Academic literature on the topic 'Solor dialect'
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Journal articles on the topic "Solor dialect"
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Kleden, Paul Budi. "Salib Yesus – Penderitaan Maria Devosi Maria dalam Ibadat Jalan Salib Versi Solor-Lamaholot." Jurnal Ledalero 10, no. 2 (August 1, 2018): 161. http://dx.doi.org/10.31385/jl.v10i2.134.161-188.
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Devotion to Mary is one of the most popular religious practices among Catholics, and can be considered one of the oldest forms of popular religiosity. Marian devotions emerged spontaneously as a mixture of elements from local cultures and the Christian faith. However, such practices can become problematic when they overstress certain aspects of human experience together with the role of Mary. This article discusses a text of "The Way of the Cross" which was composed in a dialect of the Lamaholot language as used on the isle of Solor, East Flores.
Kata-kata kunci: devosi, jalan salib, penderitaan, ratapan, harapan
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Nagaya, Naonori. "Directionals, topography, and cultural construals of landscape in Lamaholot." Linguistics Vanguard 8, s1 (January 1, 2022): 25–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/lingvan-2020-0022.
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Abstract This paper investigates “directionals” or geocentric spatial terms in Lamaholot, examining the interaction between directionals, topographic environment, and cultural construals of landscape. Lamaholot is an Austronesian language of eastern Indonesia spoken on the volcanic island of Flores. The Lewotobi dialect, with which this paper is concerned, is spoken on the coastal area between Mt. Lewotobi and the Solor Sea. Reflective of this topographic environment, this language has “directionals” or grammatical terms defined with respect to landmarks: rae ‘mountainward’, lau ‘seaward’, wəli ‘parallel with the coast’, teti ‘upward’, and lali ‘downward’. After describing how the spatial orientation represented by directionals is embedded in linguistic and sociocultural practices in Lamaholot-speaking communities, this paper shows that directionals exhibit intriguing diversity in interpretation and morphosyntax: they constitute a coordinate system for geocentric frame of reference, refer to different directions depending on different construals of landscape, and can appear in various syntactic positions. It is argued that this diversity can be understood in terms of a complex interplay of topographic environment, sociocultural practices, language uses, and linguistic repertoire, as assumed in the Sociotopographic Model (Palmer, Bill, Jonathon Lum, Jonathan Schlossberg & Alice Gaby. 2017. How does the environment shape spatial language? Evidence for sociotopography. Linguistic Typology 21(3). 457–491). Thus, the directional system in Lamaholot makes a strong case for a sociotopographic approach to spatial language.
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Parini, Ilaria. "To translate or not to translate dialects in subtitling? The case of Pif’s La mafia uccide solo d’estate." Altre Modernità, no. 28 (November 30, 2022): 385–403. http://dx.doi.org/10.54103/2035-7680/19186.
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The difficulty of translating dialects has been extensively studied over the years, firstly by scholars who focused on the (un)translatability of dialects in literature, and more recently by an increasing number of academics who have been investigating the issue within the field of audiovisual translation, both in dubbing and in subtitling. This study aims to analyse the strategies used in subtitling to translate into English the Sicilian dialect spoken in the Italian film La mafia uccide solo d’estate, directed by Pif in 2013. In this film, the use of dialect is not simply a tool to indicate the geographical origins of the characters, but it is exploited to construe their identity. Indeed, language variation is a device used purposefully to distinguish the ‘good’ characters from the ‘bad’ ones, and, as such, it is a means of identification. The results of the analysis will also be compared to those of previous studies conducted in this research area. Finally, the paper will attempt to provide some potential solutions that might be adopted in the subtitling of similar products, based on previous studies performed by the author on the original dialogues of some Hollywood films.
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Gréczi-Zsoldos, Enikő. "A palóc nyelvjárási beszélőközösség diftongushasználatának izoglosszája térben és időben." Acta Academiae Beregsasiensis, Philologica I, no. 2 (December 20, 2022): 85–106. http://dx.doi.org/10.58423/2786-6726/2022-2-85-106.
