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Journal articles on the topic 'Soil stratigraphy'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 19 February 2022

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1

Walker, PH. "Contributions to the understanding of soil and landscape relationships." Soil Research 27, no. 4 (1989): 589. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/sr9890589.

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A new approach to pedology was developed in Australia in the 1950's. It was based on geomorphic and stratigraphic principles and recognized the cyclic or episodic nature of soil and landscape development. The research reviewed here represents a contribution to that approach and further developments of it in fluvial erosional and depositional landscapes of south-eastern Australia and in glaciated landscapes of midwestern U.S.A. This research features detailed studies of hillslope layers and their relationship to alluvial valley fills; soil chronosequences on flights of alluvial terraces; the stratigraphy of coastal flood plains and the development of acid sulfate soils; dust accession in soils and the resulting problems of interpreting pedogenesis; the erosional-depositional origin of soils in enclosed drainage basins on glacial deposits of Iowa, U.S.A.; the development of a raintower-tilting flume facility and its use in elucidating the processes of soil erosion by flowing water.

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2

Paepe, R., I. Mariolakos, E. Van Overloop, S. Nassopoulou, J. Hus, M. Hatziotou, T. Markopoulos, E. Manutsoglu, G. Livaditis, and V. Sabot. "QUATERNARY SOIL-GEOLOGICAL STRATIGRAPHY IN GREECE." Bulletin of the Geological Society of Greece 36, no. 2 (July 23, 2018): 856. http://dx.doi.org/10.12681/bgsg.16833.

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Peloponnesus and Crete are probably offering the best possible standard sections for Eastern Mediterranean Pleistocene Series. Complete Pleistocene Standard Lithostratigraphic Sections from Sparta (Peloponnesus) and Kandanos (Crete) reveal continuous Pleistocene Land Sequences composed of cyclic palaeosol levels interfering with clastic fluvial, eolian (loess) and gravel deposits comparable with analogues found elswhere over the earth. Most suitable for correlation are: a) the standard Idfess area of Northern Europe, Russia and China, and b) the subtropical and tropical regions of Africa and Asia. The standard Greek Pleistocene Lithostratigraphic Sequence independently recorded at both sites (and partially from sites in other regions of Greece) reveal a number of 103 palaeosols of both interglacial and interstadial stages, indicating the extreme warm to relative warm phases of the Pleistocene ice age. This number suits surprisingly well to the 103 levels of the equally warm odd numbered oxygen isotopie stages (OIS) of the Pleistocene deep sea record which equally encompass the warm phases of the Pleistocene. Special attention is given to the Upper Pleistocene of Koroni (Southern Peloponnesus) as a case study for the Last Interglacial - Last Glacial Cycle, i.e. the middle term cycle extending in time from 127 Ka (thousand years) till 10 Ka or beginning of the Holocene. It stands as a model for the recurrent 100 Ka cycles of the long term overall Pleistocene record. Finally, in addition to the Pleistocene, the twenty wet - dry cycles of the Holocene are reviewed.

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3

Wang, Jun Peng, Ye Du, and Dong Tian. "Identifying Soil Stratigraphy in Shanghai from Piezocone Soundings." Applied Mechanics and Materials 170-173 (May 2012): 857–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.170-173.857.

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This article presents a case history of piezocone penetration test (CPTU) of soft deposit in Shanghai. In Shanghai, stratigraphy for soft deposit is mainly obtained by the laboratory test with borehole samples. The stratigraphy identified by CPTU was developed and improved in recent decades. The analysis is carried out with the field data at test site of Yan’an Road Tunnel in Shanghai. The stratigraphy chart proposed by Robertson (1990) is employed to identify soil layer. The results show that the Robertson charts (1990) is suitable to identify the stratigraphy of the soft deposit in Shanghai. However, there are some discrepancies of the results from Robertson charts (1990) and the norm method. Discussion on the reasons of these discrepancies is conducted.

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4

Cao, Zi-Jun, Shuo Zheng, Dian-Qing Li, and Kok-Kwang Phoon. "Bayesian identification of soil stratigraphy based on soil behaviour type index." Canadian Geotechnical Journal 56, no. 4 (April 2019): 570–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2017-0714.

