Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Soils – Testing'

The behavior of cemented sands is examined experimentally and theoretically in this study. The first segment of the investigation involves an extensive laboratory program to examine the effects of slenderness ratio, effects of cementation, and effects of confining pressure on the stress-strain curves of cemented sands. Results show that specimens with slenderness ratio of 1.5 or greater exhibit lower strength, higher dilatation rates, and relatively brittle behavior when compared to samples with slenderness ratio of 1. Furthermore, cemented sands have an essentially straight line Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope, whose cohesion intercept increases with the degree of cementation of the soil. The effective friction angles measured for cemented sands with various cementation levels are in the same ranges as the effective friction angle evaluated for uncemented sands. Moreover, failure modes of the material varies from brittle to ductile depending upon the level of cementation and the degree of confinement. In general, as cementation increases, cemented sand exhibits a brittle failure behavior; while increasing the confining pressure causes a ductile failure response. The second portion of the project includes development of a constitutive model for cemented sands. Cemented sand is viewed as a multi-phase material comprising three phases: sand, cement, and pore water. The elastoplastic behavior of cemented sands is the consequence of the behavior of the individual phases plus the interaction of the phases. The individual phases (sand and cement) are modeled using the theory of plasticity. Mixtures theory is used to assemble the individual phases to simulate the overall behavior of cemented sands. The gradual damage of the internal structure of cemented sands is also incorporated within the model. The agreement between experimental data and model predictions is very good. In summary, mixtures theory using simple plasticity models for the individual phases is capable of capturing the complex behavior of cemented sands.

Small amounts of cementation in a sand increase its ability to sustain static and dynamic loads, even in a liquefaction type environment. This has been shown in previous research examining the behavior of both naturally cemented and artificially prepared samples. Cemented sands are present in many parts of the world and can be caused by either a variety of cementing agents or by cold welding at points of grain contact. They are generally quite difficult to sample, but artificially cemented sands have been shown to aptly model the behavior of natural materials, and allow for better test controls. Consequently, artificial samples were used exclusively for the present investigation which has three major objectives: to investigate the effects of a weakly cemented lens within a stronger mass; to determine how cementation affects the volume change characteristics of statically loaded samples; and, to describe the pore pressure generation of sands subjected to cyclic loading. Prior to commencing the test program, a number of index tests were performed on the uncemented and cemented sand used during the laboratory investigation. It was revealed that cementation leads to increased void ratios which distort relative density calculations used to compare cemented and uncemented samples of similar dry unit weight. The practice of identifying samples by dry unit weight was adopted for this report. Static triaxial compression tests were performed on 17 samples. Test results indicate that although the magnitude of volumetric strain at failure does not seem to be dictated by the level of cementation, there is a relationship with cementation and the rate of volume change at failure. A weak lens was seen to lower the static strength of the stronger mass. 26 stress controlled cyclic triaxial tests revealed that a weak lens lowers the liquefaction resistance of the stronger mass. The cyclic strength of the nonhomogeneous material, however, is higher than the independent strength of the weak lens. A weak lens has greater influence at relatively higher levels of cyclic stress. Pore pressure generation in cemented sands are seen to be controlled by strain. At shear strain levels below about 1%, cemented sands behave similarly to uncemented sands with pore pressures increasing more rapidly beyond that amount of strain. Consequently, pore pressure development during cyclic loading is described by a broken-back curve which is defined in the early stages by existing empirical relationships for uncemented sand. Pore pressure prediction may then be achieved using an equation for cemented sand, such as that developed in the present work.
Master of Science

Includes bibliography.
The thesis consists of a literature review and a limited experimental investigation in a soils laboratory. The objective of the literature review is to determine what standard laboratory test methods based on vibration exist for the control of compaction, to what soil types these tests are applicable and what the factors are which affect laboratory vibratory compaction. The study revealed that extensive research has been carried out in the USA and Europe, where standard laboratory compaction tests exist for the determination of the maximum dry density of cohesionless, free-draining soil. The US methods are based on the use of a vibratory table, while the European practice is based on the use of a vibratory tamper. No standard tests appear to exist for soil exhibiting cohesion, though limited research has been carried out in the USA into the behaviour of such soils under laboratory vibratory compaction. The factors; frequency, amplitude, mould size and shape surcharge intensity and manner of application, soil type, time of vibration, number of layers and moisture content are all reported to have an effect on the maximum dry density achievable. It has been recognised that significant interaction occurs between the factors affecting vibratory compaction, but the extent of the interaction appears to be only partly understood. The objective of the limited experimental program was to determine whether a specific graded crushed stone could be compacted to Modified AASHTO maximum dry density with a laboratory vibratory compaction technique using a vibratory table, and how this could best be achieved. The effects on dry density of changing the frequency, the time of vibration, mould size, surcharge pressure, grading and moisture content were investigated. It is concluded that the graded crushed stone in question can be compacted to Mod. AASHTO maximum dry density but that before reliable reproducible results can be achieved with this type of test further work is necessary. Such research should be aimed at investigating the interaction effect between the amplitude of vibration, the soil type and the type and intensity of the applied surcharge pressure.

