Journal articles on the topic 'Solfatara Volcano'

Abstract. Active fumarolic solfataric zones represent important structures of dormant volcanoes, but unlike emitted fluids, their mineralizations are omitted in the usual monitoring activity. This is the case of the Campi Flegrei caldera in Italy, among the most hazardous and best-monitored explosive volcanoes in the world, where the landscape of Puteoli is characterized by an acid sulfate alteration that has been active at least since Roman time. This paper provides temperature, mineralogical, textural, compositional and stable isotope data for those solfataric terrains sampled at the crater and Pisciarelli slope of the Solfatara volcano between 2013 and 2019. Temperatures vary between 40 and 95 ∘C. Minerals include alunite with grain sizes generally larger than 20 µm, alunogen, native sulfur, well-ordered kaolinite, and, common at Pisciarelli, pyrite, illite and NH4 sulfates. Sulfate terrains have higher contents of Ti, Ba, Au, As, Hg and Tl relative to their parent substrate. The Pisciarelli slope is anomalous in terms of the presence of NH4. δ34S values for sulfides and native S range between −3.00 ‰ and 0.49 ‰ and from −4.42 ‰ to 0.80 ‰, respectively. Sulfates show δ34S and δ18O values in the range of −2.78 ‰ to 2.09 ‰ and between 4.60 ‰ and 31.33 ‰, respectively. The style of mineralization and the stable isotope geochemistry do produce complex and not completely consistent classifications and genetic constraints. We merge our data with volcanological information, data from exploration drillings and geophysical results. With the conceptual model, we suggest a series of shallow and deep aquifers interconnected like “communicating vessels” through a main fault system that downthrows Solfatara with respect to Pisciarelli. Fluid outflow from the different discrete aquifers hosted in sediments – and possibly bearing organic imprints – is the main dataset that allows determination of the steam-heated environment with a supergene setting superimposed. Supergene conditions and high-sulfidation relicts, together with the narrow sulfate alteration zone buried under the youngest volcanic deposits, point to the existence of an evolving paleo-conduit. The data will contribute to monitoring and evaluating the volcanic hazards.

This work studied the contribution of the geogenic sources volcanoes and fumaroles to the aerosol in marine atmosphere in the central Mediterranean basin. For this purpose, in the framework of the Med-Oceanor measurement program, we carried out a cruise campaign in the summer of 2017 to investigate the impact to the aerosol of the most important Mediterranean volcanoes (Mount Etna, Stromboli Island, and Marsili Seamount) and solfatara areas (Phlegraean Fields complex, Volcano Islands, Ischia Island, and Panarea submarine fumarole). We collected PM10 and PM2.5 samples in 12 sites and performed chemical characterization to gather information about the concentration of major and trace elements, elemental carbon (EC), organic carbon (OC), and ionic species. The use of triangular plots and the calculation of enrichment factors confirmed the interception of volcanic plume. We integrated the outcomes from chemical characterization with the use of factor analysis and SEM/EDX analysis for the source apportionment. Anthropogenic and natural sources including shipping emissions, volcanic and fumarolic load, as well as sea spray were identified as the main factors affecting aerosol levels in the study area. Furthermore, we performed pattern recognition analysis by stepwise linear discriminant analysis to seek differences in the composition of PM10 and PM2.5 samples according to their volcanic or solfatara origin.

Quiescent volcanoes dissipate a large part of their thermal energy through hot soils and ground degassing mainly in restricted areas called Diffuse Degassing Structures. La Solfatara crater represents the main spot of thermal release for the Campi Flegrei volcano (Italy) despite its reduced dimensions with regards to the whole caldera. The purpose of this study was to develop a method to measure thermal energy release extrapolating it from the ground surface temperature. We used imaging from thermal cameras at short distances (1 m) to obtain a mapping of areas with thermal anomalies and a measure of their temperatures. We built a conceptual model of the energy release from the ground to atmosphere, which well fits the experimental data taken in the La Solfatara crater. Using our model and data, we could estimate the average heat flux in a portion of the crater as q a v g = 220 ± 40 W / m 2 , compatible with other measurements in literature.

Abstract. The Solfatara volcano in the Campi Flegrei caldera (Italy), is monitored by different, permanent ground networks handled by INGV (Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia), including thermal infrared cameras (TIRNet). The TIRNet network is composed by five stations equipped with FLIR A645SC or A655SC thermal cameras acquiring at nightime infrared scenes of portions of the Solfatara area characterized by significant thermal anomalies. The dataset processed in this work consists of daily maximum temperatures time-series from 25 April 2014 to 31 May 2019, acquired by three TIRNet stations (SF1 and SF2 inside Solfatara crater, and PIS near Pisciarelli boiling mud pool), and also consists of atmospheric pressure and air temperature time-series. Data pre-processing was carried out in order to remove the seasonal components and the influence of the Earth tides to the selected time-series. By using the STL algorithm (Seasonal Decomposition of Time Series by Loess), the time-series were decomposed into three components (seasonal, trend and remainder) to find seasonality and remove it. Then, a harmonic analysis was performed on the de-seasonalized signals in order to identify and remove the long-period tidal constituents (mainly fortnightly and monthly). Finally, Power Spectral Density was calculated by FFT Matlab algorithm, after applying an acausal Butterworth filter, focusing on the [15–120] d band, to check if characteristic periodicities exist for each site. The reliability and significance of the spectral peaks were proved by statistical and empirical methods. We found that most of the residual periodicities are ascribable to ambient factors, while 18.16 d for Pisciarelli site and 88.71 d for Solfatara have a possible endogenous origin.

This study is inspired by the impacts on a tunnel of the Sousaki volcano, in the vicinity of Corinth and examines possible impacts of the Quaternary volcanism on major engineering works in Thessaly. The Sousaki volcano, at the NW edge of the Aegean Volcanic Arc has been associated with important volcanic activity in the past, but its current activity is confined to géothermie phenomena. A tunnel for the new Athens-Corinth High Speed Rail was excavated through the solfatara of the volcano, an area characterized by numerous faults and physical cavities. High temperatures and geothermal gases released in the underground opening through the faults caused disturbance to the tunnel construction, need for supplementary investigations and adoption of special measures to maintain tunnel stability. Experience from the tunnel at Sousaki indicates that similar risks may be faced in future major engineering works in other regions of Greece. Such an example is the area of Microthives and Achillio, Magnesia, Thessaly. Tunnels for the new highway and railway networks constructed or planned through at least two volcanic domes and other main engineering works may also face volcano-associated effects. Optimization of the network routes in combination with special construction techniques and safety measures need to be followed for minimization of such volcanic risks.

Bembidion (Peryphanes) sanatum iwanai ssp. n. is described from the solfatara fields of the Mendeleev Volcano (Kuril Archipelago: Kunashir Island). It slightly differs from the nominative subspecies by body proportions, as well as the relatively narrow external intervals of the elytra and their microsculpture, yet showing stable distinctions in endophallus armature (basal part of lamina 1 is rounded, vs. angular in the nominative subspecies) and in the spermatheca duct (5–6 convolutions, vs. 7–8 in the nominative subspecies). Endemism of insects on the island’s large volcanic massifs of Kunashir Island is discussed.

AbstractSoil CO2 flux measurement is a key method that can be used to monitor the hazards in an active volcanic area. In order to determine accurately the variations of the CO2 soil emission we propose an approach based on the radiocarbon (14C) deficiency recorded in the plants grown in and around the Solfatara (Naples, Italy). We twice sampled selected poaceae plants in 17 defined sites around the Solfatara volcano. 14C measurements by liquid scintillation counting (LSC) were achieved on the grass samples. The 14C deficiency determined in the sampled plants, compared to the atmosphere 14C activity, ranged from 6.6 to 51.6%. We then compared the proportion of magmatic CO2 inferred to the instantaneous measurements of CO2 fluxes from soil performed by the accumulation chamber CO2 degassing measurement at the moment of the sampling at each site. The results show a clear correlation (r=0.88) between soil CO2 fluxes and 14C activity. The determination of the plants 14C deficiency provides an estimate of the CO2 rate within a few square meters, integrating CO2 soil degassing variations and meteorological incidences over a few months. It can therefore become an efficient bio-sensor and can be used as a proxy to cartography of the soil CO2 and to determine its variations through time

The authors studied structural changes in the tissues of bark of annual stem Betula ermanii Cham. (Betulaceae Gray) under various environmental conditions. They collected the Betula ermanii samples in typical for this species conditions, characteristic of the Sakhalin Island, Krasnaya Mountain, Starozavodsky solfatara field, Baransky Volcano on the island of Iturup, and the Blue Lakes thermal springs area. A comparative quantitative analysis of the anatomical features of bark of annual stem made it possible to identify unidirectional structural changes in the conditions of gas-hydrothermal outcrops of Baransky Volcano, both upward and downward. These parameters include a number of crystals in cortex and phloem parenchyma, sieve tube diameters, the total number of ph loem rays and the uniseriate rays’ quantity, and the length of uniseriate phloem rays. The rest of bark tissue parameters of annual stem Betula ermanii from the studied habitats either showed no significant change, or changed in only one of the habitats with unfavorable conditions. The phellem width, the number of phellem cells in the radial row, and width of secondary phloem are modified in the Starozavodskoye solfatara field. The specific area of protophloem fibers and sclereids is changed under the conditions of thermal Blue Lakes. Thus, the structural response of annual stem Betula ermanii bark under extreme conditions of gas-hydrothermal springs associates mainly with a change of secondary phloem traits – sieve tubes and ray parenchyma parameters.