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The cone penetration test (CPT) has been widely used to determine the soil stratigraphy (including the number N and thicknesses HN of soil layers) during geotechnical site investigation because it is rapid, repeatable, and economical. For this purpose, several deterministic and probabilistic approaches have been developed in the literature, but these approaches generally only give the “best” estimates (e.g., the most probable values) of N and HN based on CPT data according to prescribed soil stratification criteria, providing no information on the identification uncertainty (degrees-of-belief) in these “best” estimates. This paper develops a Bayesian framework for probabilistic soil stratification based on the profile of soil behaviour type index Ic calculated from CPT data. The proposed Bayesian framework not only provides the most probable values of N and HN, but also quantifies their associated identification uncertainty based on the Ic profile and prior knowledge. Equations are derived for the proposed approach, and they are illustrated and validated using real and simulated Ic profiles. Results show that the proposed approach properly identifies the most probable soil stratigraphy based on the Ic profile and prior knowledge, and rationally quantifies the uncertainty in identified soil stratigraphy with consideration of inherent spatial variability of Ic.

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5

Wang, Jun Peng, Yong Nan Wu, and Yao Liu. "Comparison and Analysis of Identification of Soil Stratigraphy in Shanghai between CPTU Test and Laboratory Test." Applied Mechanics and Materials 204-208 (October 2012): 732–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.204-208.732.

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This article presents a comparison and analysis between piezocone penetration test (CPTU) and laboratory test in identifying soil stratigraphy of Shanghai. In China, stratigraphy for soft deposit is mainly obtained from plasticity index and grain size distribution of borehole samples in the laboratory (refer to code method). Identification of soil stratigraphy with CPTU was developed and improved in recent decades. The analysis is carried out with the field data at test site of Yan’an Road Tunnel in Shanghai. The stratigraphy charts proposed by Robertson in 1990 (refer to Robertson charts (1990)) are used to identify soil strata. The results are comparison with that from the code method. The results show that Robertson charts (1990) can be suitable to identify the stratigraphy of soft deposit of Shanghai. Moreover, the discussion on discrepancies between them is also conducted.

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6

Engstrom, D. R., and B. C. S. Hansen. "Postglacial vegetational change and soil development in southeastern Labrador as inferred from pollen and chemical stratigraphy." Canadian Journal of Botany 63, no. 3 (March 1, 1985): 543–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/b85-070.

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Palynological and geochemical analyses of Holocene lake sediments are used to evaluate long-term interactions between vegetation and soils from four sites in southeastern Labrador, Canada. Changes in soil composition are inferred from the stratigraphy of humic materials and the elemental composition of authigenic and allogenic fractions of the sediment. Early Holocene lake muds deposited under tundra vegetation are predominantly inorganic and contain high concentrations of allogenic elastics derived from the erosion of barren soils. Concentrations of humic materials and redox–pH-sensitive elements (Fe, Mn, P, Al) of authigenic origin increase markedly with the subsequent invasion of spruce and fir (8000–7000 years BP). These changes represent decreased erosion of clastic minerals and increased mobilization of organometallic complexes from waterlogged soils produced through humus accumulation under coniferous vegetation. This transition of inorganic tundra inceptisols to humic-rich boreal spodosols contributed to the competitive replacement of Picea glauca and Abies balsamea by the more edaphically tolerant P. mariana between 6500 and 6000 years BP. A subsequent decline in sedimentary humic content and increase in allogenic components may signal a regional climatic cooling after 4000 years BP. Geochemical analyses of lake sediments reveal no stratigraphic changes in allogenic mineral composition that might indicate progressive soil weathering.

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7

Hryciw, Roman D., and Scott A. Raschke. "Development of Computer Vision Technique for in Situ Soil Characterization." Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board 1526, no. 1 (January 1996): 86–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0361198196152600111.

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Construction and rehabilitation of highways, tunnels, and bridges require detailed information about subsurface stratigraphy. This study presents development of a new method for characterizing subsurface soil in situ using computer vision. Hardware and software systems are integrated to obtain the grain-size distribution (GSD) of subsurface soils continuously with depth and to identify small-scale subsurface anomalies. Research is being conducted in three phases. The first phase consists of measuring the GSD of detached cohesionless soil specimens in the laboratory from digital images obtained with a computer vision system (CVS). The second phase uses the CVS to develop image processing and analysis techniques to classify soil assemblies in the laboratory and identify subsurface anomalies by simulating the manner in which images will be acquired in situ. A texture analysis approach has been developed that can detect changes in stratigraphy. The technique has been successful in identifying different types of dry, uniformly graded soils. Finally, a subsurface vision probe is being designed and constructed that will capture video images at three different levels of magnification continuously with depth.