The Cone Penetration Test (CPT) was developed originally in Holland in the 1930’s as a device which provides a small scale model of a pile foundation. Early versions were simple cone points for which the only measurement was the thrust required to push the point through the ground. Over the past 20 years, the cone was standardized to a tip area of 10 cm², and an electrical version was produced, which allows for continuous measurement of the cone tip resistance and sleeve friction along with a computer-based data acquisition system. The electrical cone represents a significant step forward for the CPT, since it provides a continuous profile of information that can be used to identify soil type and define important engineering parameters. More recently, the CPT has shown considerable potential for calculation of settlements of footings on sand, determination of pile capacity, assessment of ground pressures, and evaluation of liquefaction potential for cohesionless soils. Along with the widening application of the CPT, new varieties of cone penetrometers have appeared, with different sizes than the standard. Smaller cones are used for instances where relatively small depths of soil need to be penetrated, and larger cones have been developed for penetrating dense and gravelly soils. With the introduction of the new cones, there has been a tendency to assume that the methods for reducing CPT data for the standard sized cone can be extrapolated to the other sizes of cones. That is, it is assumed that there are no scale effects in cones of different sizes. While this may be true, to date, little direct evidence has been produced to support this view, and the issue is an important one from two points of view: 1. The present data analysis technology is based on that primarily from testing with a standard cone. lt is important to know if any changes are needed in this approach, or if the existing methods can be used with confidence for any size cone. 2. If it can be shown that no scale factor exists, then this will allow the use of new, smaller cones in experimentation in modem calibration chambers with the knowledge that the test results are applicable for the cones that a.re more widely used in practice. The smaller cones offer several advantages in this type of work in that they facilitate the research considerably by reducing the effort involved in sample preparation, and they are less likely to produce results influenced by boundary conditions in the chamber. One of the major objectives of this research is to develop an insight into the issue of the scale factor caused by the use of different sizes of cones. This is accomplished through an experimental program conducted in a new large scale calibration chamber recently constructed at Virginia Tech. Many of the latest developments in cone penetration testing have been forthcoming from testing done in calibration chambers where a soil mass can be placed to a controlled density under known stress conditions. To conduct the experimentation of this work, it was necessary to design, fabricate, and bring to an operational stage a calibration chamber. The Virginia Tech chamber is one of the largest in the world. A significant portion of the effort involved in this thesis research was devoted to this task. In particular, attention was devoted to the development of a system for placement of a homogeneous soil mass in the chamber, and the implementation of a microcomputer-based data acquisition unit to record and process the test results. The scale effects investigation was performed using three different sizes of cone penetrometers in a test program conducted in the calibration chamber. Of the three cones, one is smaller than the standard with a tip area of 4.23 cm², one was a standard cone with a tip area of 10 cm², and one was larger than the standard cone with a tip area of 15 cm². A total of 47 tests were carried in the chamber using two different levels of confining stress and two different sand densities. The test results show that while a scale factor might exist, the degree of its influence on interpreted soil parameters for a practical problem does not appear significant.
Ph. D.
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Copies of author's previously published articles in pocket inside back cover. Bibliography: leaves 147-160. This thesis outlines the factors affecting soil strength and structural stability and their interrelationship in salt-affected soils. The objectives of this study are to investigate the influence of clay particles on soil densification and mellowing, the mellowing of compacted soils and soil aggregates as influenced by solution composition, the disaggregation of soils subjected to different sodicities and salinities and its relationship to soil strength and dispersible clay and the effect of organic matter and clay type on aggregation of salt-affected soils.

Triaxial tests under high loading rates and different confining pressures simulate the multi-pass effect of a tractor wheel loading on the soil. A volume measuring technique was developed to be used in triaxial tests conducted under high loading rates.

A sandy clay agricultural soil was tested under predetermined conditions using an INSTRON loading frame, a differential pressure transducer and an APPLE Il + microcomputer. A preliminary analysis indicated that the measuring technique that was developed, was capable of recording volume changes under high loading rates. Stress-density plots were created using the obtained data and a mathematical model was developed relating stress to density. Stress-strain data was used to evaluate the soil parameters under the Mohr-Coulomb failure criteria. Furthermore, the influence of the initial soil density on the soil behavior was evaluated and subsequently compared to the results of a similar study conducted under a different initial density.