The aim of the study is to understand the characteristics of a volcano occurred in marine environment, as Weh Island where Sabang City located is still demonstrated its volcanic cone morphology either through satellite imagery or bathymetric map. Methods used were marine geology, marine geophysics and oceanography. Results show that surface volcanism (sea depth less than 50 m) take place as fumaroles, solfataras, hot ground, hot spring, hot mud pool and alteration in the vicinities of seafloor and coastal area vents. Seismic records also showed acoustic turbidity in the sea water column due to gas bubblings produced by seafloor fumaroles. Geochemical analyses show that seafloor samples in the vicinities of active and non-active fumarole vent are abundances with rare earth elements (REE). These were interpreted that the fumarole bring along REE through its gases and deposited on the surrounding seafloor surface. Co-existence between active fault of Sumatra and current volcanism produce hydrothermal mineralization in fault zone as observed in Serui and Pria Laot-middle of Weh Island which both are controlled by normal faults and graben.Keywords: submarine volcano, hydrothermal mineralization, Sabang-Weh-Aceh. Tujuan kajian adalah memahami karakteristik suatu gunungapi yang berada dalam lingkungan marin, sebagaimana Pulau Weh dimana Kota Sabang terletak masih menunjukkan morfologi kerucut volkaniknya baik melalui citra satelit maupun batimetri. Metoda yang digunakan adalah geologi kelautan, geofisika kelautan dan oseanografi. Hasil menunjukkan bahwa volkanisma permukaan (kedalaman laut kurang dari 50 m) terdapat dalam bentuk fumarola, solfatara, lahan panas, mata air panas, kolam lumpur panas dan alterasi sekitar lobang kepundan dasar laut dan pantai. Rekaman seismik juga menunjukkan turbiditas akustik dalam kolom air laut akibat gelembung gas yang dihasilkan oleh fumarola dasar laut. Analisis geokimia menunjukkan bahwa contoh-contoh dasar laut sekitar lobang kepundan fumarola yang aktif maupun tidak aktif kaya akan logam tanah jarang. Ini ditafsirkan bahwa proses fumarola tersebut membawa REE melalui gas-gasnya dan mengendapkannya pada permukaan dasar laut di sekitar. Ko-eksistensi antara Sesar Sumatera aktif dan volkanisma Resen menghasilkan mineralisasi hidrotermal dalam zona sesar seperti teramati di Serui dan Pria Laot - bagian tengah Pulau Weh yang keduanya dikontrol oleh sesar normal dan graben. Kata kunci: gunungapi bawah laut, mineralisasi hidrotermal, Sabang-Weh-Aceh.

The Fangaia mud pool provides a “window” into the hydrothermal system underlying the degassing Solfatara crater, which is the most active volcanic centre inside the restless Campi Flegrei caldera, Southern Italy. The present study aimed at unravelling the degassing dynamics of CO2 and H2S flushing through the pH 1.2 steam-heated Fangaia mud pool, an ideal field laboratory as a proxy of an active crater lake. Our results from MultiGAS measurements above Fangaia’s surface show that H2S scrubbing, demonstrated by high CO2/H2S ratios, was most efficient in the portions of the basin affected by diffusive degassing. Convective bubbling degassing instead was the most effective mechanism to release gas in quantitative terms, with lower CO2/H2S ratios, similar to the Solfatara crater fumaroles, the high-T end member of the hydrothermal system. Unsurprisingly, total estimated CO2 and H2S fluxes from the small Fangaia pool (~184 m2 in June 2017) were at least two orders of magnitude lower (CO2 flux < 64 t/d, H2S flux < 0.5 t/d) than the total CO2 flux of the Campi Flegrei caldera (up to 3000 t/d for CO2), too low to affect the gas budget for the caldera, and hence volcano monitoring routines. Given the role of the rising gas as “sediment stirrer”, the physical and chemical processes behind gas migration through a mud pool are arguably the creating processes giving origin to Fangaia. Follow-up studies of this so far unique campaign will help to better understand the fast dynamics of this peculiar degassing feature.

In the last decades, thermal infrared ground-based cameras have become effective tools to detect significant spatio-temporal anomalies in the hydrothermal/volcanic environment, possibly linked to impending eruptions. In this paper, we analyzed the temperature time-series recorded by the ground-based Thermal Infrared Radiometer permanent network of INGV-OV, installed inside the Solfatara-Pisciarelli area, the most active fluid emission zones of the Campi Flegrei caldera (Italy). We investigated the temperatures’ behavior in the interval 25 June 2016–29 May 2020, with the aim of tracking possible endogenous hydrothermal/volcanic sources. We performed the Independent Component Analysis, the time evolution estimation of the spectral power, the cross-correlation and the Changing Points’ detection. We compared the obtained patterns with the behavior of atmospheric temperature and pressure, of the time-series recorded by the thermal camera of Mt. Vesuvius, of the local seismicity moment rate and of the CO2 emission flux. We found an overall influence of exogenous, large scale atmospheric effect, which dominated in 2016–2017. Starting from 2018, a clear endogenous forcing overcame the atmospheric factor, and dominated strongly soil temperature variations until the end of the observations. This paper highlights the importance of monitoring and investigating the soil temperature in volcanic environments, as well as the atmospheric parameters.

Understanding the characteristics of a volcanic system is always important and becomes crucial when the volcano is in pluri-decadal unrest and located in a densely populated area, such as Campi Flegrei caldera, Italy. Ground deformation is a powerful source of information for studying the activity of magmatic sources and hydrothermal systems, even when difficult to detect otherwise. Here, we use ground displacement from ERS-ENVISAT and Sentinel-1A SAR images to investigate the 1993–2000 subsidence and part (2015–2022) of the present unrest. For each of the two time periods, we combine the line-of-sight displacements to obtain vertical and eastward displacements, and apply the empirical orthogonal function analysis to these latter time series—treated as a single data set—to decompose space-time fields into separated modes, consisting of uncorrelated spatial patterns and associated temporal evolutions. We only retain the first mode, since it captures the main deformation during both investigated periods, is the sole mode related to long-lasting (years) processes, and is less affected by noise than original data. Our analyses: (i) Confirm that most of the deformation is related to the activity of a 3–4 km deep sill-like source, which is inflated by magma and/or magmatic fluids during periods of unrest and deflates during periods of subsidence; (ii) Evidence ongoing deformation linked to local fluid migration in the Solfatara area; (iii) Identify persistent deformation features where peculiar fluid migration processes occurred during the 1982–1984 unrest; (iv) Most importantly, provide direct evidence of deep magma inflation at least since 2015, thus giving a strong warning of increasing risk at Campi Flegrei. Results demonstrate the capability of our approach to disclose hardly detectable processes and suggest a tool to monitor the activity of the deep magmatic source. Our approach can be useful also in other volcanic systems.

Abstract. Since 2004 a research project has been developed to monitor subsurface deformation of Italian volcanoes using borehole strainmeters and long-baseline tiltmeters. Six Sacks-Evertson dilatometers were installed around Campi Flegrei caldera and Vesuvius during 2004–2005 (Scarpa et al., 2007), and in 2008 these instruments were supplemented by two arrays of 28–280 m long water-tube tiltmeters in underground tunnels. Relevant strainmeter and tiltmeter data have been collected and analysed from the instruments installed near Campi Flegrei caldera during the recent unrest episodes. In the period 2004–2005 strain, tilt and GPS data from Campi Flegrei indicate the onset of surface deformation that accompanied a low rate of vertical displacement that continued to 2006, corresponding to an increase of CO2 emission. This strain episode preceded caldera microseismic activity by a few months, as was observed also during a significant inflation episode in 1982. Other transient strain episodes occurred in October 2006, which were accompanied by a swarm of VT (Volcano-Tectonic) and LP (Long Period) events, in 2009, at the time of renewed gas emission activity at Solfatara, and again in March 2010, several minutes before a seismic swarm. The time scale of these transient strain events ranges from some hours to several days, putting tight constraints on the origin of ground uplifts at Campi Flegrei. Their location is compatible with a source inferred from long term deformation signals, located about 4 km beneath Pozzuoli. A proposed mechanism for these aseismic strain episodes is that they are associated with magma growth in reservoirs with occasional pressure relief associated with the leakage of gas.

Intrinsic permeability is a crucial parameter to interpret soil gas data recorded from monitoring stations in different environmental settings. It is also fundamental for environmental management and pollution reme diation. An improved version of a permeameter (PRM3) recently developed for environmental applications is presented and calibrated against a reference instrument (RADON - JOK produced by RADON v.o.s.). The innovations of this prototype are: i) the absence of the flow meter, and ii) a membrane pump in place of a rotary vane device. Proper calculation of the permeability from Darcy’s law is provided, as well as a modified formula for permeability determination in volcanic areas. Actually, soil gas viscosity and permeability are affected by changing gas temperature and composition. The effects of these two parameters on soil gas viscosity and permeability are also displayed. The second part of the paper shows the employ of permeability measurements in environment al monitoring. The aim of these field - works was the study of lateral and vertical variability of soil permeability at a very small scale (step of 0.25 m) and the effect of intrinsic permeability on gas transport through the soil and on gas concentration al ong depth profiles . We chose 2 different test sites: Valle della Caffarella (Roma, Italy) and Solfatara Volcano (Pozzuoli, Italy) areas. A specific protocol, designed to check any interference among permeability measurements carried out at very close dista nces demonstrated that no disturbance is occurring. Intrinsic permeability profiles resulted to be good proxy indicators for the degassing style of the two areas. In both cases, it gave important hints to interpret environmental data and help in the manage ment of the sites.

Abstract We performed a comparative analysis of the internal structure of the secondary phloem of one, two and three-year-old stems of Spiraea beauverdiana growing in extreme conditions of solfataric fields of Golovnin Volcano caldera and Mendeleyev Volcano and in normal conditions. The combination of environmental factors in conditions of solfataric activity, such as high temperatures in the soil and in the near-surface air, as well as saturation with gases toxic to plants, rare elements accumulating in the nearby substrate, and lack of soil moisture, interfere with normal phellogen and cambium activity. Deviations from the normal structure involve changes in the following parameters of the internal structure of a year-old stem of S. beauverdiana. Secondary phloem parameters in the studied habitats are normal, except for the length of the segments of sieve tubes, the height of single-row rays, the length of parenchymal girder; these are shorter in S. beauverdiana stems from volcanos. At two and three years of age in volcanic conditions we see reduction in the width of the secondary phloem (both conductive and non-conductive) and the diameter of the segments of sieve tubes. In samples from Golovnin Volcano we see reduction in tangential diameter, while in the samples from Mendeleyev Volcano it’s the radial diameter. We also see reduction in the height of multiple-row rays. At that age we see changes in the structure of the radial parenchyma; namely, we find no double-row rays in samples from Golovnin Volcano caldera. One of the signs of impact of volcanic activity on the bark structure is development of non-specific anomalies in the internal structure of the S. beauverdiana bark, namely, in the outer bark, or in deeper levels, such as the secondary phloem. That causes sclerification and dilatation of parenchyma, and multiple layers in some tissues.