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8

VALENTINE, K. W. G., C. TARNOCAI, C. R. DE KIMPE, R. H. KING, J. F. DORMAAR, W. J. VREEKEN, and S. A. HARRIS. "SOME ASPECTS OF QUATERNARY SOILS IN CANADA." Canadian Journal of Soil Science 67, no. 2 (May 1, 1987): 221–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.4141/cjss87-021.

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This review describes some aspects of Canadian soils that are relevant to the Quaternary. It includes a description of the Quaternary Period in Canada, including a chronology of the major events that influenced soil formation, and the implication of the Quaternary to Canadian soils. The contribution of relict and buried paleosols to Quaternary stratigraphy and the reconstruction of paleoenvironments is then discussed, including some of the inherent problems. Pedologic evidence of environmental change in the southern Rocky Mountains, including tephrostratigraphy, is followed by a description, with numerous radiocarbon dates, of Holocene peat deposits. The review concludes with a discussion of weathering and saprolites in eastern Canada. Key words: Quaternary, Holocene, paleosols, stratigraphy, paleoenvironments, peat

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9

Karlstrom, Eric T. "Stratigraphy and genesis of five superposed paleosols in pre-Wisconsinan drift on Mokowan Butte, southwestern Alberta." Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 24, no. 11 (November 1, 1987): 2235–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/e87-211.

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Five paleosols in five superposed diamicts (probably tills) on Mokowan Butte permit subdivision of pre-Wisconsinan drift and a description of Quaternary and probably late Tertiary soil-forming environments. The surface soil and upper two buried paleosols (soils 5, 4, and 3, respectively) have strongly developed, 1–5 m thick, leached, reddish, clay-rich (20–48% clay), argillic horizons overlying indurated petrocalcic, calcic, or leached B horizons. The lower two buried paleosols (soils 2 and 1) are strongly developed and have 40–150 cm thick, clay-rich (18–49% clay) argillic horizons over calcic, petrocalcic, or leached B horizons. Based on their resemblance to Paleudalfs, Paleustalfs, or Palexerults, soils 5, 4, and 3 probably formed under interglacial climates that were moister and at least 6 °C warmer than the present. Properties of soil 2 (Petrocalcic Paleustalf) and soil 1 (Typic Croboralf) imply soil formation under warm, semi-arid climates and a modern type of climate, respectively. Estimates of soil age based on degree of soil formation, paleomagnetic data, and regional correlation with dated glacial chronologies suggest soils 5 and 4 are in middle and early Pleistocene tills (= early Illinoian or Kansan and Nebraskan?), respectively, and soils 3, 2, and 1 are in late Pliocene till or diamict.

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10

Han, Wei-Chung, Yi-Wei Lu, and Sheng-Chung Lo. "Seismic prediction of soil distribution for the Chang-Bin offshore wind farm in the Taiwan Strait." Interpretation 8, no. 4 (August 31, 2020): T727—T737. http://dx.doi.org/10.1190/int-2020-0020.1.

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Direct soil measurements are limited to borehole locations and are therefore sparse in the oceans. To effectively characterize the soil distributions for the Chang-Bin offshore wind farm, which is an area with the greatest wind energy potential in the Taiwan Strait, we have developed a workflow to predict the soil distribution in the subsurface based on integrated analysis of seismic data and borehole data. First, we characterize the key seismic units and their seismic response in order to understand the regional stratigraphy. Then, we correlate the soil types to each stratigraphic unit as the constraint for the input and quality control to train a neural network based on seismic multiattribute analysis. Finally, we develop a neural network that is suitable for soil prediction in the Chang-Bin offshore wind farm. Five seismic units identified from the seismic profiles reveal that the regional stratigraphy has been greatly affected by sea-level change and the sediment transportation process. Confirmed by independent in situ borehole data, the neural network is considered reliable up to 60 m below the seafloor, whereas decreased signal-to-noise ratios at greater depths lead to poorer prediction accuracy. Compared to previous studies that mainly are based on high-quality 3D seismic and well logging data, our method can predict the soil distribution by analyzing 2D seismic profiles and simplified soil layers alone. The prediction results reveal detailed lithologic variations that are tested by in situ borehole measurements. Therefore, we are confident that this approach could effectively obtain the soil distribution prediction and thus reduce the costs in offshore engineering applications.