Master of Science

Some cyanobacteria strains have biofertilization and bioconditioning effects in soils. The objective of this study was to identify cyanobacteria with potential to improve the N fertility and structural stability of degraded soils and evaluate their effectiveness in soils of the Eastern Cape, South Africa. Isolation and characterization of the indigenous cyanobacteria strains with desirable properties was first to be undertaken because their effects are known to differ from strain to strain. Cyanobacteria strains 3g, 3v, and 7e were identified from 97 strains isolated from selected soils. Nostoc strains 3g and 3v had greater ability to produce exocellular polysaccharides (EPS) but low potential to fix atmospheric N2 (4.7 and 1.3 nmol C2H4 μg chl-1 h-1, respectively). On the other hand, strain 7e had the highest capability to fix atmospheric N2 (16.1 nmol C2H4 μg chl-1 h-1) but had the least ability to produce EPS. Evaluation of the strains was done in glasshouse studies starting with Nostoc strain 9v isolated from a Tanzanian soil, followed by the indigenous strains isolated from soils in Hertzog and Qunu, South Africa. Inoculation was done by uniformly applying cyanobacteria on the surface of potted soils at a rate of 6 g m-2. First harvest and soil sampling took place after six weeks, and the top 25 mm of the soil was mixed, replanted, and sampled again after a further six weeks (second harvest). Inoculation with Nostoc strain 9v increased soil N by 40 percent and 17 percent in Guquka and Hertzog soils, respectively, and consequently increased maize dry matter yields by 40 and 49 percent. Soil C increased by 27 percent and 8 percent in Guquka and Hertzog soils, respectively, and this increase was significantly associated with that of soil N (R2 = 0.838). Higher contents of soil C, soil N and mineral N, however, were found in non-cropped soils. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) revealed coatings of EPS on soil particles and fragments of non-cropped inoculated soils, with iii other particles enmeshed in networks of filaments, in contrast to cropped and/or non-inoculated soils. The proportion of very stable aggregates was increased by inoculation but cropping with maize reduced the aggregate stability. Inoculating Hertzog soil with indigenous strains 3g and 7e increased the nitrate N in the first cropping by 49 percent and 69 percent respectively, in cropped soils. In the second cropping increases in mineral N were 41 percent and 43 percent in 3g and 7e inoculated soils, respectively. Maize dry matter yields were higher on inoculated soils both in the first and second harvest in response to the improved N status of the soil. Increases in aggregate MWD in cropped soil as determined by fast wetting, mechanical breakdown and slow wetting were 85 percent, 33 percent, 33 percent, respectively, for 3g inoculation, 64 percent, 41 percent, and 41 percent, respectively, for 7e inoculation and 60 percent, 24 percent, 50 percent for inoculation with 9v. In non-cropped soil, increases in MWD as determined by fast wetting, mechanical breakdown and slow wetting were 11 percent, 0 percent, 7 percent, respectively for 3g inoculation, 21 percent, 11 percent, and 7 percent, respectively for 7e inoculation, and 25 percent, 36 percent, and 19 percent for strain 9v inoculation. Scanning electron microscopy observations, which were confirmed by chemical results, revealed that inoculated soils had high EPS and filaments that encouraged soil aggregation and improved aggregate stability. Results of this study show that cyanobacteria strains isolated and selected for their ability to fix atmospheric N2 and produce EPS improved the fertility status and aggregate stability of degraded soils from South Africa.

Undrained triaxial tests were conducted to develop the constitutive relationships for two agricultural soils, which could be used for the finite element analysis of multipass effects of vehicles on soil compaction. Sandy-clay and sandy-silt samples were loaded and unloaded three times to levels of 138 kPa to simulate three passes of an agricultural tractor. An axial loading rate of 200 mm/min was used to include the dynamic effects of rapid loading from the vehicles. An Instron Universal Testing Machine was used to provide this loading rate. During the tests, a microcomputer based data acquisition system recorded axial force and strain. The system recorded 28 values per second. Tests were conducted at four confining pressures; 17.2, 24.1, 34.4 and 41.4 kPa. Plots for deviatoric stress and axial strain were found to be bilinear. Initial and latter portions of the curve were assumed to represent the elastic and plastic deformations of the sample, respectively. Assuming an associated flow rule, an elastic-plastic constitutive model was developed based on a Mohr-Coulomb failure surface. The constitutive model developed was evaluated by simulating a triaxial test at a confining pressure of 28 kPa. Initial conditions were computed by substituting the boundary stresses into the model to determine the elastic-plastic matrix. Incremental loads were applied up to the maximum stress level. For each increment of load, the elastic-plastic matrix was updated from the previous load application. The simulated data compared fairly well with experimental results, but tended to overpredict at higher stress levels. Based on a comparison with existing elastic-plastic models, the derived model appears to be well suited for substitution into the finite element method for studying soil compaction resulting from multipass effects of tractors.
M.S.

A decade has passed since the development of the self-boring pressuremeter (SBPM). Even though the device has been recognized by the geotechnical engineering profession as having high promise for evaluating in-situ stress-strain behavior of soils, its use is limited. In large part, this is due to the fact that there are important unanswered questions about the SBPM test. One of the major issues concerns the influence of drainage in the soil as it is sheared. In clays, the test is assumed to be undrained, but there is no way to control this other than by the rate of loading and no method has been put forth heretofore to define the required rate. This dissertation addresses the drainage issue by applying a numerical model capable of simulating the pressuremeter test under variety of conditions. To develop parameters for the soil model, a comprehensive laboratory testing effort was needed. The validity of the numerical model and the soil parameters is established by comparing it to SBPM tests performed in the field. The numerical model uses the finite element method in a special code capable of handling large strains, consolidation effects, and nonlinear soil behavior. Particular attention is addressed to the issue of pore pressure development and its dissipation. Relative influences of important soil parameters such as the permeability are checked against various rates of loading in the SBPM test. The results demonstrate that drainage likely occurs in most cases using conventional test procedures, and that this, in turn, leads to an error in interpretation of SBPM data. Based on the findings in the analyses, a procedure is proposed which should lead to a more rational method of performing the SBPM test where nearly undrained conditions are desired.
Ph. D.