Abstract. Solfatara is part of the active volcanic zone of Campi Flegrei (Italy), a densely populated urban area where ground uplift and increasing ground temperature are observed, connected with rising rates of CO2 emission. A major pathway of CO2 release at Campi Flegrei is diffuse soil degassing, and therefore quantifying diffuse CO2 emission rates is of vital interest. Conventional in situ probing of soil gas emissions with accumulation chambers is accurate over a small footprint but requires significant time and effort to cover large areas. An alternative approach is differential absorption lidar, which allows for a fast and spatially integrated measurement. Here, a portable hard-target differential absorption lidar has been used to acquire horizontal 1-D profiles of column-integrated CO2 concentration at the Solfatara crater. To capture heterogenic features in the CO2 distribution, a 2-D tomographic map of the CO2 distribution has been inverted from the 1-D profiles. The scan was performed one-sided, which is unfavorable for the inverse problem. Nonetheless, the result is in agreement with independent measurements and furthermore confirms an area of anomalous CO2 degassing along the eastern edge as well as the center of the Solfatara crater. The method may have important implications for measurements of degassing features that can only be accessed from limited angles, such as airborne sensing of volcanic plumes. CO2 fluxes retrieved from the 2-D map are comparable, but modestly higher than emission rates from previous studies, perhaps reflecting an increase in CO2 flux or a more integrated measurement or both.

A hyperthermophilic crenarchaeon, designated strain CBA1502T, was isolated from volcanic soil in the Mayon volcano in the Philippines. The 16S rRNA gene sequence of strain CBA1502T was most closely related to that of Thermoproteus uzoniensis DSM 5263T (99.2 % similarity) and Thermoproteus tenax Kra 1T (99.0 %). The organism grew at 75–90 °C and pH 4.0–6.0 and in the presence of 0–0.5 % (w/v) NaCl, with optimal growth at 85 °C and pH 5.0. Strain CBA1502T utilized d-arabinose, beef extract, Casamino acids, formate, fumarate, peptone, pyruvate, trimethylamine and yeast extract as energy substrates, and d-arabinose, formate, pyruvate and yeast extract as carbon sources. Fumarate, sulfate, sulfur and thiosulfate functioned as electron acceptors, but not ferric chloride, nitrate, malate or oxidized glutathione. DNA–DNA hybridization studies showed that there was less than 46.1 % relatedness between strain CBA1502T and other members of the genus Thermoproteus. The DNA G+C content of strain CBA1502T was 62.0 mol%. We conclude that, according to its phylogenetic, phenotypic and genotypic characteristics, strain CBA1502T represents a novel species of the genus Thermoproteus, and propose the name Thermoproteus thermophilus sp. nov., with the type strain CBA1502T ( = ATCC BAA-2416T = JCM 17229T).

Microorganisms thriving in hot springs and hydrothermally active volcanic areas are dynamically involved in heavy-metal biogeochemical cycles; they have developed peculiar resistance systems to cope with such metals which nowadays can be considered among the most permanent and toxic pollutants for humans and the environment. For this reason, their exploitation is functional to unravel mechanisms of toxic-metal detoxification and to address bioremediation of heavy-metal pollution with eco-sustainable approaches. In this work, we isolated a novel strain of the thermophilic bacterium Geobacillus stearothermophilus from the solfataric mud pool in Pisciarelli, a well-known hydrothermally active zone of the Campi Flegrei volcano located near Naples in Italy, and characterized it by ribotyping, 16S rRNA sequencing and mass spectrometry analyses. The minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) toward several heavy-metal ions indicated that the novel G. stearothermophilus isolate is particularly resistant to some of them. Functional and morphological analyses suggest that it is endowed with metal resistance systems for arsenic and cadmium detoxification.

Temperature and composition at fumaroles are controlled by several volcanic and exogenous processes that operate on various time-space scales. Here, we analyze fluctuations of temperature and chemical composition recorded at fumarolic vents in Solfatara (Campi Flegrei caldera, Italy) from December 1997 to December 2015, in order to better understand source(s) and driving processes. Applying the singular spectral analysis, we found that the trends explain the great part of the variance of the geochemical series but not of the temperature series. On the other hand, a common source, also shared by other geo-indicators (ground deformation, seismicity, hydrogeological and meteorological data), seems to be linked with the oscillatory structure of the investigated signals. The informational characteristics of temperature and geochemical compositions, analyzed by using the Fisher–Shannon method, appear to be a sort of fingerprint of the different periodic structure. In fact, the oscillatory components were characterized by a wide range of significant periodicities nearly equally powerful that show a higher degree of entropy, indicating that changes are influenced by overlapped processes occurring at different scales with a rather similar intensity. The present study represents an advancement in the understanding of the dominant driving mechanisms of volcanic signals at fumaroles that might be also valid for other volcanic areas.

Volcanologists have demonstrated that carbon dioxide (CO2) fluxes are precursors of volcanic eruptions. Controlling volcanic gases and, in particular, the CO2 flux, is technically challenging, but we can retrieve useful information from magmatic/geological process studies for the mitigation of volcanic hazards including air traffic security. Existing techniques used to probe volcanic gas fluxes have severe limitations such as the requirement of near-vent in situ measurements, which is unsafe for operators and deleterious for equipment. In order to overcome these limitations, a novel range-resolved DIAL-Lidar (Differential Absorption Light Detection and Ranging) has been developed as part of the ERC (European Research Council) Project “BRIDGE”, for sensitive, remote, and safe real-time CO2 observations. Here, we report on data collection, processing techniques, and the most significant findings of the experimental campaigns carried out at the most hazardous volcanic areas in Italy: Pozzuoli Solfatara (Phlegraen Fields), Stromboli, and Mt. Etna. The BrIdge voLcanic LIdar—BILLI has successfully obtained accurate measurements of in-plume CO2 concentration and flux. In addition, wind velocity has also been retrieved. It has been shown that the measurements of CO2 concentration performed by BILLI are comparable to those carried out by volcanologists with other standard techniques, heralding a new era in the observation of long-term volcanic gases.

The utility of new imaging technologies to better understand hazardous geological environments cannot be overstated. The combined use of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) and digital photogrammetry (DP) represents a rapidly evolving technique that permits geoscientists to obtain detailed spatial data. This can aid in rapid mapping and analyses of dynamic processes that are modifying contemporary landscapes, particularly through the creation of a time series of digital data to help monitor the geomorphological evolution of volcanic structures. Our study comprises a short-term (in geological terms) monitoring program of the dynamic and diffuse Pisciarelli degassing structure caused by the interplay between intensive rainfall and hydrothermal activity. This area, an unstable fumarole field located several hundred meters east of the Solfatara Crater of the Campi Flegrei caldera (southern Italy), is characterized by consistent soil degassing, fluid emission from ephemeral vents, and hot mud pools. This degassing activity is episodically accompanied by seismic swarms and macroscopic morphology changes such as the appearance of vigorously degassing vents, collapsing landslides, and bubbling mud. In late-2019 and 2020, we performed repeated photogrammetric UAV surveys using the Structure from Motion (SfM) technique. This approach allowed us to create dense 3D point clouds and digital orthophotos spanning one year of surveys. The results highlight the benefits of photogrammetry data using UAV for the accurate remote monitoring and mapping of active volcanoes and craters in harsh and dangerous environments.

Abstract The first definitive evidence for continental vents on Mars is the in situ detection of amorphous silica-rich outcrops by the Mars Exploration Rover Spirit. These outcrops have been tentatively interpreted as the result of either acid sulfate leaching in fumarolic environments or direct precipitation from hot springs. Such environments represent prime targets for upcoming astrobiology missions but remain difficult to identify with certainty, especially from orbit. To contribute to the identification of fumaroles and hot spring deposits on Mars, we surveyed their characteristics at the analog site of the Solfatara volcanic crater in central Italy. Several techniques of mineral identification (VNIR spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, XRD) were used both in the field and in the laboratory on selected samples. The faulted crater walls showed evidence of acid leaching and alteration into the advanced argillic-alunitic facies, with colorful deposits containing alunite, jarosite, and/or hematite. Sublimates containing various Al and Fe hydroxyl-sulfates were observed around the active fumarole vents at 90 °C. One vent at 160 °C was characterized by different sublimates enriched in As and Hb sulfide species. Amorphous silica and alunite assemblages that are diagnostic of silicic alteration were also observed at the Fangaia mud pots inside the crater. A wide range of minerals was identified at the 665 m diameter Solfatara crater that is diagnostic of acid-steam heated alteration of a trachytic, porous bedrock. Importantly, this mineral diversity was captured at each site investigated with at least one of the techniques used, which lends confidence for the recognition of similar environments with the next-generation Mars rovers.

This paper explored the relationship between acidic sulfate alteration, geostructural frameworks, and geomorphological changes that can be observed in active volcanic hydrothermal systems. The target area was Pisciarelli in the Campi Flegrei volcano, where diffuse acidic sulfate alteration and hydrothermal dynamics have been growing since 2012, causing a progressive deterioration of landscapes. Terrestrial Laser Scanner (TLS), photogrammetry of proximity survey, geological field work, mineralogical and geochemical analysis with Optical Microscopy (OM), electron microscopy, and energy dispersive micro-analysis (BSEM-EDS) and X-ray Powder Diffraction (XRPD) to characterize (and monitor) altered rock outcrops were repeatedly carried out in the area. We present the multi-temporal acquisition and analysis referring to Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS) datasets (2014 survey) with 3D-point clouds obtained from the Structure for Motion (SfM) photogrammetry (2021 survey) with a high-resolution digital camera aimed at evaluating volumetric changes on the mostly damaged and altered fault scarp. For each survey, we obtained a vertical Digital Elevation Model (DEM) and a true color RGB orthomosaic that provided the setting of the area at the different times and its evolution through their comparison. Changing sites were examined in the field and characterized for mineralogical and geochemical purposes. The investigated slope lost up to about 4 m3 of deposits between 2014 and 2021, mostly related to hydrothermal alteration induced by gas emissions and meteoric infiltration. Our methodological approach appears promising to evaluate evolution and rock-fall susceptibility of solfataric terrains subjected to hydrothermal dynamics.