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11

Atkinson, G. "A multivariate analysis of alluvial terrace soils of the clarendon and cranebrook formations, Nepean River, NSW." Soil Research 26, no. 2 (1988): 243. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/sr9880243.

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The techniques of cluster analysis and principal component analysis (PCA) were applied to soils data from two Pleistocene alluvial terraces on the Nepean River, N.S.W., the Clarendon and Cranebrook Formations, to address issues raised in the literature regarding their stratigraphic relationships. A total of 160 profiles were sampled at four fixed depths to 1 8 m. Profiles were located in four 1000 by 400 m sample areas, two on each terrace. Soil samples were analysed for colour, pH, and 2.8 M HCl extractable Fe2+, Mn2+, Na2+, K+, Ca2+ and Mg2+. Data were analysed by using whole profiles as the soil entities. One branch of the dendrogram resulting from the cluster analysis contained soil profiles exclusively from sample areas on the Cranebrook Formation, whilst the other branch contained profiles exclusively from sample areas on the Clarendon Formation. Soils typical of the Lowlands Formation, Londonderry Clay and minor subdivisions within the terraces could be distinguished on the dendrogram. Similar subdivisions could also be observed on a PCA scattergram. The Clarendon and Cranebrook Formations are complex units which contain minor terrace features. Each has a distinctly different suite of soils which is consistent with their continued designation as separate stratigraphic units. The Lowlands Formation can be separated from the Cranebrook Formation upstream of Castlereagh and the Clarendon Formation should have its southern boundary to the Londonderry Clay moved north towards Richmond and its stratigraphy redefined.

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12

Sastrawan, Febrian Dedi, Meidi Arisalwadi, and Rahmania. "Analyzing of 1D Resistivity Data to Determine Subsurface Condition on the Development Area of Institut Teknologi Kalimantan (ITK) Balikpapan." Advances in Science and Technology 104 (February 2021): 41–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/ast.104.41.

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Information of subsurface stratigraphy is needed during the process of preparing multi-story buildings to avoid problems in determining the level of multi-story building piles. This research was conducted using the geoelectric method to study the subsurface stratigraphic conditions in the area. Based on the measurement results, we find an overview of the subsurface stratigraphic conditions consisting of soil in the first layer with resistivity values ranging from 305 to 570 Ωm, the soil in the study area is red-yellow, namely podsolic soil mixed with sand and gravel. The second layer is clay layer by water saturated with resistivity values between 15 to 44 Ωm, and the third layer with resistivity values varying from 112 to 341 detected from the surface is sandy clay. Insertion of coal at the first measurement point was detected buried at a depth of 17 m from the surface with a resistivity value of 962 Ωm.

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13

Francis, Ronen, Mark N. Wuddivira, Junior Darsan, and Matthew Wilson. "Soil slaking sensitivity as influenced by soil properties in alluvial and residual humid tropical soils." Journal of Soils and Sediments 19, no. 4 (November 13, 2018): 1937–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11368-018-2189-7.

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14

Abujabhah, Ibrahim S., Richard Doyle, Sally A. Bound, and John P. Bowman. "The effect of biochar loading rates on soil fertility, soil biomass, potential nitrification, and soil community metabolic profiles in three different soils." Journal of Soils and Sediments 16, no. 9 (April 1, 2016): 2211–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11368-016-1411-8.

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15

Simonson, Roy W. "Lithology and Stratigraphy of Loess and Paleosols." Geoderma 39, no. 2 (December 1986): 163–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0016-7061(86)90078-9.

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16

Chichagova, O. A., and A. E. Cherkinsky. "Problems in Radiocarbon Dating of Soils." Radiocarbon 35, no. 3 (1993): 351–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0033822200060355.

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We discuss our progress in three principal applications of 14C dating of recent and fossil soils: 1) new methods; 2) problems of interpreting 14C soil data (e.g.,14C age of soils, age of soils, duration of humus formation, rate of carbon cycling); and 3) 14C analysis of soil organic matter (OM) in pedology and paleogeography (e.g., soil genesis and evolution, humus formation and OM metamorphosis, geochronology and stratigraphy of Late Pleistocene and Holocene sediments). We suggest exploring the above issues in the analysis of each 14C profile in conjunction with paleogeographical data, and by simulation of the carbon cycle in each type of profile.