The behaviour has been examined of piles installed in clay subject to a rapid load testing method known as the Statnamic test. The Statnamic method is easier and quicker to mobilise than a static test and is less complex to analyse than dynamic pile load tests. This investigation consisted of a laboratory study of the effect of the rate of loading on pile behaviour in clay and a field test of a pile in glacial clay to calibrate the findings of the laboratory study. The effects of penetration rate and Statnamic loading on model pile behaviour have been studied using an instrumented clay calibration chamber. The effect of rate of loading on the pile's capacity was quantified using constant rate of penetration tests (CRP) at different pile penetration rates. This allowed viscous soil damping characteristics to be determined and a new Statnamic analysis method incorporating rate dependant soil behaviour to be developed. This rate dependant behaviour can be represented by modification of a non-linear rate law proposed by Randolph & Deeks (1992). A field pile testing facility was developed in glacial till. To test the success of the new Statnamic analysis, a class A prediction of static pile behaviour from prototype pile load testing was undertaken. Encouraging results were obtained for the prediction of ultimate static pile behaviour, but the analysis method under predicted soil-pile stiffness. A soil inertial component was added to the analysis, based upon instrumentation readings, which improved the predicted static soil-pile stiffness. Results from prototype pile testing show that the stiffness during Statnamic and static load tests was very similar up to 50% of the ultimate static pile capacity. Thus, rapid load testing may be used for verification of pile settlements at working loads in clays. At the present level of understanding of testing in clays, rapid load pile tests should not be carried out in isolation. Ideally, tests should be used in conjunction with a static test that will allow back figured parameters to be derived for analysis.

A powerful and general concept, the DSC concept, that can capture a wide spectrum of behavior of geologic materials is developed in this dissertation. Factors such as nonassociativeness, induced anisotropy and damage are included in the concept as disturbances with respect to two reference states. One reference state is the intact state where the material is assumed to be associative initially isotropic and hardening isotropically. It is modelled by the basic hierarchical model δₒ. Its hardening parameters are modified to include the influence of relative density Dᵣ and confinements, σₒ. The other reference state is the fully disturbed state which is assumed to be the critical state. In this state the material is assumed to experience no change in void ratio under further shearing. The average response is expressed in terms of the responses corresponding to the reference states through a disturbance function D. The disturbance function parameters have been found to be dependent on Dᵣ and σₒ. Comprehensive laboratory tests have been performed on Leighton Buzzard sand covering a wide range of relative densities and confinements. Some of these tests were used in the formulation of the DSC concept to incorporate the effect of Dᵣ and σₒ into the model parameters. Verification of the new model is performed with respect to the observed behavior of loose and dense sand. Verification was done with respect to laboratory tests that were used and the ones that were not used in the development of the model. The proposed model provides overall highly satisfactory predictions of the observed behavior for the entire range of loose to dense sand. It is concluded that the DSC concept along with the new contributions of this research which allow incorporation of the entire range of loose to dense behavior can provide a powerful and general approach for constitutive modelling of geomaterials.

The development of Marchetti's flat dilatometer, method of testing, changes of Marchetti's (1980,1981) original correlations and Schmertmann's (1982,1983) proposed correlations are briefly described. Factors affecting results of the dilatometer test (DMT) are discussed. In order to improve the understanding of the Marchetti dilatometer test (DMT), an electronic research dilatometer was developed at UBC. The research dilatometer can measure; pore pressure at the center of the membrane, membrane displacement, applied pressure, pushing force and verticality. Test results obtained from the research dilatometer in sand and in clayey deposits at 4 sites in the Lower Mainland of B.C. are presented. Soil parameters interpretated using Marchetti's (1980,1981) and Schmertmann's (1982,1983) correlations are discussed. Comparison is made to other in-situ testing methods such as cone penetration test, vane shear test and pressuremeter test. Based on a better understanding of the DMT, future potential methods of improving or checking the existing correlations are proposed.
Applied Science, Faculty of
Civil Engineering, Department of
Graduate

The dynamic properties of Leighton Buzzard sand have been investigated using a resonant column test apparatus. These data are compared with very low frequency cyclic tests on identical specimens. The comparison indicates that the properties of dry sand are independent of frequency, while those of fluid saturated sand are sensitive to the viscosity of the fluid and therefore to the frequency of oscillations. A one-dimensional model of kinematic hardening plasticity is used to predict the dynamic behaviour of the sand. The input parameters for this model are based on the results of static tests. These may be conducted on standard laboratory equipment with only minor modifications. The predictions are in good agreement with the measured data. In particular, the frequency response close to resonance is correctly shown to be asymmetric and the reduction in the resonant frequency with increasing strain amplitude is also correctly represented. The model has been used to generate a series of design curves that allow the dynamic behaviour of foundations to be predicted. Two design examples are given; an offshore gravity structure and a radar installation. The input parameters are based on a hyperbolic shear stress-shear strain equation for the soil. The practical consequences of these findings are assessed with regard to soil testing procedures and dynamic analyses of foundations.