The aim of this work is to develop and test a simple methodology for CO2 emission retrieval applied to hyperspectral PRISMA data. Model simulations are used to infer the best SWIR channels for CO2 retrieval purposes, the weight coefficients for a Continuum Interpolated Band Ratio (CIBR) index calculation, and the factor for converting the CIBR values to XCO2 (ppm) estimations above the background. This method has been applied to two test cases relating to the LUSI volcanic area (Indonesia) and the Solfatara area in the caldera of Campi Flegrei (Italy). The results show the capability of the method to detect and estimate CO2 emissions at a local spatial scale and the potential of PRISMA acquisitions for gas retrieval. The limits of the method are also evaluated and discussed, indicating a satisfactory application for medium/strong emissions and over soils with a reflectance greater than 0.1.

An anaerobic, rod-shaped, hyperthermophilic and acidophilic crenarchaeon, designated strain CBA1501T, was isolated from solfataric soil of the Mayon volcano in the Republic of the Philippines. Phylogenetic analysis showed that strain CBA1501T is affiliated with the genus Vulcanisaeta in the phylum Crenarchaeota . DNA sequence similarities between the 16S rRNA gene of strain CBA1501T and those of Vulcanisaeta distributa IC-017T and Vulcanisaeta souniana IC-059T were 98.5 and 97.4 %, respectively. Strain CBA1501T grew between 75–90 °C, over a pH range of 4.0–6.0 and in the presence of 0–1.0 % (w/v) NaCl, with optimal growth occurring at 85 °C, pH 5.0, and with 0 % (w/v) NaCl. Fumarate, malate, oxidized glutathione, sulfur and thiosulfate were used as final electron acceptors, but FeCl3, nitrate and sulfate were not. The DNA G+C content of strain CBA1501T was 43.1 mol%. On the basis of polyphasic taxonomic analysis, strain CBA1501T represents a novel species of the genus Vulcanisaeta in the phylum Crenarchaeota , for which we propose the name Vulcanisaeta thermophila sp. nov. The type strain is CBA1501T ( = ATCC BAA-2415T = JCM 17228T).

Efflorescences in the geothermal field of SE Melos, Greece, contain significant amounts of hydrated Al sulphate, alunogen, which could represent the Melian alumen exploited in Roman times and commended by Pliny. The efflorescences at subaerial fumaroles are explained as follows: Sulphur crystallizes on oxidation of H2S emanating from depth. Weathering produces sulphuric acid enhancing groundwater alteration of volcanic rocks. The high geothermal gradient and arid climate stimulate efflorescences. Salts are recycled during wet and dry weather leading to Al-enrichment on loss of Fe(II,III) and other cations. δ34S‰ V-CDT values for sulphur in fumarole sublimates, solfatara soils and ‘veins’ range from —0.3 to 6.4‰, mean 3.8‰ (n = 8) while Al, Ca and Mg-sulphates in diverse settings range from —4.1 to 6.8‰ (n = 16). The values for sulphur indicate that the initial H2S had an igneous source and the signature is largely inherited by the sulphates.This study aims to underpin research into the exploitation of industrial minerals in the Roman period. When searching for early alumen workings, areas with evidence of acid sulphate alteration (white rocks) and sulphurous fumarole activity should be investigated.

Sub bottom Profiling survey using strata box, a specially designed low penetration sub bottom Profiling (< 80 m) for coastal waters exploration, found out evidence of submarine volcanic activities in northern coastal waters of Weh Island, NanggroeAceh Darussalam Province. Gas bubbling could be observed at water columns of the digital sub bottom Profiling records as acoustic turbidity. There are at least 33 spots of volcanic gas bursts observed from the sub bottom Profiling. Examination of gas bursts at coastal area which show fumaroles and solfatara indicate reduce volcanic activity either at submarine or terrestrial. Identification of seafloor gas burst by diving team found out that center of such burst is occurred at a north - south opened lineation assumed as normal fault. It seems that the seafloor normal fault is the continuation of terrestrial fault of the same direction as observed from terrain earth google of Weh Island.Keywords: seafloor faulting, submarine volcanic activities, shallow sub bottom Profiling data, Weh Island Aceh Survei penampang bawah dasar laut (SBP) menggunakan strata box, suatu alat SBP penetrasi rendah yang didisain untuk eksplorasi perairan pantai, mendapatkan bukti-bukti aktivitas gunungapi bawah laut di perairan sebelah utara Pulau Weh, Provinsi Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam. Gelembung-gelembung gas dapat diamati pada kolom air rekaman digital penampang bawah dasar laut sebagai turbiditas akustik. Sedikitnya dijumpai 33 titik semburan gas volkanik yang teramati dari penampang bawah dasar laut tersebut. Pemeriksaan semburan-semburan gas pada wilayah pantai sebagai fumarola dan solfataramenunjukkan telah berkurangnya aktivitas volkanik apakah pada dasar laut maupun darat. Identifikasi semburan gas dasar laut oleh tim selam mendapatkan bahwa pusat semburan berada pada kelurusan berarah utara - selatan yang diduga sebagai sesar normal. Tampaknya adalah bahwa sesar normal dasar laut tersebut merupakan kelanjutan sesar darat yang berorientasi sama seperti teramati dari citra earthgoogle terrain Pulau Weh. Kata kunci: pensesaran dasar laut, aktivitas gunungapi bawah laut, data penampang bawah dasar laut, Pulau Weh Aceh

Arjuno-Welirang Volcanic Complex (AWVC) is one of geothermal fields whichlocated in East Java province, Indonesia. It belongs to a Quarternary volcanic arc and has potential for development of electricity. The field is situated in a steep volcanic terrain and there are only few geothermal manifestations, i.e., hot springs, fumaroles, solfataras, steaming ground and hydrothermal alteration. This study aims to classify the type and source of geothermal fluid and to estimate the reservoir condition of Arjuno- Welirang geothermal system. Data are obtained from collecting water samples including hot springs, cold springs, river waters and rain water, then they are analyzed using ICP-AES, titration and ion chromatography.All thermal waters have temperatures from 39.5–53°C and weakly acidic pH (5.2–6.5). Cangar and Padusanhot springs show bicarbonate water, formed by steam condensing or groundwater mixing. On the other hand, Songgoriti shows Cl-HCO3 type, formed by dilution of chloride fluid by either groundwater or bicarbonate water during lateral flow. All of the waters represent immature waters, indicating no strong outflow of neutral Cl-rich deep waters in AWVC. Cl/B ratios show that all water samples have a similar mixing ratio, showing they are from common fluid sources. However, Padusan and Songgoriti have higher Cl/B ratios than Cangar, suggesting that geothermal fluids possibly have reacted with sedimentary rocks before ascending to the surface. All waters were possibly mixed with shallow groundwater and they underwent rock-water reactions at depth before ascending to the surface. An estimated temperatures reservoir calculated using CO2 geothermometer yielded temperatures of 262–263 °C based on collecting of fumarole gas at Mt. Welirang crater. According to their characteristics, Cangar and Padusan are associated with AWVC, while Songgoriti is associated with Mt. Kawi.

The paper provides with the research results of physicochemical and balneological properties of thermal waters and hydrothermal mud of the Ebeko volcano (Paramushir Island, Kuril Islands). To assess recreational and tourist potential, we sample the most intensive thermal waters outputs. Ultra-acidic spring no. 1 of the Verkhne-Yuryeva group has a temperature of 88 °C, its mineralized (M – 13 g/l) chloride-sulfate waters contain biologically active elements in elevated concentrations (Si, B, Br, Fe2 +). Thermal waters of the Verkhne-Yuryeva springs can be roughly attributed to the Gaisky type of the acid water group and recommended for external use in the treatment and prevention of a wide range of diseases. Given the complexity of the route to the springs, the real development of this territory is considered not as a balneotherapy complex, but as an object of recreational and tourist activities. A similar situation is with an ultra-acidic sulfate thermal spring in the North-Eastern solfataric field. In addition to hydrotherms, it contains thin deposits of hydrothermal mud , which is almost impossible to use as a therapeutic due to its insufficiently good physical indicators and relatively small volume. The most promising deep hydrotherms for recreation and balneotherapy are opened by a well P-2 in the area of Severo-Kurilsk. In 2014, the hydrotherms temperature was 82 °C, mineralized water (M – 8.6 g/l) chloride-hydrocarbonate sodium, slightly alkaline (pH 7.6), with an elevated content of biologically active components (Si, B, Br). According to the physical and chemical properties, the thermal waters of well P-2 can be tentatively attributed to the Lazarevsky hydrochemical type of therapeutic drinking water of chloride-hydrocarbonate sodium group, and as an external (balneological) use, they are tentatively close to the Kuldur type of siliceous thermal waters of various ion composition.

Copahue is a geothermal field located in the Northwest corner of Neuquén province in Argentina. It is dominated by the still active Copahue volcano. In the area there are many acidic pools, hot springs and solfataras with different temperature and pH conditions that influence their microbial diversity. On the surrounding rocks and the borders of the pools, where water movements and thermal activity are less intense, many biofilms can be found. They have different aspects and structure, and they present less extreme temperature and pH conditions than the ponds and hot springs. Biofilms are a different ecological niche and they have different microbial community structure. In this study carried out by molecular ecology techniques, mainly 16S and 18S rRNA sequencing, we report a strong presence of cyanobacterias, cloroflexi and eukaryotes, not detected in previous biodiversity studies done on water samples. Almost no acidophilic bacteria were found, with the exception of members of genusThiomonas, also found in the acidic pools. Archaea were detected only in one of the biofilms and the structure of that community seems to be similar to those found in water samples, with many uncultured species mainly related to orderSulfolobales. The aim of this study is to assess microbial community diversity in the biofilms present in this acidic geothermal area, with particular emphasis on detection of cyanobacterias and eukaryotes with potential biotechnological applications like production of alternative energy sources, synthesis and accumulation of biomolecules with antiviral or antibiotic activities or potential ability to bioremediate contaminated areas.