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17

Kulakovska, L. V., N. P. Gerassimenko, V. I. Usik, and O. L. Votiakova. "MIDDLE PALEOLITHIC SITE RUBAN’ IN TRANSCARPATHIA: STRATIGRAPHY, CHRONOLOGY, INDUSTRY." Archaeology and Early History of Ukraine 26, no. 1 (March 22, 2018): 7–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.37445/adiu.2018.01.01.

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The Ruban’ Paleolithic site was discovered in 2005 by the Transcarpathian Paleolithic expedition of the Archaeological Museum of the IA NASU. The site is located on the territory of the former Zatysnansky chemical plant (Fig. 1b) at a distance of 800 m north of the eastern outskirts of the village of Gorbky, Vynohradiv district, in the Transcarpathian region, in the Ruban’ tract, and about 2 km to the southeast of the Korolevo site. At the time when the site Ruban’ was discovered, the upper part the quarry wall where the site is located, has been ruined by the quarrying that made it impossible to determine a stratigraphic position of the archaeological layer and to establish the age of the culture. In order to solve these problems, 15 geological profiles of the Quaternary deposits have been set along the less disturbed quarry wall in 2016—2017. The stratigraphic subdivision of the sections, according to the Quaternary stratigraphic framework of Ukraine, and their correlation with the profile of the archaeological site have been carried out that enables to determine the geological age of the cultural layer. The geological site Ruban’ is located along the paleoslope and, thus, there are erosional brakes in its sedimentary record. The lowermost stratigrpahical unit is represented by reddish-brown soil of Martonosha unit overlain by gleyed loam of Sula unit and strongly dissected by wedges of the Sula cryogenesis. The other Lower and Middle Pleistocene units have been truncated and now they are represented by pedosediments (with exception of the yellowish-brown soil of Upper Zavadivka unit). Kaydaky unit (the brown forest soil of a warm interglacial climate) is separated from Zavadivka soil by the level of wedges of the Dnieper cryogensis. Pryluky unit is represented by two soils (pl1 and pl3), separated by cryogenic fissures and, in places, by a thin loess layer (pl2). The dark-brown soil pl1 is characterized by both manganese concretions and thick managanese films in its upper part, whereas the brown forest soil pl3 is overlain by a thin layer of dense iron-manganese concretions (pl3c). This layer reflects unstable hydrothermal regime during the transition from the warm interstadial to the cold stadial climate of the Uday time. Uday unit is represented, in places, by a thin loess layer, which is overlain by brown forest soil of Vytachiv unit. The latter is dissected by cryogenic fissures, filled with the non-soil material of Bug unit. The Holocene unit is truncated in many places but the Holocene pedogenic processes (translocation) overprint the underlying units. The stratigraphic correlation of the studied sections with the archaeological site (excavation 1) demonstrates that the archaeological layer is located in the transitional bed of iron-manganese concretions (pl3c). According to the accepted comparison of the Ukrainian stratigraphy with marine isotopic-oxygen scale, the chronostratigraphic position of the archaeological layer corresponds to the transition from the end of the MIS 5 (5a) i. e. 74—64 ka BP. In the industry of Ruban’ site are prevailing the non-Levallois reduction methods of exploataion of Kombewa, centripetal, crossed and sub-crossed cores with a flat working surface. The parrallel reduction system is not typical and random. Blades are practically absent. In the collection of tool-kit dominated side scrapers, among which there is a series of natural backed side scrapers with a thick working edge, created by 2—3 rows of a stepped scaled retouch (Quina retouch type). Such samples can be attributed to a specific type of side scrapers, such as Quina or Semi-Quina (Fig. 7). In general, the main technological and typological features of the Ruban’ site industry are closely related to the cultural layer II of the Korolevo I site. These collections can be attributed to the local variant of the so-called Charantienne Techno-Complex.

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18

Zhukov, O., and K. Maslikova. "The dependence of the technosols models functional properties from the primary stratigraphy designs." Journal of Geology, Geography and Geoecology 27, no. 2 (November 2, 2018): 399–407. http://dx.doi.org/10.15421/111864.