The dynamic properties of clay deposits under seismic or wave loading conditions must be well understood to assure dynamic stability of structures founded on such soil. The dynamic shear modulus and damping appear to be a complex function of many variables, and a wide range of values have been reported in the literature. Consequently, considerable uncertainty exists in choosing the appropriate values of shear modulus and damping for a particular problem. This thesis presents a study of the influence of various factors on the shear modulus and damping of a marine clay using a resonant column/torsional shear device. In particular, the influence of factors such as shear strain amplitude, effective confining stress, stress history, frequency (strain rate), and secondary time-dependent behaviour are examined. The pore pressure response is also studied. The shear modulus was found to degrade for shear strains above 0.005%. The strain dependency was found to be well represented by a single normalized modulus reduction curve regardless of the confining pressure or overconsolidation ratio. Slower strain rates resulted in smaller values of shear modulus. Of the variables studied, the duration of sample confinement was found to be the most imporant factor affecting the material damping. Above 0.005% strain, the damping of the marine clay increased with shearing strain amplitude. No significant effect of confining pressure and stress history on damping was observed at any strain level. As well, the material damping was found to be relatively independent of loading frequency. Both the shear wave velocity and damping obtained in this study were found to be consistent with the in situ values determined using the seismic cone penetration test.
Applied Science, Faculty of
Civil Engineering, Department of
Graduate