On Vulcano Island (Italy), many geochemical crises have occurred during the last 130 years of solfataric activity. The main crises occurred in 1978–1980, 1988–1991, 1996, 2004–2007, 2009–2010 and the ongoing 2021 anomalous degassing activity. These crises have been characterized by early signals of resuming degassing activity, measurable by the increase of volatiles and energy output emitted from the summit areas of the active cone, and particularly by increases of gas/water ratios in the fumarolic area at the summit. In any case, a direct rather than linear correspondence has been observed among the observed increase in the fluid output, seismic release and ground deformation, and is still a subject of study. We present here the results obtained by the long-term monitoring (over 13 years of observations) of three extensive parameters: the SO2 flux monitored in the volcanic plume, the soil CO2 flux and the local heat flux, monitored in the mild thermal anomaly located to the east of the high-temperature fumarole. The time variations of these parameters showed cyclicity in the volcanic degassing and a general increase in the trend in the last period. In particular, we focused on the changes in the mass and energy output registered in the period of June–December 2021, to offer in near-real-time the first evaluation of the level and duration of the actual exhalative crisis affecting Vulcano Island. In this last event, a clear change in degassing style was recorded for the volatiles emitted by the magma. For example, the flux of diffused CO2 from the soils reached the maximum never-before-recorded value of 34,000 g m−2 d−1 and the flux of SO2 of the plume emitted by the fumarolic field on the summit crater area reached values higher than 200 t d−1. The interpretation of the behavior of this volcanic system, resulting from the detailed analyses of these continuous monitoring data, will complete the framework of observations and help in defining and possibly forecasting the next evolution of the actual exhaling crisis.

