samples were collected on embryonic day (e) 9-14. We found that plasma CORT and thyroid hormone levels increased progressively in mid-embryogenesis to e 13 or e 14, immediately before normal somatotroph differentiation. Administration of thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) into the albumen of fertile eggs on e 11 increased somatotroph proportions prematurely on e 13 in the developing chick embryos in vivo. Furthermore, administration of methimazole, the thyroid hormone synthesis inhibitor, on e 9 inhibited somatotroph differentiation in vivo, as assessed on e 14; this suppression was completely reversed by T3 replacement on e 11. Since we reported that T3 alone was ineffective in vitro, we interpret these findings to indicate that the effects of treatments in vivo were due to interactions with endogenous glucocorticoids. These results indicate that treatment with exogenous thyroid hormones can modulate somatotroph abundance and that endogenous thyroid hormone synthesis likely contributes to normal somatotroph differentiation.

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47

Maksiri, W., S. Chanpongsang, and N. Chaiyabutr. "Relationship of Early Lactation and Bovine Somatotropin to Water Metabolism and Mammary Circulation of Crossbred Holstein Cattle." Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences 18, no. 11 (December 2, 2005): 1600–1608. http://dx.doi.org/10.5713/ajas.2005.1600.

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48

Lough, D. S., L. D. Muller, R. S. Kensinger, T. F. Sweeney, and L. C. Griel. "Effect of Added Dietary Fat and Bovine Somatotropin on the Performance and Metabolism of Lactating Dairy Cows." Journal of Dairy Science 71, no. 5 (May 1988): 1161–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.3168/jds.s0022-0302(88)79670-8.

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49

CHAIYABUTR, N., S. THAMMACHAROEN, S. KOMOLVANICH, and S. CHANPONGSANG. "Effects of long-term exogenous bovine somatotropin on water metabolism and milk yield in crossbred Holstein cattle." Journal of Agricultural Science 145, no. 02 (February 12, 2007): 173. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s002185960700679x.

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50

Ramsay, T. G., I. B. Chung, S. M. Czerwinski, J. P. McMurtry, R. W. Rosebrough, and N. C. Steele. "Tissue IGF-I protein and mRNA responses to a single injection of somatotropin." American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism 269, no. 4 (October 1, 1995): E627—E635. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpendo.1995.269.4.e627.

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Swine were divided into four groups of 11 animals at 40 kg body wt. Swine within a group were given a single porcine somatotropin (pST) injection (200 micrograms/kg) or buffer at 0800. Blood, liver (L), latissimus dorsi (LD), semitendinosus (STS), vastus lateralis (VL), dorsal subcutaneous (SQ), and perirenal (PR) adipose tissues were sampled at 0, 1, 2, 4, 8, 12, 16, and 24 h postinjection. Blood urea nitrogen was depressed by 16 h. Insulin was elevated by approximately 350% at 8 h. Lipogenic enzyme activities in adipose tissues were not affected by pST treatment. Insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) mRNA levels increased rapidly in SQ, PR, and L to a single pST administration, whereas they increased only slightly in VL. IGF-I mRNA concentrations in LD and STS were unaffected by pST treatment. IGF-I protein content of tissues changed little during the first 24 h postinjection. These data suggest that individual tissues differ in timing and degree of response to pST. Conflicting results reported after pST treatment could, in part, be due to tissue selection for sampling or sample timing.

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