Collapse phenomenon is exhibited by two types of residual soils. The first category of collapsing residual soils is believed to be transported soils that have undergone post-depositional pedogenesis. The second category of collapsing residual soils is highly weathered and leached soils formed by in-situ weathering of parent rock. Residual red soils occur in Bangalore District of Karnataka State. Physical and chemical weathering of the gneissic parent rock formed the residual soils of Bangalore District. The red soils of Bangalore District are generally moderate to very highly porous (porosity range 35-50%). These soils are also unsaturated owing to presence of alternate wet and dry seasons and low ground water table. Moderately to highly porous, unsaturated red soils occur in Pernambuco State of Brazil. These residual soils formed by weathering of gneissic rock significantly collapse on wetting under external pressures. Kaolinite is predominant clay mineral in the red soils of Bangalore and Pernambuco Districts. Similarities exist in the mode of soil formation, clay mineralogy, porosity and degree of saturation (Sr) values of the red soils from Pernambuco State, Brazil, and Bangalore District. Given the collapsible nature of red soils from Pernambuco State, Brazil, the red soils from Bangalore District also deserve to be examined for their potential to collapse in the compacted and undisturbed conditions. The roles of initial dry density, compaction water content, clay content and flooding pressure (the external stress at which a laboratory specimen is inundated is termed as flooding pressure in this thesis) in determining the collapse behaviour of compacted soils are well recognized. However, the influences of above parameters on the collapse behaviour of compacted red soil specimens from Bangalore District are lacking. Such studies are essential as they help to identify the critical compaction parameters (dry density and water content), soil composition, and applied stress level that needs to be controlled by the fill designer in order to minimize wetting-induced collapse. The importance of matric suction in the collapse behaviour of unsaturated soils is well recognized. Yet, the influence of matric suction in the collapse behaviour of compacted soils has only been indirectly examined by varying the compaction water content/degree of saturation of the soil specimens. The climate of Bangalore District is characterized by alternate wet and dry seasons which affects the soil microstructure and the matric suction. Both these parameters have a significant influence on collapse behaviour of unsaturated soils. Cyclic wetting and drying is expected to have a significant bearing on the collapse behaviour of residual soils and is therefore examined. The red soil deposits of Bangalore District are important from foundation engineering view point as they are subjected to structural loading. Owing to the presence of alternate wet and dry seasons and low ground water table, red soil deposits of Bangalore District are more often than not unsaturated. These foundation soils would however be susceptible to increase in moisture content from causes such as infiltration of rainwater, leakage of pipes or watering of lawns and plants. Given the porous and unsaturated nature of undisturbed red soils from Bangalore district, their collapsible nature deserves to be examined for reliable estimation of foundation settlements. To achieve the above objectives, experiments are performed that study: 1.The influence of variations in compaction dry density, initial water content and matric suction, clay content and flooding pressure on the collapse behaviour of a representative red soil sample from Bangalore District. 2.The influence of repeated wetting and drying on the collapse behaviour of compacted red soil specimens. 3.The collapsible nature of undisturbed red soil samples from different locations in Bangalore District. The organization of this thesis is as follows: After the first introductory chapter, a detailed review of literature highlighting the need to study the collapse behaviour of unsaturated red soils of Bangalore District, Karnataka in the compacted and undisturbed states comprises Chapter 2. Chapter 3 presents a detailed experimental programme of the study. Details of representative and undisturbed red soil samples from Bangalore District, Karnataka State, India were used in the study are provided. Determination of collapse potential of compacted and undisturbed soil specimens using conventional oedometer is discussed. Determination of matric suction of compacted and undisturbed specimens by ASTM Filter paper method and pore size distributions by mercury intrusion porosimetry is detailed. Methods to perform cyclic wetting and drying of compacted red soil specimens in modified oedometer assemblies is detailed. These experiments are performed to examine the influence of cyclic wetting and drying on the collapse behaviour of compacted red soil specimens. Chapter 4 examines the collapse behaviour of a compacted red soil from Bangalore District. The influence of variations in compaction dry density, initial water content and matric suction, flooding pressure and clay content on the collapse behaviour of the representative red soil from Bangalore District are examined. Besides measuring the initial matric suction of the compacted red soil specimens, mercury intrusion porosimetry was performed on selected compacted red soil specimens. Experimental results showed that compacted red soils from Bangalore District exhibited tendency to swell and collapse at the experimental range of densities and water contents. Red soil specimens compacted to relative compactions > 90 % at water contents below OMC swelled at flooding pressures lower than 200 kPa. Red soil specimens compacted to relative compactions < 90 % at water contents below OMC significantly collapsed at flooding pressures larger than 200 kPa. Hence maintenance of the design water content during construction of compacted red soil fills is essential to minimize wetting induced volume changes. Experiments showed that the relative abundance of coarse pores (60 to 6 μm, pore radius) were mainly affected on increasing the relative compaction of the specimens from 84 % (dry density = 1.49 Mg/m3) to 100 % (dry density = 1.77 Mg/m3). The relative abundance of the coarse and fine (0.01 to 0.002 μm) pores were both affected on increasing the compaction water content from 10.6 to 26.4 %. These variations in pore size distributions provided better insight into the variations of collapse potential with variations in compaction parameters. ASTM filter paper method showed that for the selected compaction conditions the initial matric suction of the compacted red soil specimens varied between 60 and 10,000 kPa. Further, variations in degree of saturation at a constant relative compaction or variations in relative compaction at a constant degree of soil saturation notably affected the matric suction of the compacted soil specimens. It was also inferred that a clay soil with a higher liquid limit is characterized by a higher matric suction at a given water content. Variations in clay content affected the collapse potentials of soil specimens compacted to dry densities of 1.49 and 1.66 Mg/m3. These specimens exhibited maximum collapse at about 26 % clay content. It is suggested that greater destabilization of inter-particle contacts caused by loss of matric suction on flooding was primarily responsible for the soil specimen containing the critical clay content of 26 % to exhibit maximum collapse potential. Increase in initial dry density, initial water content, clay content of the soil specimen and flooding pressure increased the time-duration of collapse of the compacted soil specimens. The time-duration of collapse was observed to range between 3 and 100 minutes for the tested specimens. Chapter 5 examines the influence of alternate wetting and drying on the collapse behaviour of compacted red soil specimens of Bangalore District. The compacted specimens were subjected to alternate wetting and drying cycles at surcharge pressures of 6.25 and 50 kPa in modified oedometer assemblies. Studies were also performed to examine whether the initial placement conditions have any bearing on the collapse behaviour of red soil specimens subjected to four cycles of wetting and drying. Mercury intrusion porosimetry was performed on a few desiccated red soil specimens. Experimental results showed that cyclic wetting and drying caused the desiccated specimens to exhibit similar or lower swell and collapse potentials than the compacted specimens. Such a behaviour resulted despite the desiccated specimens (specimens subjected to four cycles of wetting and drying are termed as desiccated specimens) possessing similar void ratios but much lower water contents than the compacted specimens. The restraining influence of the desiccation bonds and alteration of soil structure is considered responsible for the reduced swell and collapse tendencies of the desiccated specimens. The desiccation bonds imparted higher apparent preconsolidation pressures to the desiccated specimens. The initial compaction conditions also have a strong bearing on the collapse potentials of the desiccated specimens. Compacted red soil specimens subjected to cyclic wetting and drying under a higher surcharge pressure of 50 kPa exhibited larger swell potentials and lower collapse potentials than specimens desiccated at 6.25 kPa. Besides their lower void ratios, the presence of stronger desiccation bonds also contributed to their lower collapse potentials. The presence of stronger desiccation bonds in specimens desiccated under higher surcharge pressure was indicated by their higher apparent preconsolidation pressures. Chapter 6 examines the collapse behaviour of undisturbed red soil specimens from three locations in Bangalore District at a range of flooding pressures. Studies on the variations in initial water content and effect of remoulding on the collapse behaviour of the undisturbed specimens is supplemented by measuring the initial matric suction and performing mercury intrusion porosimetry experiments. Experimental results showed that based on their collapse potential at 200 kPa, the undisturbed red soils of Bangalore District classified as troublesome to moderately troublesome foundation soils. The bonded structure of the undisturbed red soil specimens imparted them higher apparent preconsolidation pressures and lower swell/collapse potentials than their remoulded counterparts. Variations in in-situ dry density, degree of saturation and relative distribution of pore sizes affected the matric suction and collapse potentials of the undisturbed specimens Chapter 7 summarizes the conclusions of this thesis.