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In the present article the assumption that the design of the soil-like artificial body in zero-moment of existence determines the dynamics and trajectory of soilforming process was tasted. It was shown that an important aspect of the experiment is the search criteria that you can perform evaluation of the functional properties of the generated structures depending on their organization. The study of the water infiltration dynamics from the soil surface is highlyinformative non-destructive testing for evaluating the properties of the soil body. Studies showed that technosols as artificial creation have fundamental differences between the natural soils for which the classic Philip equitation was proposed. Technosoils are porous, but heterogeneous formations. The process of filtering in technosols is not laminar, periods of smooth water infiltration is outbreak by disastrous water absorption. To simulate this process it was showed that the better results may be obtained due to originally modified Philip equitation. Specific constant C describes the dynamics of the infiltration process the early stages of the experiment and is a specific indicator for technosols. In natural soils this constant is zero. The sorptivity of the pedozems was reveled to be depended from the underlying layer. Organic components contribute to the formation of aggregate most of which is water resistant. Such for- mations smooth density variation of clay soil resulting from swelling and shrinkage processes that can maintain stable structure of the pore space. As a result, the soil after phytomeliorative rotation gets such features as reduced infiltration rate, but increased level of filtration. The artificial mixture of clay has significant waterproof properties, which ultimately can lead to complete discontinuance of water absorption by technosols. Waterproof properties of soil may increase the risk of water erosion of technosols. For technosoils structural change of the pore space state are inherent in contact with water because hydrolabile units of their structure. Accordingly, during the infiltration process there are significant changes in the course of the rate of filtration of water.

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19

Davis, Anthony M. "IDENTIFYING SOIL UNITS IN ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES WITH COMPLEX STRATIGRAPHY." Canadian Geographer/Le Géographe canadien 30, no. 1 (March 1986): 85–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1541-0064.1986.tb01032.x.

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20

Bloomberg, D., S. B. Upchurch, M. L. Hayden, and R. C. Williams. "Cone-penetrometer exploration of Sinkholes: Stratigraphy and soil properties." Environmental Geology and Water Sciences 12, no. 2 (October 1988): 99–105. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02574794.

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21

Miglioranza, Karina S. B., Julia E. Aizpún de Moreno, and Víctor J. Moreno. "Trends in soil science: organochlorine pesticides in argentinean soils." Journal of Soils and Sediments 3, no. 4 (December 2003): 264–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02988686.

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22

HENRY, J. L., P. R. BULLOCK, T. J. HOGG, and L. D. LUBA. "GROUNDWATER DISCHARGE FROM GLACIAL AND BEDROCK AQUIFERS AS A SOIL SALINIZATION FACTOR IN SASKATCHEWAN." Canadian Journal of Soil Science 65, no. 4 (November 1, 1985): 749–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.4141/cjss85-080.

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The stratigraphy and hydrology of saline soils were investigated at 15 sites in Saskatchewan, Canada. At five sites (Series A) nests of piezometers were installed and at 10 sites (Series B) a single piezometer was installed in or near an aquifer. Piezometric surface data from the nests showed the potential for upward movement in all Series A sites. The electrical conductivity (EC) of water from Series A piezometers increased from the deepest to shallowest and there was a general increase in soil EC towards the soil surface. Hydraulic conductivity of strata was measured at three sites and varied from 1.6 × 10−7 to 3.2 × 10−4 cm∙sec−1. It was calculated that observed salt loads for the three sites could accumulate by upward movement from the aquifer in from 500 to 5300 yr. For Series B sites the approximate sodium percentage (ASP) of the soil (Y) was related to the ASP of the aquifer (X) by the equation:[Formula: see text]For Series A and Series B sites combined the EC (dS∙m−1) of the 1:1 suspension of the stratum immediately above the aquifer (Y) was related to the EC of the aquifer (X) by the equation:[Formula: see text]Key words: Soil salinity, aquifers, stratigraphy, salt profiles

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23

Mohamad, Habib M., B. Kasbi, M. Baba, Z. Adnan, S. Hardianshah, and S. Ismail. "Investigating Peat Soil Stratigraphy and Marine Clay Formation Using the Geophysical Method in Padas Valley, Northern Borneo." Applied and Environmental Soil Science 2021 (May 18, 2021): 1–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2021/6681704.