Mirjana POLIĆ BOBIĆ: Kalifornijski zapisi oca Ferdinanda Konšćaka iz Družbe Isusove, Hrvatska sveučilišna naklada, Zagreb, 2015.U ovoj knjizi autorica je iscrpno i kompetentno, kao ponajbolji prevodilac pisane ostavštine Ferdinanda Konšćaka, analitički i metodološki kvalitetno, uz podrobna objašnjenja i popratna razmišljanja, na tristo stranica predstavila bogatu i vrijednu pisanu ostavštinu kao i relevantne spise o njegovom radu i o njemu. To je do sada najsveobuhvatniji pristup obradi spisa ovoga pripadnika Družbe Isusove u nas, koji uvelike pridonosi spoznaji o veličini i značenju njegovih znanstvenih i istraživačkih dosega, ne samo za geografiju nego za pojedine druge znanosti. Opsežni uvod čine četiri poglavlja autoričine sveobuhvatne rasprave 1. o Konšćakovim zapisima i životu s popisom i opisom rukopisa i izdanja Konšćakovih tekstova o Novom svijetu i o njegovu životu, 2. o tome kako je Konšćak mogao dospjeti u Donju Kaliforniju, 3. o Kaliforniji od mita do utopijskog projekta te 4. o kraljevskim i misionarskim interesima, utopijskim obrascima i svakodnevnici sa zaključnim razmatranjima. Spisateljičina rasprava o navedenim aspektima, opservacije i razmatrani predlošci brojnih prethodnika, suvremenika i kasnijih istraživača i promicatelja Konšćakova rada i djela odaju vrsnu poznavateljicu brojnih predložaka i dokumentacije, neobjavljene i objavljene, dostupne i manje dostupne o našem isusovcu istraživaču. Drugi dio, može se slobodno istaknuti, krucijalni su prijevodi petnaestak autentičnih zapisa, dakle pisama, izvješća, dnevnika, opisa, Ferdinanda Konšćaka iz kojih se neposredno saznaje o njegovim putovanjima, otkrićima, spoznajama, poslanju, sukobljavanjima pa sve do intimnijih razmišljanja u prepisci ili izviješćima kroz koja izbija mnoštvo dokaza o njemu kao o izrazitom isusovačkom humanistu, entuzijastu, misionaru i istraživaču. To su pisma subraći, nadređenima, meksičkom provincijalu, superiorima, vizitatorima, prijateljima, dnevnici i dr., te također dva prijevoda drugih autora Miguela del Barca i oca Francisca Zevallosa koji se tiču Ferdinanda Konšćaka. Djelo prate i zahvala, popis izvora uz prevedene Konšćakove tekstove, literatura, sažetci na španjolskom i engleskom jeziku i kratki opis života i rada autorice. Otac Ferdinand Konšćak, poznat u svjetskoj literaturi i kao Ferdinando Consag (španj.) utemeljitelj Donje Kalifornije (Baja California), rođen je u Varaždinu 2. prosinca 1703., a umro je u misiji Santa Gertrudis u Donjoj Kaliforniji (Meksiko) 10. rujna 1759. Pristupio je isusovačkom redu 1719. u Trenčinu u Slovačkoj. Filozofiju je završio u Grazu, zatim radio na kolegijima u Zagrebu, pa Budimu. Prije završetka studija teologije u Grazu, odobren mu je odlazak u Novi svijet pa je 1729. otišao u Španjolsku, odakle je iz Cadiza 1731. krenuo u jednom od jedrenjaka flote za Indije. Preko Havane, stigao je u Veracruz te u Meksiko gdje je 1731. završio započeti studij teologije. Na poluotok Donje Kalifornije stigao je 1732. u redukciju Loreto gdje je najprije boravio, pa 1733. prešao u San Ignacio, zatim na sam jug poluotoka, pa ponovno u San Ignacio odakle je opsluživao velik dio izoliranih krajeva, dajući posebno velik doprinos osnivanju misija Santa Gertrudis i San Francisco de Borja. Kao isusovački misionar postao je jedan od najslavnijih istraživača meksičkoga poluotoka Kalifornije, koji je dokazao da je Kalifornija poluotok. Naime, poslije ranijih spoznaja (još od 30-ih godina 16. st.) da je Donja Kalifornija poluotok (v. Planciusov zemljovid svijeta 1592., i Meteliusov Kalifornije 1598.), u 17. i početkom 18. stoljeća počeli su se u Europi pojavljivati pogrješni, dosta tvrdokorni stavovi da je riječ o otoku kao i zemljovidi na kojima je tako i prikazivana. Stoga je trebalo ponovno, a iz sasvim pragmatičnih razloga, podastrijeti nove dokaze o poluotoku. Premda se već subrat Francisco E. Kino u četiri svoja putovanja 1697. – 1702. uvjerio da je Kalifornija poluotok, to otkriće nije bilo prihvaćeno pa su se tražili novi dokazi. Konšćakovo istraživanje dokazalo je drugi put poluotočnost Donje Kalifornije. Čak je i kasnije bilo dvojbi o poluotočnosti pa je 1766. tamo poslan otac Wenceslao Linck da provjeri Konšćakovu tvrdnju. Priznati su mu znanstveni doprinosi u matematici, astronomiji, prirodoslovlju, etnologiji, geografiji i geologiji. Bio je graditelj cesta, vodoopskrbnih objekata i obrambenih nasipa te nadzornik svih isusovačkih misija u Meksiku, a njegovo ime nosi otočić Roca Consag (Consag Rocks na sjeveru Kalifornijskog zaljeva 17 milja od grada San Felipe). Miguel del Barco, kojeg je kasnije iščitavao i Alexander von Humboldt, navodio je Konšćaka kao važnog izvora opisa ratničkih običaja, društvenog ustroja tamošnjih indijanskih zajednica, njihovih jezika, vjerovanja, načina odijevanja, prehrambenih navika, obreda uvođenja u zrelo doba života. Uz brojne pohode, poduzeo je i tri veće ekspedicije (1746., 1751. i 1753.) u kojima je sustavno istraživao neznana područja poluotoka. U prvoj do ušća Rio Colorada, razriješio je više od dva stoljeća podržavanu dvojbu o Donjoj Kaliforniji, dokazavši da nije otok nego poluotok. Oko 1748. izradio je precizan zemljovid Donje Kalifornije, a oko 1750. i zemljovid Kalifornijskog zaljeva, ucrtavši u njih brojna naselja, misije, imena zaljeva, rtova, otoka, pojave vode (na njegovu zemljovidu Aguage) itd. kao i imena plemena. Zanimljivi su prikazi reljefa, posebice vulkanskog područja Las Virgenes (en los quales sehàn de scubierto Volcanes d Fuego. Año 1746), zaljeva, rtova, otoka i otočića u Kalifornijskom zaljevu itd. U svim ekspedicijama bilježio je podatke o terenu, prirodnim bogatstvima i starosjediocima. Osnovao je nove misije, gradio akvadukte, nasipe, kanale za odvodnju, sudjelovao pri otvaranju prvih rudnika srebra na poluotoku. Još za života objavljeni su njegovi dnevnici ekspedicijâ, prevedeni na nekoliko jezika, u više izdanja, a njegovi zemljovidi poluotokâ i zaljevâ bili su poznati u to doba i nerijetko precrtavani. U prvom pohodu 1746. Konšćak je s posadama i pratnjom na četiri jedrenjaka, počevši od luke San Carlos (daje opširan opis luke, voda, rtova), najbliže misiji San Ignacio, uz istočnu obalu poluotoka istražio najprije širi prostor zaljeva Santisima Trinidad (lovište bisernica s hridinastim dnom, opasnim za ronioce, San Bernabé i otočić s tuljanima). Nastavili su do područja rta San Juan de Bauptista, niske obale s glinenim nanosima, pojavom vode i priobalnim hridima što opširnije opisuje, zatim do rta San Miguel, koji sa sljedećim rtom zatvara zaljev, s barom, vrelom vode, lovištem bisernica, gdje za nevremena more izbacuje mnoštvo školjaka tvoreći nasip koji već kršteni domoroci nazivaju Pepena. U mjestu San Miguel de la Peña održali su poduku domorocima poganima, od kojih su neke i krstili. Dalje opširno opisuje obalu, vrste dna, odvaljene litice, pojave ilovasta tla uz obalu s kaktusom cardón i čičkom, brojnim pticama, pojavama mramora. U blizini rta San Gabriel de las Almeja ili Salsipuedes (prema imenu susjednog otočja) spominje otočić Tortuguilla (tj. Kornjačica) koji Kalifornijci nazivaju Serro Blanco, obližnja naselja u kojima je bilo ponešto krštenika. Domoroci skupljaju vodu, pa makar i slankastu jer su izvori rijetkost. Dno je opasno, hridinasto, spominje neku žutu pećinu, s opisom obale. Skupine domorodaca dovodile su djecu na krštenje, ali bilo je i onih, na koje su bili upozoreni da spremaju napad na ekspediciju, pa su nastavili prema zaljevu San Rafael gdje su na ušću rijeke Kada Koaman u razgovorima s gostoljubivim domorocima, koji su ih vodili do brzaca vode i zdenca, saznali da njih i ronioce napadaju gorštaci. Posebno je važan opis toplih vrela koja su vidljiva za oseke, a za plime su poplavljena morem, priobalnih dijelova s konkavnim stijenama s izvorima vode, šljunčanim i pješčanim nanosima, drvećem mezquite. Pohod je nastavljen prema rtu San Antonio. Tamošnjem malom zaljevu dali su ime Purgatorio (Čistilište). Zatim su obišli stjenoviti i hridinasti rt Las Animas i stigli u duboku i pogodnu uvalu Los Angeles zaštićenu ulančenim otocima na ulazu s pojavom vode koja teče sa strmih padina. Ovdje su bili izloženi prijetnjama okupljenih domorodaca sa sjevera koji su brodove pratili nekoliko dana. Nastavili su do dijela Los Remedios s uvalom Nostra Señora de los Remedios, s nasuprotnim otokom Angel Santo de la Guarda. Za njega navodi da je dosta izdužen, širi na sjeverozapadu i da se od rta San Rafael proteže sve do otočića San Juan i San Pablo, a i dijelu obale su dali isto ime. Svugdje ima dosta bisernica. Kanal između otoka i obale poluotoka pun je kitova pa ga zovi Kitovim tjesnacem (Canal de Ballenas). Skromne, guste i bljutave vode našli su i na dijelu obale koji su nazvali po danu dolaska, San Pedro e Pablo. Nastavili su do zaljeva San Luis Gonzaga i njegova otoka okruženog rtovima, povoljnog za sidrenje, s više slanih lokava na kopnu i bogat ribom, a na zemljovidu je ovdje označeno ime na kopnu San Stanislao (sv. Stanislav; poljski isusovac iz 16. st.). Tu se nalazi i voda San Estanislao. Stalno su susretali negostoljubive, preplašene domoroce, a u moru posvuda sedefaste školjke. Sljedećem dijelu obale nadjenuli su ime San Sebastian, a zatim dio obale zvan Visitación završava na sjeveru istoimenim visokim rtom. Dalje je obala niska, ravna, blatna i kamenita, s dosta antilopa, divljih koza i ovnova, a naišli su i na ključalo sumporno vrelo s dimom (zacijelo solfatar). Sljedeća zona, nazvana Santa Ysabel, zadnje je nalazište školjaka bisernica, jer ih dalje nije bilo, a u blizini, na dijelu dosta teško pristupačne obale s pješčanim prudovima s dražicom San Fermin našli su pitku vodu. Nastavili su prema uvali San Felipe de Jesús, a prošavši San Buonaventuru, obala je postala niska, pješčana, močvarna (Marismas na zemljovidu) s planinama udaljenima tri do četiri lige, bez uvala i izvora, s plitkim morem (Pantanas), zamuljeno. Stigavši do ušća Crvene rijeke, vode su postale obojene, opore, nezdrave. Unatoč vrlo teškim uvjetima, naišli su na pitku vodu pri ušću, na kojem rukavci rijeke odvajaju tri niska močvarna otoka. Nanos rijeke prostire se miljama, a snaga plimnih valova, kao i same rijeke, dovodila je do havarija pa je jedan od brodova stradao. Istražili su područje oko ušća, ustanovivši da s kalifornijske strane rijeka vijuga i među planinama. Nakon dvadeset pet dana istraživačkog pohoda, Konšćak prvi put spominje zemljovid koji je izrađivao navodeći: „Petnaestorica naših kretala se jedno vrijeme kopnom, pa su nam donijeli vijesti o stanju u močvari koja se nalazi na samom rtu toga podvodnoga područja i mi to ucrtasmo u zemljovid“ na kojem je bila označena sjeverna širina. Ovaj Konšćakov dnevnik otac Miguel de la Barca kasnije je popratio podrobnim objašnjenjima i komentarima. U drugoj ekspediciji Konšćak je putovao kopnom poluotoka prema sjeveru i do Tihog oceana. Taj pohod o kojem piše u pismu prijatelju i posebno opširno u dnevniku, odvijao se 1751. iz misije San Ignacio, zapravo iz La Piedad (kasnije nazvana Santa Gertrudis) prema San Everardu kroz Sierra Madre na drugu stranu poluotoka do Oceana. Pohod se odvijao uz pomoć konja, najprije u bezvodnom kraju s bodljikavim stablima milapa, gdje su domoroci već bili pokršteni. Zatim su stigli do korita Kalmayia, koje je pripadalo oselju Nuestra Señora dela Visitación, zatim do Nuestra Señora dela Desponsación de Pui te potoka Kanjaikamána, Nakon nekoliko dana došli su do Ajavaiamina, tekućice s vodom, potom do Anguma, potoka Ziénage u Mezcalu, nešto sjevernije. U dnevniku spominje otoke u tjesnacu Santa Barbara i otok Cerros (Cedros) ili Santisima Trinidad, koji domoroci zovu Vamalgua ili (G)Uamalgua (tj. kuća magle) te rt Mendocino i otok Cenizas na Oceanu. Došavši do mjesta Kalvalaga pogled im se pružio na mali, ali visok otok „koji pomorci koji putuju za Filipine zovu Guadalupe“. Odatle su se vratili natrag do potoka Ziénage i potoka Kanjaikamána, te se zadržali kod vrela Medakal. Slijedi opis obale nasuprot otoku Cedros, gdje ima u moru mnoštvo kitova, gdje su pronašli ostatke brodoloma nekog broda, a spominje i Zaljev (očito Vizcaíno). Uskoro su stigli u indijanski Laboakal, odakle su se ponovno vratili u La Piedad i San Everardo, odakle su i krenuli. Svugdje opisuje život, vjerovanja, ponašanja i običaje domorodaca. Iz vremena između drugog i trećeg pohoda, posebno je važan opis otkrivenih dijelova Kalifornije i dijelova Meksika. Najprije za Donju Kaliforniju kaže da je siromašna, bezvodna, s nešto ruda i bisernicama, u nju misionari dolaze iz svojih misija u Sinaloi, na koju se kratko osvrće. Misije su geografski razmještene od najjužnije San Lucas do najsjevernije Santa Gertrudis. Plodnog zemljišta ima samo na jugu, i tamo žive u bolestima i međusobnim sukobima vrlo razrijeđeni Perikujci i Vajkurci te Guajkurci. Tri misije Perikujaca, Santa Rosa, Santiago i San José del Cabo, svedene su na Santiago i seoce San José, a vajkurske su misije Nuestra Señora de Pilar na jugu i Nuestra Señora de los Dolores i San Luis Gonzaga nešto sjevernije s oceanske strane. Ishodište misijskog rada i kraljevskih snaga je Loreto, nekad Concho, u području malobrojnog naroda Monkujaca, jezikom različitog od drugih, a okružuje ga prostorno istaknut narod Kočimaca ili Lajmona. Tamo je sedam misija (od juga prema sjeveru: San Javier, San José de Comondú, Purísima Concepción, Santa Rosalia, Nuestra Señora de Guadelupe, San Ignacio i Santa Gertrudis). Opisuje različitost narječja plemena, njihovih običaja te napose način jedenja (s uzicom uz dvostruko žvakanje). Poluotokom se pruža bezvodno sredogorje Sierra Madre, a priobalje je još bezvodnije pa su samo tri misije na obali. Otvoreni su i rudnici (Santa Anna i dr.). Ima nešto srebra, dosta naslaga soli i salitre. Uz poluotok su i otoci, s oceanske strane su važniji Santa Magdalena, La Navidad de Nuestra Señora i Cerros (Uamalgua). S ovoga posljednjeg domoroci su prešli na kopno i dio ih se naselio u San Estanislau. Bave se i lovom na morske dabrove (nutrije). S istočne strane poluotoka ima više pogodnih luka (Concepción, Los Angeles i dr.), zaljeva te otoka, od kojih su za pristajanje pogodna tri: Espíritu Santo (za plime dva otoka, vrelo vode), San José (domoroci tamo love divljač koja u želudcima ima bezoar, kamen koji stvaraju preživači i ima ljekovita svojstva) i onaj posvećen Gospi Karmelskoj na kojem je solana. Navodi da su svi otoci Kalifornijskog zaljeva nenaseljeni, premda je na nekima prije bilo stanovnika, ali su prešli na kopno u misije. Opisuje različitost školjki bisernica i samih bisera prema boji (na jugu su bijeli, sjevernije u raznim bojama) s kojima se trguje, purpurnu školjku, a ističe da su brojne i zmije te morske kornjače s obje strane poluotoka, ali onih s prozirnim oklopom koje daju skupu kornjačevinu ima samo na jugu. Bavi se i različitim biljkama (medesa, agave, tedá, gorka smokva, kaktusi, razni sukulenti, garambulla, pitahaye, cardón, portulak, šćir) od kojih su neke jestive, ljekovite, a za prehranu su važni i zečevi, kunići, šišmiši pa i štakori. Česti su leopardi, rjeđi jaguari, divlje mačke, vukovi, ima kojota, a lisice su brojne, i sve ih domoroci jedu. Otrovnice čegrtuše su posvuda kao i brojne druge, većinom neotrovne zmije. Spominje i guštere i crve koje domoroci sve jedu osim daždevnjaka i nekoga crvenog crva, te pojedine kukce (stjenice, skakavce, razne pauke pa i tarantule i dr.). Od ptica spominje brojne grabljivice, orlove, gavrane te golubove, neke vrste nalik na fazane i prepelice. Srebro se vadi u rudnicima na jugu, bakra ima po kamenju, željeza također u grumenima, sumpora u izobilju, galice, različitih mramora i prozirca nalik na dijamant. Daje opširne opise običaja i životnih navika domorodaca, muškaraca i žena, nošnje, ženidbe, vjerovanja, idola, vračeva, glazbe, plesova, mnogoženstva (naročito kod stasitih i svijetloputih Perikujaca), vještina lova, prehrane, pogrebnih običaja, inicijacije itd. Vrlo pojednostavnjeno daje opise pojedinih stijena, ruda, okamina, konglomerata i breča pokušavajući objasniti njihov postanak. Na kraju u bilješci navodi luke s oceanske strane kad se od otoka Cerros putuje na sjever: San Hipólito i San Damián prije otoka Cenizas, a zatim San Francisco (de Borja, op. p.), Las Vírgenes, San Simón i Judas te San Diego, koji je razmjerno blizu misije San Borja. Treći pohod 1753. godine, čiji izvorni opis (dnevnik) do sada nije poznat, ali se ponešto saznaje iz drugih napisa, ostvaren je kroz unutrašnjost poluotoka na sjever do 30. stupnja sjeverne širine. Ovaj je put prošao u puno gostoljubivijem okruženju domorodaca, kopnom od Santa Gertrudis preko naselja uz zaljev Los Angeles, do naselja u sredogorju nedaleko od zaljeva San Luis Gonzaga. Osim što je brojnim pothvatima osnivao sigurna naselja, vodoopskrbne sustave, smirivao sukobe među plemenima, onemogućavao pljačke s različitih strana, počeo opismenjavati i liječiti domoroce od zaraza i epidemija, otvarajući im tako put u civilizirani način života, za geografe su značajni i njegovi pisani doprinosi. Uz manje opservacije o Havani, Veracruzu, otocima Alacranes u Meksičkom zaljevu, otkrio je svjetskoj geografskoj spoznaji oblik i zemljopisna obilježja istočne obale Donje Kalifornije, duljinu otoka Angel de la Guarda, mjesto za misiju San Francisco de Borja, izvor rijeke Adac. Istražujući terene oko misija San Ignacio, koji je na granici prema sjeveru (frontera del Norte), Santa Gertrudis, te velik dio Kalifornijskog zaljeva (ili Crvenog mora), u njegovim se zapisima ističu misija Guadelupe, oblast Primeria (današnje Sonora i Sinaloa), ušće Crvene rijeke, temeljit opis zaljeva Los Angeles, vrlo pogodne prirodne luke s vrelima vode i više otočića u blizini (južno od Kanala kitova Canal de Ballenas na njegovoj karti) s pogodnim pristupom iz luka Caborce i Tepoce, koji, s obzirom na povoljne vjetrove, omogućuje prolaz kroz „zastrašujuće otoke Salsipuedes“, Laogiú, tj. planine San Rafael i mnoge druge u ovom tekstu navedene. Geografi, ali i svi drugi koje ova problematika zanima, u ovom će zanimljivom štivu zahvaljujući trudu autorice, pronaći poticaje za saznanja o Ferdinandu Konšćaku i njegovim otkrićima i zapisima, a možda i za daljnje pronalaženje drugih, do danas još nepoznatih rukopisa, bilo njegovih ili o njemu. Autorica Polić Bobić je za knjigu o ocu Ferdinandu Konšćaku dobila nagradu Hrvatske akademije znanosti i umjetnosti za najviša znanstvena i umjetnička dostignuća u Republici Hrvatskoj za 2015. godinu za područje društvenih znanosti Mirjana POLIĆ BOBIĆ, Mijo KORADE: Paragvajska pisma: Ivan Marchesetti i Nikola Plantić, isusovci u Paragvajskoj provinciji Družbe Isusove, Matica hrvatska, Zagreb, 2015. Iz pera vrsne hispanistice, urednice i književne prevoditeljice, redovite profesorice španjolske i hispanoameričke književnosti na Filozofskom fakultetu Sveučilišta u Zagrebu te koautora, crkvenog povjesničara i povjesničara kulture, suradnika Hrvatskog instituta za povijest u Zagrebu i nasl. redovitog profesora na Hrvatskim studijima Sveučilišta u Zagrebu, dostupno je široj javnosti kulturološko ostvarenje koje ima i brojne sastavnice povijesno-zemljopisne naravi, pa je stoga zanimljivo ne samo za povjesničare, hispaniste i druge, nego posebice i za geografe. Prof. Polić Bobić inače se bavi istraživanjem književnosti i kulturne povijesti kolonijalne Amerike te hrvatsko-hispanskim kulturnim vezama, a prof. Mijo Korade hrvatskom latinističkom historiografijom, historiografijom hrvatskoga redovništva, odnosima Crkve i države, poviješću školstva u Hrvata i hrvatskim putnicima i putopiscima. Knjiga se u prvom dijelu bavi Paragvajskom provincijom Družbe Isusove i njezinim misijama u kojima su srednjoeuropski isusovci, među kojima i hrvatski, u okviru opće i kulturne povijesti kolonijalne Amerike dali istaknut doprinos ne samo zemljopisnom širenju misijskih projekata, nego i sveukupnom udjelu Družbe Isusove u kulturi, povijesti, geografiji, književnosti itd. kolonijalnih posjeda. Razmatranim spisima te redovničke pokrajine, u kojoj su o nastanku tzv. redukcija, tj. naseobina u kojima se obavljala evangelizacija indijanskih plemena Guarani i drugih, omogućen je odgovarajući pristup poznavanju onovremenih procesa, uz ostalo i sociogeografskih, u prostoru južnoameričkoga geopolitičkog sraza dvaju katoličkih kolonijalnih imperija, španjolskog i portugalskog. U porječjima Parane, Paragvaja, Urugvaja s njihovim brojnim pritokama, u okviru većeg broja (više od četrdeset) misija na teritoriju današnje Argentine, Paragvaja, Bolivije i Brazila, između 1585. (1604.) i 1767. ostvarivani su suživot i društveno-gospodarsko uređenje potaknuti djelovanjem požrtvovnih isusovaca, među kojima se ističu i oni iz hrvatskoga prostora tadašnje Austrijske provincije Družbe Isusove, Ivan Krstitelj Marchesetti iz Rijeke i Nikola Plantić iz Zagreba, čija su pisma predmet ove knjige. Red kojem su pripadali zacrtao je stvaranje kršćanskog društva, ustrojstveno i gospodarski izvan utega tadašnjih europskih kasnofeudalnih odnosa, bližeg pravednim novozavjetnim učenjima o ravnopravnosti i vrijednosti svih ljudskih bića. Taj „jedinstveni socijalni eksperiment u povijesti čovječanstva“, koji je imao i svoje političko-geografsko naličje, premda je doživio mnoge poticaje, priznanja i podršku mnogih suvremenika, ugašen je, na štetu posebice brazilskih guaranskih misija. Tome su uzrok bila međudržavna i unutarcrkvena nesuglasja, agresivnost odmetnika i pojedinih kolonizatora te posebice objede i optužbe da misionari zlorabe zasnovane redukcije za svoje bogaćenje i širenje nekoga svojeg zamišljenog kraljevstva. Otuda i kasnije neosnovane i izmišljene reinterpretacije o Plantiću kao „paragvajskom kralju“, kao „komunističkom kralju“ i sl. Od 1585. do 1767. Družba je provela dvadesetpet istraživačkih pohoda, ostavivši o tome brojna pismena svjedočanstva. Epilog gotovo dvostoljetnih nastojanja isusovaca, u vrtlogu dinastičkih interesa i prekrajanja i u sukobu portugalskih i španjolskih geopolitičkih prisezanja, bio je, nažalost, porazan, posebice za stotine tisuća domorodaca koji su pristali na pokrštavanje i novi način života ostvaren kroz misionarske redukcije. Pojam redukcija (lat. reducere – natrag dovesti) ovdje označava misijska naselja, tzv. Paragvajske redukcije u koje su iz divljih krajeva i prašuma okupljani Indijanci da žive sigurni u organiziranoj kršćanskoj zajednici. Prostirale su se na području dugačkom više od 1000 km i širokom oko 300 km, površine više od 400 tisuća četvornih kilometara. Prva je bila Loreto (1609.), u pokrajini Guayara. Najsjevernija redukcija, San Ignacio del Norte, bila je na 16. usporednici, a najjužnija, Yapeyu, između 29. i 30. usporednice južne zemljopisne širine. U početku su bile izrazito ugrožene od neprijatelja kraljevske kuće i guvernera, raznih španjolskih upravitelja i veleposjednika, portugalskih trupa i posebice odmetnika, a kasnije su konsolidirane u tzv. Kršćansku Republiku Paragvaj koja je uživala visoku autonomiju unutar Španjolskog Kraljevstva. U vrijeme procvata redukcija, ustrojenih po načelu „zajednički posjed, zajednički rad, zajednički plodovi“ 30-ih i 40-ih godina 18. stoljeća živjelo je u njima i više od 140 000 osoba. Uređenje naseobina i zemljišnih imanja svakako je bitno utjecalo na stvaranje novoga oblika kulturnog krajobraza u divljim predjelima južnoameričkog kontinenta. U drugom dijelu knjige predstavljena su do sada neobjavljena pisma navedene dvojice hrvatskih isusovaca u izvorniku na španjolskom i u hrvatskom prijevodu, pisma iz njihove prepiske i druga pisma u kojima se spominje Ivan Marchesetti (Rijeka, 10. prosinca 1704. – Candelaria, Paragvaj, 5. veljače 1767.). Ivan Marchesetti umro je u Novom svijetu prije protjerivanja Družbe Isusove 1767. godine. U Argentinu je stigao 1734. i ondje, poslije priprema u Córdobi, od 1738. do smrti djelovao kao misionar i upravitelj u sedam misija. U Nuestra Señora de Fe uveo je plantažni uzgoj štitastih uši – košenila za proizvodnju grimiznih boja te priređivanje lijekova i začina te ustrojio samoobranu grada. Uspješno je pokrenuo proizvodnju i trgovinu poljoprivrednim kulturama u redukcijama (maté, duhan, trska, sukno i dr.). Nikola Plantić (Zagreb, 2. prosinca 1720. – Varaždin, 15. lipnja 1777.), koji je bio u Paragvaju, ali nije poslan u misije, nego je kao profesor filozofije i teologije boravio u Cordobi, vratio se u Hrvatsku gdje je i umro. Prije odlaska u Južnu Ameriku 1748. studirao je filozofiju u Zagrebu i Grazu, a teologiju u Trnavi te 1747. zaređen. Bio je i rektor isusovačkoga kolegija u Buenos Airesu te superior u Montevideu. Nakon izgona isusovaca na temelju patenta Karla III., vratio se 1768. u Zagreb. Od 1771. bio je rektor isusovačkoga kolegija u Varaždinu, gdje je ostao i nakon ukinuća reda 1773. Popraćena opsežnim bilješkama, pisma Marchesettija i Plantića subraći pohranjena u argentinskom državnom arhivu, svjedoče o misijama, tegobama, gospodarskom i društvenom ustroju, svakodnevnom životu, dvojbama i borbama misionara, kolonizatora i domorodačkih plemena. Prepisku je pronašao pok. Milan Blažeković te ju je predao 1992. godine drugom autoru knjige dr. Koradeu. Ova pisma, kao izvorna svjedočanstva, važna su potka u izučavanju povijesno-zemljopisnih okolnosti tristogodišnjega kolonijalnog razdoblja i nastanka južnoameričkih društava. Autori su ih popratili znanstvenim studioznim razmatranjima o životu i radu dvojice misionara te njihovu utjecaju na subraću redovnike, druge suvremenike i naraštaje koji su slijedili. Posebno je obrađena i legenda o kralju Nikoli, tj. intriga o Plantiću kao kralju paragvajskih Indijanaca, izmišljena i proširena za potrebe pristalica sramotno rigidne reakcije na jednu humanu, gospodarski uspješnu misionarsku stečevinu i koliko je bilo moguće, ostvarenje pravednog suživota domorodaca i kolonizatora. Svakoga geografa, kao i brojne druge čitatelje, zanimat će ovo štivo kao dokumentacija i svjedočanstvo jednog vremena i geopolitičkih zbivanja unutar kojih je, unatoč brojnim poteškoćama, ostvarena jedna od najhumanijih do sada poznatih ljudskih zajednica. Kada su godine 1750. Španjolska i Portugal provele bestidnu trgovinu s gradovima-misijama zamjenom sedam redukcija na istočnoj obali Urugvaja za bogatu koloniju San Sacramento na ušću rijeke La Plate, u mjesec dana moralo se iseliti 30 tisuća ljudi sa svom pokretnom imovinom iz sedam misijskih župa. Guarani su morali prepustiti sav svoj 150-godišnji trud svojim neprijateljima. Brojni prosvjedi civilnih i crkvenih vlasti u Americi i u Španjolskoj nisu, nažalost, bili od pomoći. Unatoč kasnijem povratu na prijašnje stanje, protjerivanjem isusovačkog reda u Portugalu, ubrzo i u Španjolskoj, te geopolitičkim previranjima u 19. stoljeću, baština prosvjetiteljskih i vjerskih misija ubrzano se gasila. Ipak, ostale su brojne potvrde, uz ostalo i pisma naših redovnika, veličanstvenog postignuća jednoga crkvenog reda, doprinosa općem boljitku svijeta. Isusovci su svojim redukcijama u Paragvaju ispisali zasigurno jednu od najljepših stranica socijalne povijesti kao i povijesnog zemljopisa na karti svijeta. Knjiga je izašla u izdanju Matice hrvatske, kao prva knjiga u sklopu edicije Biblioteka Historia. Glavna urednica je Romana Horvat, a recenzenti su dr. sc. Marino Manin iz Instituta za migracije i narodnosti u Zagrebu i dr. sc. Damir Zorić, etnolog i povjesničar iz Matice hrvatske. Knjiga ima dvjesto četrdeset šest stranica s osamnaest slika (dvanaest u bojama), bibliografijom i kazalom osobnih imena. Kao što je s uspjehom i suosjećanjem za Guaranske redukcije svojevremeno prihvaćen filmski oskarovac Misija na ovu temu, tako i ova knjiga ne ostavlja ravnodušnima sve one koji teže pravednijim i humanijim odnosima među ljudskim zajednicama.