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In recent years I have done researches in the Palóc dialect area. In this region the diphthongs were used by the speakers of a larger area in earlier eras of Hungarian language history. In some dialect groups and local dialects of this region even in the 19th century also reported diphthong pronunciation. At the end of the 20th century and now most of the Palóc speakers do not pronounce diphthongs, this data is demonstrated in language tests. It can be detected divergent linguistic movements. We can perceive those different phenomena on both sides of the Trianon border in the earlier Nógrád county (the borderline between Hungary and Slovakia is here at the present). The geographical boundary line marking the area in which a distinctive linguistic feature commonly occurs. The isogloss means a geographical dialect continuum. In my study, I try to draw the temporal and spatial boundaries of diphthong use and disappearance. Sometimes these differences will be larger, sometimes smaller, but they will be cumulative. My corpus shows linguistic changes from the Middle Age to the present. My analysis was done by the following written and oral data: 1. The Code of Gömöry from the 16th century – the nun who copied it (her name: soror Katherina, Legéndy Kató), comes from the Palóc dialect region from the village Legénd. My resources contain the descriptions of the speech and customs of the Palóc speakers from the 18th and the 19th century (Matthias Bel 1735, from the northern Palóc region; Fábián Szeder 1819, the first and the following researches in the area along the river Ipoly; Imre Hollók 1836, from the region of Gömör; István Szabó 1837, in the valley of Karancs; Antal Reguly 1857, notes on her trip in the land of Palóc ethnicity; Gyula Pap 1865, from the region of Salgó; Sándor Pintér 1880, her collections in the western central region of the Palóc; Gyula Istvánffy 1890–1900, her collection of the folk poetries in the area of Mátra); 3. Atlas of the Hungarian Dialects from the middle of the 20th century; 4. the data from the atlases of dialect islands from Slavonien (at the present: Croatia); 5. Dialect Atlas of Medvesalja; 6. and language databases from the 20th and 21th century, my own research from a village Karancslapujtő in the Palóc area. Based on the data, I try to present the isogloss of the spread of diphthongs in space and time in the Palóc dialect area groups.
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Phylis Bartoo, Nancy Chebet;. "An Interrogation of the Phonological Similarities between Somor and Aror Sub-Dialects of the Tugen Dialect in Kenya." Editon Consortium Journal of Literature and Linguistic Studies 1, no. 2 (October 30, 2019): 95–104. http://dx.doi.org/10.51317/ecjlls.v1i2.63.
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The paper sets out to find the extent of the phonological similarities of Somor and Aror sub-dialects of the Tugen dialect. Phonological and semantic structures are many and varied and cannot be studied within such a limited time. Thus the study focused on tone and length in Tugen sub-dialects. The selected structures were epenthesis, vowel deletion, fusion, demonstratives, negation, possessives and definiteness. In semantics, the study focused on meaning in general. Stratified and random sampling procedures were used to get samples of Somor and Aror speakers from the population of those who practice in the selected domains in Torongo and Kapuskei locations of Baringo County. The data for the study was a Swadesh list of one hundred and fifty words and fifty sentences. These were drawn from the fields of education, domestic life, religion, health and administration. Data was collected by use of language performance test, which were recorded, on an audiotape. These words were written in gloss and transcribed using the IPA symbols. This was in preparation for the phonological and semantic analysis, which was done by using Natural Generative Phonology and Descriptive Linguistics. This study adds knowledge in the area of theoretical linguistics of Nilotic languages and Kenyan languages in general.
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Cenname, Anne. "El romance andalusí y los trasvases demográficos y culturales en la Iberia medieval." Normas 6, no. 1 (July 19, 2016): 3. http://dx.doi.org/10.7203/normas.6.8215.