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A geophysical survey including electrical resistivity tomography (ERT), induced polarization (IP), and seismic refraction (SR) was carried out to estimate peatland thickness in Beaufort District, Eastern Malaysia. Peatlands are important natural carbon storage and play a key role in the global carbon cycle. The ERT and IP studies were performed along three profiles over different peat thicknesses using Schlumberger configuration. The SR survey was carried out using vertical geophones along the same profiles. The peat soil material was characterized by low seismic velocity and high resistivity. Our results show that ERT and IP methods were able to clearly detect the interface between the peat soil and marine clay underneath. These layers differ greatly in geoelectrical characteristics showing clear contrast, thus enabling the delineation of peat soil stratigraphy, while the SR image obtained was not able to determine the base of the peat soil layer as the stiffness difference on the transition layer was very small. Overall, it was concluded that the ERT and IP method offer a useful alternative in delineating the peat soil stratigraphy. The combined application of ERT and IP method with the conventional boring method meets the demand for large volume peat stratigraphy mapping, which, moreover, has various ecological conditions and undulating strata.

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24

Din, Moeen-ul, Jamal Ali, Abdul Qudoos Khan, and Farjad Sami. "Geotechnical Characteristics of Subsoil for Different Sectors of Islamabad." NUST Journal of Engineering Sciences 11, no. 1 (March 10, 2019): 33–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.24949/njes.v11i1.179.

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Geotechnical site investigations are essential in determining subsoil stratigraphy and soil strength and is considered mandatory for design of foundations. This study presents the generalized profiles for subsurface stratigraphy and insitu soil strength (average SPT N values) for different sectors of Islamabad on the basis of wide-ranging experimental work carried out by several agencies in fieldand laboratory testing carried out at the number of locations in the study area. Data from 208 geotechnical site investigations of Islamabad have been collected and subsurface profiling for those sectors is carried out that had more than four data points. The experimental data of the study area has shown potential for development of profile map for 11 different sectors of Islamabad using data of 144 geotechnical site investigations. Generalized soil profile and average SPT N values for each sector have been generated to a depth of 7m which is considered sufficient for lightly loaded structures with shallow foundations. Average SPT N value profile coupled with soil stratigraphy for each zone is established that can used to determine shear strength parameters and bearing capacity of soil using SPT based empirical correlations. The generalized soil profiles will be helpful during feasibility study and planning geotechnical site investigations for mega projects and can also be used to determine engineering properties of subsoil for small scale projects.

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Wang, Qiang, Bingfang Wu, Alfred Stein, Liang Zhu, and Yuan Zeng. "Soil depth spatial prediction by fuzzy soil-landscape model." Journal of Soils and Sediments 18, no. 3 (August 19, 2017): 1041–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11368-017-1779-0.

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Antarissubhi, Lawalenna Samang, Tri Harianto, and Indrabayu. "Study of Soil Layer Stratigraphy Based on Georesistivity and Geological Techniques." Materials Science Forum 998 (June 2020): 335–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.998.335.

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The purpose of study was to determine the structure of the studied soil layer based on measurement of geo-resistivity with the Wenner configuration and geotechnical drilling method. Geotechnical drilling was one way of soil/rock investigations to determine the parameters soil layers. Based on the objective, field tests and laboratory tests were carried out to support scientific investigations. The results of measurements in the field using geo-resistivity were performed to a depth of 23 meters, resulted in 2 types of soil sediment layers namely clay and sand. At a depth of approx. 8 meters, the groundwater level was found and through laboratory tests, the results of geotechnical drilling gave 2 types of soil classification to a depth of 15 meters, i.e CH and ML. In general, the results of the geo-electrical and drilling tests represented the soil real conditions in developing the stratigraphy of the subsurface layer of the soil. It showed that in the first layer, the sediment layer resulting from the breakdown of the initial rock or sediment layer which had undergone transportation of sedimentary layers in the form of clay, silt or sand and did not experience compaction so that it has a large resistivity value. The next layer associated with regional geological maps are dominated by sand.

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Johnson, William C., Karen L. Willey, Joseph A. Mason, and David W. May. "Stratigraphy and environmental reconstruction at the middle Wisconsinan Gilman Canyon formation type locality, Buzzard's Roost, southwestern Nebraska, USA." Quaternary Research 67, no. 3 (May 2007): 474–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.yqres.2007.01.011.