The imaging of volcanic systems is a challenging topic that attracts the scientific community’s attention. The characterization of structures and rock properties by means of seismic active methods is becoming fundamental for providing ultra-high-resolution images of the structures of interest. The Solfatara Volcano is a quiescent volcano in the Campi Flegrei resurgent nested caldera that is continuously under investigation and monitoring for its shallow activity, such as fumaroles. The purpose of this work is to characterize the fluid accumulation zone in the first 150 m depth in the middle of the crater, using several post-stack seismic attributes and Amplitude Versus Offset (AVO) analysis to characterize the contact between the CO2 and condensed water in the shallower accumulation zone. The two 400 m-long profiles to which we refer in this work have been acquired during the active Repeated InduCed Earthquakes and Noise experiment. The profiles were deployed along with the NNE-SSW and WNW-ESE directions across the whole surface of the crater including the main surface anomalies of the fumaroles, in the eastern area, and the mud-pool of Fangaia, located in the western area. The seismic pre-processing, pre-stack processing, and post-stack analysis previously applied on the NNE-SSW profile are here performed for the first time on the WNW-ESE profile, while partial-stack AVO analysis is performed for both profiles. The post-stack attributes including time gain, envelope, energy, and root mean square have been computed and extracted for determining the maximum and minimum values of amplitude zones on the migrated post-stack seismic profiles. Such anomalies are provided by complex and geometrical attributes embedding information on faults and chaotic zones. The AVO technique has also been used as a direct gas indicator to enhance fluid discrimination and identification. Finally, the analysis of the profile, seismic attributes, and near-surface structural interpretation related to the Solfatara Volcano has been incorporated into the proposed analysis. The multi-2D image depicts fluids trapped in the Solfatara Volcano at depths ranging from 10 to 50 m below the crater’s surface, as well as their migration paths up to 150 m deep: this evidenced contact between the fluids has been probably due to the solfataric alteration of the minerals, caused by the arising plume and the abovecondensed water which decreases the permeability of the rocks and forms an argillic phase working as cap-rock and trapping the gases. The application of the AVO analysis, coupled with the seismic attribute’s investigation, provides a very detailed multi-2D image of the shallower Solfatara Volcano, which outperforms in terms of accuracy the ones obtained with different tools in previous works, and that evidences the presence and the position of the liquid and the gases in the north-east area of the Solfatara Volcano.