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Lapesa (1981: 189) propone que los dialectos “mozárabes” desaparecieron conforme los reinos cristianos fueron “reconquistando” las regiones del sur de la península ibérica. Según este autor, la desaparición de las hablas mozárabes cierra un capítulo de la historia lingüística española (Lapesa, 1981: 192). Así, el dialecto que se habla actualmente en Andalucía es percibido como una variante del castellano hablado por los recién llegados que se trasladaron a la zona desde el norte durante la llamada “reconquista” y repoblación de al-Ándalus (cfr. Mondéjar, 2007: 12, Llorente, 1962: 229, Pharies, 2007: 192-194). Sin embargo, lo que se ha ido llamando “reconquista” es solo uno de muchos factores que hay que considerar, si queremos estudiar cómo las migraciones han podido contribuir a los cambios lingüísticos en la península ibérica en la Edad Media.
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Kaplan, Jeff. "Dancing with the Dragon: Orality and (body) language(s) in a live performance of Beowulf." Nordic Theatre Studies 28, no. 2 (February 21, 2017): 36. http://dx.doi.org/10.7146/nts.v28i2.25534.
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This paper theorizes on the function of language and embodiment in northern European storytelling through a self-reflex analysis of the author’s experience performing Beowulf in its original dialect, as a solo, while dancing. Beowulf is Min Nama involved memorizing approximately 80 minutes of the medieval Beowulf epic in its original West Anglo-Saxon dialect (lines 2200—2766, Beowulf’s encounter with the dragon). Grappling with bardic verse for recitation in experimental live performance uncovered new facets in ancient performance texts. Working with the Beowulf poem for stage revealed the mnemonic quality of alliteration, the pervasive use of rhythmic patterns to signal shifts in ideas (a strategy similar to West African dance), and perhaps “deep rhythms” present in medieval northern Europe. As impetus for choreography, the verse contains rhythmic information, corresponding to musical/dance concepts such as pick-ups, counterpoint, and syncopation. Beowulf is Min Nama also required a theory of dialect for Old English, which the author based on modern Swedish, medieval Frisian, and modern Frisian — especially the voices of Frisian poets Tsjêbbe Hettinga and Albertina Soepboer. The project thus provides an entrée into the nexus between ancient and modern storytelling, and concludes that contemporary Frisian poetry represents a direct inheritor to ancient solo performance forms.
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Simin, Wang, Li Jiayuan, Guo Wenjie, Yang Huilin, and Fei Yang. "An empirical analysis of dialect and regional economic growth based on OLS regression model." E3S Web of Conferences 253 (2021): 02057. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202125302057.
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There is a relatively new economic growth theory that culture is a deeper force to explain economic growth. This paper will establish an economic growth model based on Solow model, and discuss the economic growth of multi-ethnic areas from the perspective of language economics. On the basis of literature research, this paper first puts forward the conjecture that dialect diversity has a negative impact on the economic income level of multi-ethnic areas. In order to verify this conjecture, this paper selects Xiaojin County, Danba County, Puge county and Butuo County of Sichuan Province as the investigation objects. After screening more than 200 effective data, the least square linear regression model is used to carry out empirical analysis. Through White Heteroscedasticity Test and WLS Heteroscedasticity Test, the hypothesis that dialect diversity has a negative impact on economic income level in multi-ethnic areas is verified.
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Parapatics, Andrea. "Teachers' attitudes towards regional dialects in Hungary." Didactica, no. 8 (October 9, 2020): 59–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1344/did.2020.8.59-77.