A numerical formulation for two-dimensional electro-osmotic consolidation in soft clays was derived from the basic equations of fluid flow, current flow and virtual work law. And, a well known elasto-plastic soil model, Modified Cam Clay was embedded into the formulation and implemented into the finite element program AFENA. The formulation was evaluated by comparing the predicted settlement and pore water pressure response with the values obtained from laboratory tests. The tests were conducted in an electro-osmotic triaxial apparatus, which was modified from a standard triaxial apparatus to facilitate electro-osmotic consolidation and required measurements. A series of electro-osmotic consolidation tests under different initial stress conditions were conducted to evaluate the finite element model and very good agreements between the observed and predicted results were observed. Another set of electro-osmotic tests were conducted with the similar initial stress, but different boundary conditions to examine the effects of electrochemical changes during the electro-osmosis. The study showed an apparent increase in the preconsolidation pressure and alteration in the coefficient of consolidation as a result of the electrochemical changes. A one-dimensional electro-osmotic consolidation problem was simulated and analysed, and the settlement and pore water pressure responses were compared with the solutions obtained from Esrig's (1968) one-dimensional theory. Another problem involving combined electro-osmotic and direct loading consolidation was also analysed and the results were compared with the solutions obtained from Wan and Mitchell's (1976) theory. Excellent matches were observed in both cases mentioned above for constant values of electro-osmotic and hydraulic permeabilities. However, the effects of varying electro-osmotic and hydraulic permeabilities, which are practically far more significant and not adopted in the theories mentioned above, were also analysed and the results presented. An attempt was made to simulate and analyse one of the successful field trial of electro-osmotic stabilisation conducted by Bjerrum et al (1967) on Norwegian quick clay. Good agreement between the predicted and reported settlement was observed for the first 50days of the treatment period. However, the model over-predicted the settlement after this period and the possible causes for this variation are discussed.

A new constitutive model for predicting the undrained stress-deformation and pore water pressure response of saturated cohesive soils subjected to cyclic loading is developed using the Disturbed State Concept (DSC) is presented in this dissertation. The model takes into account inelastic non-virgin behavior. Factors such as non-associativeness, induced anisotropy and degradation are included as disturbances with respect to two reference states. One reference state is the intact state where the material is assumed to be associative initially isotropic and hardening isotropically. It is modelled by the basic hierarchical model δ₀. The other reference state is the fully disturbed state which is assumed to be the critical state. The average response is expressed in terms of the responses corresponding to the reference states through a disturbance function D. The inelastic non-virgin loading is modelled by using interpolation functions which are made function of disturbance. Comprehensive laboratory tests have been performed on undisturbed clay samples procured from Sabine Pass, near Houston, Texas. The tests include conventional cylindrical triaxial tests and also cyclic triaxial tests in the multiaxial device with pore water pressure measurements. Some of these tests were used for determination of parameters and verification of the model. The model is verified with respect to the observed behavior of undisturbed clay samples. Verification was done with respect to laboratory tests that were used and the ones that were not used in the development of the model. The proposed model provides overall highly satisfactory predictions of the observed behavior during virgin and non-virgin loading and cyclic loading. It is concluded that the new model based on the DSC concept can correctly predict the cyclic behavior of cohesive soils and can take into account factors such as non-associativeness, induced anisotropy and degradation. The DSC concept is shown to be a powerful and general approach for constitutive modelling of geomaterials.

As testing stiff soils in the laboratory often leads to information which is not consistent with field performance, research was undertaken to determine in situ the soil properties. Among the devices which generated interest is the self-boring pressuremeter (SBPM). In this research, two stiff soils of the Commonwealth of Virginia were tested: A residual soil found in Blacksburg and a very stiff, non-fissured, and sensitive clay, of marine origin, known as the Miocene clay of the downtown Richmond area. Testing the residual soil of Blacksburg with the SBPM led to the following new operational approaches: (1) a systematic use of a steel-sheath known as "Chinese lantern" to protect the membrane of the probe, (2) the development of a loading frame providing adequate reaction when self-boring in stiff soils, (3) the development of a new calibration unit for the SBPM which allows to calibrate the probe under conditions more like those encountered in stiff soils and, (4) the development of a high capacity computerized data acquisition system. Testing the residual soil also allowed to establish a sound database for this soil. In the Miocene clay, the laboratory test results indicate that conventional sampling technique which consists in pushing Shelby tubes disturbs significantly the soil and leads to scattered test results. In contrast, tests performed on samples taken from high-quality block samples indicate consistent behavior patterns. SBPM test results in the Miocene clay indicate that the clay exhibits high lateral stresses. They also indicate the existence of an anisotropic state of lateral stress which can be explained from the regional topography. The soil parameters interpreted from the SBPM test results in the Miocene clay compare well with the soil parameters determined in the laboratory on the block samples.
Ph. D.
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The static cone penetrometer is an in-situ testing tool which was originally developed to derive information on soil type and soil strength. More recently, it has found application in liquefaction assessment. Typical cone penetrometers are heavy duty devices which are operated with the assistance of a drill rig. However, this capacity is not necessary in the case of field studies of liquefaction, since liquefaction usually occurs at relatively shallow depths. This thesis is directed to the goal of the development of a miniature, lightweight cone penetrometer which can be used in earthquake reconnaissance studies related to liquefaction problems. The research for this thesis involved four principal objectives: 1. Development of procedures to automatically acquire and process measurements from a miniature electrical cone; 2. Develop and perform tests in a model soil-filled bin to calibrate the cone; 3. Evaluate the utility and accuracy of the cone results as a means to assess conventional soil properties; and, 4. Conduct a preliminary evaluation of the cone results in the context of recently developed methods to predict liquefaction potential. The work in regard to the first objective involved assembling and writing software for a microcomputer based data acquisition system. Successful implementation of this system allowed data from the tests to be rapidly processed and displayed. Calibration tests with the cone were carried out in a four foot high model bin which was filled ten times with sand formed to variety of densities. The sand used is Monterey No. 0/30, a standard material with well known behavioral characteristics under static and dynamic loading. The test results showed the cone to produce consistent data, and to be able to readily distinguish the varying density configurations of the sand. Using the results in conventional methods for converting cone data into soil parameters yielded values which were consistent with those expected. Liquefaction potential predictions were less satisfying, although not unreasonable. Further research is needed in this area both to check the reliability of the prediction procedures and the ability to achieve the desired objectives.
M.S.