The imaging of volcanic systems is a challenging topic that attracts the scientific community’s attention. The characterization of structures and rock properties by means of seismic active methods is becoming fundamental for providing ultra-high-resolution images of the structures of interest. The Solfatara Volcano is a quiescent volcano in the Campi Flegrei resurgent nested caldera that is continuously under investigation and monitoring for its shallow activity, such as fumaroles. The purpose of this work is to characterize the fluid accumulation zone in the first 150 m depth in the middle of the crater, using several post-stack seismic attributes and Amplitude Versus Offset (AVO) analysis to characterize the contact between the CO2 and condensed water in the shallower accumulation zone. The two 400 m-long profiles to which we refer in this work have been acquired during the active Repeated InduCed Earthquakes and Noise experiment. The profiles were deployed along with the NNE-SSW and WNW-ESE directions across the whole surface of the crater including the main surface anomalies of the fumaroles, in the eastern area, and the mud-pool of Fangaia, located in the western area. The seismic pre-processing, pre-stack processing, and post-stack analysis previously applied on the NNE-SSW profile are here performed for the first time on the WNW-ESE profile, while partial-stack AVO analysis is performed for both profiles. The post-stack attributes including time gain, envelope, energy, and root mean square have been computed and extracted for determining the maximum and minimum values of amplitude zones on the migrated post-stack seismic profiles. Such anomalies are provided by complex and geometrical attributes embedding information on faults and chaotic zones. The AVO technique has also been used as a direct gas indicator to enhance fluid discrimination and identification. Finally, the analysis of the profile, seismic attributes, and near-surface structural interpretation related to the Solfatara Volcano has been incorporated into the proposed analysis. The multi-2D image depicts fluids trapped in the Solfatara Volcano at depths ranging from 10 to 50 m below the crater’s surface, as well as their migration paths up to 150 m deep: this evidenced contact between the fluids has been probably due to the solfataric alteration of the minerals, caused by the arising plume and the abovecondensed water which decreases the permeability of the rocks and forms an argillic phase working as cap-rock and trapping the gases. The application of the AVO analysis, coupled with the seismic attribute’s investigation, provides a very detailed multi-2D image of the shallower Solfatara Volcano, which outperforms in terms of accuracy the ones obtained with different tools in previous works, and that evidences the presence and the position of the liquid and the gases in the north-east area of the Solfatara Volcano.

Abstract The central sector of the Campi Flegrei volcano, including the Solfatara maar and Pisciarelli fumarole field, is currently the most active area of the caldera as regards seismicity and gaseous emissions and it plays a significant role in the ongoing unrest. However, a general volcano-tectonic reconstruction of the entire sector is still missing. This work aims to depict, for the first time, the architecture of the area through the application of deep Electrical Resistivity Tomography. We reconstructed a three-dimensional resistivity model for the entire sector. Results provide useful elements to understand the present state of the system and the possible evolution of the volcanic activity and shed solid bases for any attempt to develop physical-mathematical models investigating the ongoing phenomena.

Imaging of fluid pathways is crucial to characterize processes taking place in hydrothermal systems, a primary cause of volcanic unrest and associated hazards. The joint imaging of seismic absorption and scattering is an efficient instrument to map fluid flow at crustal scale, and specifically in volcanoes; however, this technique has so far been applied to image volcanoes and hydrothermal systems at the kilometre scale. Here, we use data from a meter-scale, active seismic survey inside the shallow structure of the Solfatara crater to obtain the first frequency-dependent near-surface scattering and absorption model of a hydrothermal system. The Solfatara crater is the place used to monitor historic unrest at Campi Flegrei caldera (Italy), a high-risk volcano under continuous surveillance due to its closeness to a densely populated area. Improving the imaging of the shallow part of this system is crucial to broaden the understanding of unrest processes that are progressively characterizing other portions of the eastern caldera. The scattering contrasts highlight the primary structural feature, a fault separating the hydrothermal plume from zones of CO2 saturation nearing fumaroles. While high-absorption anomalies mark zones of high soil temperatures and CO2 fluxes, low-absorption anomalies indicate zones of very shallow upflow and are caused by contrasts between liquid-rich and vapour-rich fluids coming from mud pools and fumaroles, respectively. All maps show a SW-NE trend in anomalies consistent with fluid-migration pathways towards the eastern fumaroles. The results provide structural constraints that clarify mechanisms of fluid migration inside the crater. The techniques offer complementary geophysical images to the interpretation of hydrothermal processes and prove that seismic attenuation measurements are suitable to map fluid pathways in heterogeneous media at a detailed scale.