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A la mayoría de los húngaros se les enseña durante la educación obligatoria contenido de tipo sociolingüístico sobre el valor de la diversidad lingüística, especialmente de las variedades regionales. Sin embargo, perviven las creencias estereotipadas sobre los hablantes de variedades dialectales que, junto con la cultura basada en estándares, pueden ser la base de debates sobre prejuicios en la comunicación diaria o de la discriminación lingüística. Este estudio busca la explicación del problema investigando las actitudes y prácticas lingüísticas que tienen los docentes en relación con las variedades lingüísticas de sus alumnos. La hipótesis principal es que, si bien el Currículo Nacional promueve una actitud de tolerancia, la práctica prescriptiva sugiere que esas actitudes existen solo en la teoría y que las lecciones sobre la variedad dialectal generan prejuicios en muchos hablantes de la comunidad húngara - incluso entre los jóvenes. Aunque se enseña a los estudiantes a estar orgullosos de los dialectos de sus regiones de origen, la insuficiente información sobre la variedad dialectal les lleva a tener problemas de aceptación, a pesar de que el estudio de esos antecedentes regionales podría ser una ventaja para desarrollar una conciencia metalingüística. Enfatizamos que esta ambivalencia está enraizada en la falta de formación docente en la Educación Superior - en relación con la variación lingüística y con la falta de recursos metodológicos, por lo que este estudio también recomienda algunos materiales educativos recientes sobre el tema.
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Murtafi’ah, Wahidatul, and Hendri. "ANALISIS KOHESI DAN KOHERENSI WACANA LISAN KAJIAN NASKAH PEMENTASAN WAYANG KULIT SASAK." NUSRA: Jurnal Penelitian dan Ilmu Pendidikan 3, no. 2 (November 30, 2022): 200–210. http://dx.doi.org/10.55681/nusra.v3i2.454.
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Language is a tool for communication in the life of human beings to be able to interact properly. Besides Indonesian as the national language, in Indonesia there are also regional languages depending tribal regions, such as the Minangkabau language. Minangkabau language has dialects vary widely, one of them languages Minangkabau in South Solok regency. This study discusses the reduplication in Minangkabau language in South Solok regency. The research is a qualitative research with descriptive method. The research data used linguistic form of data derived from primary and secondary sources. Reduplications discussed in this study was the shape and meaning of Minangkabau language reduplication in South Solok regency. First, the reduplicated form found in Minangkabau language in South Solok district can be grouped into three, namely (1) the form of the noun reduplication, (2) reduplication of verbs, and (3) adjective reduplication. Second, the meaning of reduplication found in Minangkabau language in South Solok regency there are three, namely (1) the meaning of the noun reduplication, (2) reduplication of verbs, and (3) adjective reduplication. Reduplicated form is divided into two: (1) the form of reduplicated root and (2) form the basis affixed reduplication. .
Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Solor dialect"
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Kroon, Yosep Bisara. "A grammar of Solor – Lamaholot: a language of Flores, Eastern Indonesia." Thesis, 2016. http://hdl.handle.net/2440/102380.
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This study is a grammatical description of an endangered language of eastern Indonesia called Lamaholot, spoken on the eastern part of Flores, and three neighboring small islands, Solor, Adonara and Lembata. The study focuses on the Solor dialect spoken over the entire Solor Island by about 20,000 people residing in
33 villages. The data for this study were collected from the native speakers in Karawatung village in three periods, each lasting for at least three months, through audio-video recording, elicitation and written document gathering. The language has a relatively simple phonological system. It has 16 native and 3 loan consonants, and 6 basic vowel qualities, where every oral vowel has a corresponding nasal vowel. It is an analytic language yet has a quite laborious morphological system because one form may signal different meanings. In clausal structures, there are mostly one-to-one corresponding between words and morphemes. Most bound morphemes are derivational and a few are inflectional affixes. The most important verbal affixes are clitics marking S or A arguments. Major word classes include nouns, verbs and adjectives. Adjectives share some identical properties with the other