Offshore developments for hydrocarbon resources have now progressed to water depths approaching 2500 m. Due to the difficulties and high cost in recovering high quality samples from deepwater site, there is increasing reliance on in situ tests such as piezocone and full-flow (i.e. T-bar and ball) penetration tests for determining the geotechnical design parameters. This research was undertaken in collaboration with the Norwegian Geotechnical Institute (NGI), as part of a joint industry project, to improve the reliability of in situ tests in determining design parameters and to improve offshore site investigation practice in deepwater soft sediments. In this research, a worldwide high quality database was assembled and used to correlate intact and remoulded shear strengths (measured from laboratory and vane shear tests) with penetration resistances measured by piezocone, T-bar and ball penetrometers. The overall statistics showed similar and low levels of variability of resistance factors for intact shear strength (N-factors) for all three types of penetrometer. In the correlation between the remoulded penetration resistance and remoulded shear strength, the resistance factors for remoulded shear strength (Nrem-factors) were found higher than the N-factors. As a result, the resistance sensitivity is less than the strength sensitivity. The correlations between the derived N-factors and specific soil characteristics indicated that the piezocone N-factors are more influenced by rigidity index than those for the T-bar and ball penetrometers. The effect of strength anisotropy is only apparent in respect of N-factors for the T-bar and ball penetrometers correlated to shear strengths measured in triaxial compression. On the other hand, the Nrem-factors showed slight tendency to increase with increasing strength sensitivity but were insensitive to soil index properties. These findings suggest that the full-flow penetrometers may be used to estimate remoulded shear strength and are potentially prove more reliable than the piezocone in estimating average or vane shear strength for intact soil but the reverse is probably true for the estimation of triaxial compression strength.

The Cone Penetration Test (CPT) is widely used for determining in-situ properties of soil because of its continuous data measurement and repeatability at relatively low cost. The test is even more attractive in cohesionless soils such as sands, silts and most tailings due to difficulties associated with retrieving undisturbed samples in such soils. Behaviour of soils is highly dependent on both density and stress level. The state parameter is widely accepted to represent the soil behaviour encompassing both density and stress effects. Hence, determining the in-situ state parameter from CPT is of great practical interest. The CPT was analysed using a large strain spherical cavity expansion finite element code using a critical state soil model (NorSand) capable of accounting for both elasticity and plastic compressibility. The constitutive model was calibrated through triaxial tests on reconstituted samples. The state parameter was then interpreted from CPT tip resistance, and the results were verified against an extensive database of calibration chamber tests. The efficiency of the method was further investigated by analysing two well documented case histories confirming that consistent results could be obtained from different in-situ testing methods using the proposed framework. Consequently, cumbersome and expensive testing methods can be substituted by a combination of triaxial testing and finite element analysis producing soil specific correlations. One of the difficulties in analysing the cone penetration problem is the less researched effect of high stresses developing around the cone on the behaviour of the soil. A hypothesis was put forward on the particle breakage process at the particle level and its implications for the behaviour of sands at higher stress levels were discussed. A series of triaxial tests were performed, focusing on the effects of particle breakage on the location of the critical state line. The hypothesis was used to explain the observed behaviour. Particle breakage was shown to cause additional compression and a parallel downward shift in the critical state line. The magnitude of the shift was linked to the amount of breakage and it was argued that significant breakage starts after the capacity for compression due to sliding and rolling is exhausted.

The increased popularity of using reinforcement in embankment fills and slopes has created a need for studies of the interaction between the reinforcement and surrounding soil to provide an improved basis for limit equilibrium design methods. The purpose of this study was to develop a plane strain triaxial apparatus and associated equipment to study the interaction of soil and reinforcement. The plane strain apparatus was designed to model an element of soil situated along a slip surface in a reinforced embankment. The device constructed is capable of testing a sample 9.4 inches square and 23 inches high with full-size reinforcing materials included. A 30,000-pound capacity load frame and a 20,000-pound capacity electric load cell were also constructed during this study. Drawings of the equipment constructed and a design method for the load cell are included. Preliminary tests on unreinforced and reinforced samples under a confining pressure of 10 psi were performed to check the equipment operation. These tests show that the equipment functions as planned. Modifications desirable to improve the performance of the equipment are given.
M.S.