two classes; which is why some previous studies have hardly distinguished adjectives from nouns and verbs. The language has a Nominative-Accusative grammar system, with a fixed word order of SV(O). Phrases follow a modified-modifier pattern. Nearly all NPs in the Accessibility Hierarchy (Keenan & Comrie 1977) are relativizeable, except the object of comparison. The language has verbless and verbal clauses. It also has serial verb constructions used: (i) to encode oblique relations which, in non-serializing languages such as English, are expressed with prepositions; and (ii) to express secondary verbal concepts, which, for example in English, are modals and aspectual modifiers. Two prominent grammatical relations were discovered: Subjects and Objects. Objects are distinguished into two: a Primary Object that is the argument that comes immediately after a clause verbal predicate regardless of whether it is a direct or an indirect object, and a Secondary Object, which occurs farther away from the clause verb. The verbs in a serial verb construction mostly share the same subject argument, but the second verb may have its own additional argument which seems morphosyntactically like an object but is pragmatically an oblique. SL has some valence change operations including middle voice, reflexive and reciprocal, inverse, applicative and causative. Inverse constructions can only be translated into English as a passive clause, yet they are not passive in SL. Two distinct syntactic structures referred to here as subject prominent and topic prominent constructions may be considered as an active – passive counterpart in SL in an analysis following Shibatani (2006). With this perspective, SL can be assumed to have a passive system without passive morphology as is reported in some languages on Flores (Arka 2009).Thesis (Ph.D.) -- University of Adelaide, School of Humanities, 2016.
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Chen, Pei-Jun, and 陳珮君. "Comparative Study of the Twenty-four Solar Terms Proverbs in Taiwan Hakka and Minnan Dialects." Thesis, 2012. http://ndltd.ncl.edu.tw/handle/12850349649615004734.
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碩士國立高雄師範大學
台灣歷史文化及語言研究所
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Taiwan earlier that is famous for agricultural development, whether picking tea Hakka or Minnan ethnic groups which are mainly in agriculture, used to develop agricultural activities at first. "Depending on nature for a livelihood" became one of the most important conditions of affecting agriculture. However, the weather factors becoming working at farming of Hakka and Minnan ethnic group most in need of overcoming difficulties, for a long time dominated by agricultural lifestyle, they have developed a self-response measures- twenty-four solar terms proverbs it came into being. A proverb is the intelligent ancestors passed to future generations the best crystal, the literacy rate in early age is not high, proverbs, ballads as well as two-part allegorical saying and so on, by word-of-mouth, can also be retained to the present. Twenty-four solar terms proverbs are not only the crystallization of the living intelligent by ancestors, which also can be seen for their meaning and even the richness of the culture of different ethnic groups. Therefore, in this text, regard Hakka and Minnan two ethnic groups as principle, discussing of what meaning and the effect they have in twenty-four solar terms proverbs. The full text is divided into six chapters, chapter one is introduction, containing a motivation, objective, range and methods of study. Chapter two is discussion on records; review the relevant works of the predecessors, including technically books, dissertations, journal articles and other research. Chapter three is talking about the formation and development of Taiwan Hakka and Minnan ethnic groups. The Fourth term is the solar term proverb category research of Taiwan Hakka and Minnan ethnic groups, including spring, summer, autumn, winter four seasons. Chapter five is showing off the meteorological proverbs culture and meaning in Taiwan Hakka and Minnan proverbs. The sixth term is for conclusion.
Books on the topic "Solor dialect"
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Fanciullo, Franco. Dialetti e non solo. Alessandria: Edizioni dell'Orso, 2004.
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Pisani, Ernesto. Solo mì so-- e tì--. Varazze: Tipolitografia F.lli Stalla, 1992.
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Weidenfeld, Werner, and Wolfgang Wessels, eds. Jahrbuch der Europäischen Integration 2021. Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft mbH & Co. KG, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.5771/9783748912668.
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The yearbook on European integration, compiled by the Institute of European Politics in Berlin, has documented the process of European integration in an up-to-date and detailed way since 1980. The result is a unique record of contemporary European history over a 41 year period. The 2021 edition of the yearbook continues this tradition. In approximately 100 contributions related to their main research subjects, the book’s authors portray the events of European politics in the period 2020–21 and inform the reader about the work of European institutions, the development of the EU’s policy areas, Europe’s role in the world and European policy in the EU’s member states and candidate countries. With contributions by Petra Ahrens · Constanze Aka · Aljoscha Albrecht · Franco Algieri · Franz-Lothar Altmann · Katrin Auel · Heinz-Jürgen Axt · Julia Bachtrögler-Unger · Michael L. Bauer · Peter Becker · Matthias Belafi · Annegret Bendiek · Julian Bergmann · Sarah-Lena Böning · Katrin Böttger · Klaus Brummer · Birgit Bujard · Karlis Bukovskis · Hrvoje Butković · Thomas Christiansen · Agnieszka K. Cianciara · Anthony Costello · Alexandru Damian · Franziska Decker · Johanna Deimel · Doris Dialer · Thomas Diez · Roland Döhrn · Hans-Wilhelm Dünn · Tobias Etzold · Alina Felder · Eva Feldmann-Wojtachnia · Sabine Fischer · Tobias Flessenkemper · Christian Franck · Carsten Gerards · Gabriel Glöckler · Daniel Göler · Alexander Grasse · Anna Gussarova · Christoph Gusy · Björn Hacker · Simon Hartmann · Niklas Helwig · Andreas Hofmann · Bernd Hüttemann · Tuomas Iso-Markku · Klaus Jacob · Michael Kaeding · Niels Keijzer · Mariam Khotenashvili · Anna-Lena Kirch · Henning Klodt · Wim Kösters · Valentin Kreilinger · Tobias Kunstein · Jan Labitzke · Guido Lessing · Barbara Lippert · Christian Lippert · Marko Lovec · Siegfried Magiera · Remi Maier-Rigaud · Jean-Marie Majerus · Andreas Marchetti · Daniel Martínek · Dominic Maugeais · Andreas Maurer · Vittoria Meißner · Laia Mestres · Jürgen Mittag · Lucia Mokrá · Jan-Peter Möhle · Manuel Müller · Matthias Niedobitek · Thomas Petersen · Anne Pintz · Julian Plottka · Johannes Pollak · António Raimundo · Christian Raphael · Iris Rehklau · Florence Reiter · Darius Ribbe · Daniel Schade · Sebastian Schäffer · Joachim Schild · Ulrich Schlie · Otto Schmuck · Lucas Schramm · Tobias Schumacher · Oliver Schwarz · Martin Selmayr · Otto W. Singer · Eduard Soler i Lecha · Martin Stein · Burkard Steppacher · Tamás Szigetvári · Funda Tekin · Gabriel N. Toggenburg · Hans-Jörg Trenz · Jürgen Turek · Günther Unser · Mendeltje van Keulen · Nicolai von Ondarza · Thomas Walli · Volker Weichsel · Werner Weidenfeld · Michael Weigl · Wolfgang Weiß · Charlotte Wenner · Wolfgang Wessels · Moritz Wiesenthal · Sabine Willenberg · Laura Worsch · Wolfgang Zellner
Book chapters on the topic "Solor dialect"
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Reiter, Walter S. "Dario Castello: Sonata Prima, A Sopran Solo." In The Baroque Violin & Viola, vol. II, 53–64. Oxford University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197525111.003.0006.
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Castello’s sonatas signal a radical departure from previous practice by introducing words (Allegro and Adagio, in Venetian dialect) to describe the mood of the sections and the implied tempi: this suggests a release from the dictates of tactus and the subsequent enhancement of freedom to the performer, the hallmark of what came to be known as stylus fantasticus. The bulk of the lesson deals with minutiae in the Observations section. An exercise entitled “Active impulses and passive ‘after-notes’ ” is designed to highlight the important notes and underplay the less important ones. Intensively notated examples of phrasings and dynamics within a line of equal notes promote the idea of dialogue and narrative, rather than melody. In his short adagios, explored in detail, Castello proves himself a master of expression.
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Keats, Jonathon. "Plutoed." In Virtual Words. Oxford University Press, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195398540.003.0031.
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On August 24, 2006, the ninth planet in our solar system was plutoed by the International Astronomical Union. The scientists did not phrase their decision in those terms. Indeed almost nobody used pluto as a verb until January 5, 2007, when the American Dialect Society voted it Word of the Year, prompting worldwide headlines. “Pluto is finally getting some respect,” reported the Associated Press, and CNN noted, “Pluto may no longer be a planet, but it has a new claim to fame.” It was a good story for a slow news day, which is to say that the brouhaha over plutoed was a classic case of truthiness. Truthiness was the American Dialect Society’s Word of the Year for 2005, a term made up by the comedian Stephen Colbert on his satirical TV news program, The Colbert Report, to denote something one believes is true based on a desire to believe it even if contradicted by factual information. His primary satirical target was President George W. Bush, but Colbert also meant the word to be a commentary on the media and the American public. While immeasurably less consequential than Bush’s tortuous foreign policy, the anointment of plutoed by the American Dialect Society, and the widespread coverage of the selection, can also be explained as a product of wishful thinking. The word was appealing because it was timely. Yet timeliness alone cannot account for its selection, especially given some of the other timely words with far more legitimate usage, such as waterboarding, also nominated. Whereas waterboarding was a battle-hardened military euphemism, plutoed was mere wordplay, a clever turn of phrase coined for the amusement of language lovers. One of the rare appearances of the term not referencing the American Dialect Society was an article published in the Montreal Gazette on January 10, 2007 (a date that nevertheless almost guarantees Word of the Year influence): “The feeling among some was that the ever-maligned Rona Ambrose, who was moved from being environment minister to minister of intergovernmental affairs, really got plutoed in last week’s federal cabinet shuffle.”
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Fant, Clyde E., and Mitchell G. Reddish. "Athens." In A Guide to Biblical Sites in Greece and Turkey. Oxford University Press, 2003. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195139174.003.0010.
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In the Mediterranean world, only Rome rivals Athens as a city famed for its antiquities. Ancient travelers came to marvel at its grand temples and civic buildings, just as tourists do today. Wealthy Romans sent their children to Athens to be educated by its philosophers and gain sophistication in the presence of its culture. Democracy, however faltering its first steps, began in this city, and education and the arts flourished in its environment. Even at the height of the Roman Empire, the Western world’s government may have been Roman but its dominant cultural influence was Greek. Latin never spread abroad as a universal language, but Greek did, in its Koine (common) form. By the 4th century B.C.E. this Attic dialect of Plato and the Athenian orators was already in use in countries around the Mediterranean. The monuments of Athens and the treasures of its National Museum still amaze and delight millions of visitors from every nation who come to see this historic cradle of Western culture. A settlement of some significance already existed at Athens in Mycenaean times (1600–1200 B.C.E.). Toward the end of the Dark Ages (1200–750 B.C.E.) the unification of Attica, a territory surrounding Athens of some 1,000 square miles, was accomplished under the Athenians. The resulting city-state was governed by aristocrats constituted as the Council of the Areopagus, named for the hill below the Athenian Acropolis where they commonly met. But only the nobility—defined as the wealthy male landowners—had any vote in the decisions that influenced affairs in the city, a situation increasingly opposed by the rising merchant class and the peasant farmers. The nobles seemed paralyzed by the mounting social tensions, and a class revolution appeared imminent. In 594 B.C.E. the nobles in desperation turned to Solon, also an aristocrat, whom they named as archon (ruler) of the city with virtual dictatorial powers. Solon, however, refused to rule as dictator of the city, instituting instead a series of sweeping reforms that mollified the lower classes without destroying the aristocracy.