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AbstractThe middle Wisconsinan Gilman Canyon Formation at the Buzzard's Roost type locality in southwestern Nebraska was investigated to document the stratigraphy and to reconstruct the environmental and climate record. The Gilman Canyon Formation was subdivided into three loess units and three soils, with radiocarbon ages constraining it between about 40 ka and 25 ka. Stable carbon isotope ratios, magnetic susceptibility, and carbon content were used to define and characterize soils within both the Gilman Canyon Formation and underlying Illinoian Loveland Loess. At the height of soil development within the Gilman Canyon Formation, climate was supporting C4-dominated grassland, with July temperatures equal to or exceeding those of today. Soil-forming intervals within the Loveland Loess, including the Sangamon Soil, also exhibited relative increases in C4 biomass. Climate, as recorded in the Gilman Canyon Formation, is corroborated by regional proxy data. The formation accumulated during MIS 3, and concurrent soil formation coincided with a summer insolation maximum.

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Liang, Xiaomin, Qin Chen, Muhammad Shoaib Rana, Zhihao Dong, XiaoDong Liu, Chengxiao Hu, Qiling Tan, Xiaohu Zhao, Xuecheng Sun, and Songwei Wu. "Effects of soil amendments on soil fertility and fruit yield through alterations in soil carbon fractions." Journal of Soils and Sediments 21, no. 7 (May 3, 2021): 2628–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11368-021-02932-z.

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Szilágyi, Gábor, Pál Sümegi, Sándor Gulyás, and Dávid Molnár. "Revision of the Age of Construction Phases of a Mound Dated to the Late Copper–Early Bronze Age in Eastern Hungary Relying on14C-Based Chronologies." Radiocarbon 60, no. 5 (October 2018): 1403–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/rdc.2018.107.

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ABSTRACTEcse Mound is a burial mound in the Hortobágy region of eastern Hungary. Built by prehistoric nomadic peoples from the east, it now stands on the border between two modern settlements. The construction of the mound was assumed to be related to representatives of the Pit Grave Culture populating the area between the Late Copper and Bronze Ages. This theory considered similarities in shape, orientation, and stratigraphy of this mound with other absolute-dated ones in the Hortobágy region alone. The mound comprises two construction layers as indicated by magnetic susceptibility and on-site stratigraphic observations. According to detailed sedimentological, geochemical analyses of samples taken from the bedrock, artificial stratigraphic horizons, and the overlying topsoil, there is a marked similarity between the soil forming the body of the mound in both artificial horizons and the underlying bedrock soil. In contrast the pedological, geological character of the modern topsoil is utterly different. According to our dating results, the uppermost stratigraphic horizon is coeval with the absolute-dated mounds in the region, assigning it to the period of the Pit Grave Culture. However, the lower anthropological horizon is older and dates to between the Early and Late Copper Ages.

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Pereira, Marlon Correa, Roisin O’Riordan, and Carly Stevens. "Urban soil microbial community and microbial-related carbon storage are severely limited by sealing." Journal of Soils and Sediments 21, no. 3 (January 29, 2021): 1455–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11368-021-02881-7.

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Abstract Purpose Urbanisation causes changes in land use, from natural or rural to urban, leading to the sealing of soil and the replacement of vegetation by buildings, roads and pavements. The sealing process impacts soil properties and services and can lead to negative consequences for microbial attributes and processes in soil. At present, information about the microbial community following soil sealing is limited. As such, we investigated how changes in soil physical and chemical properties caused by sealing affect the soil microbial community and soil ecosystem services. Material and methods Soils were sampled beneath impervious pavements (sealed) and from adjacent pervious greenspace areas (unsealed). Soil properties (total C, total N, C:N ratio and water content) and microbial attributes (microbial biomass C, N-mineralisation and phospholipid fatty acids—PLFA) were measured and correlated. Results and discussion A reduction of total C, total N, and water content were observed in sealed soil, whilst the C:N ratio increased. Sealed soil also presented a reduction in microbial attributes, with low N-mineralisation revealing suppressed microbial activity. PLFA data presented positive correlations with total C, total N and water content, suggesting that the microbial community may be reduced in sealed soil as a response to soil properties. Furthermore, fungal:bacterial and gram-positive:gram-negative bacterial ratios were lower in sealed soil indicating degradation in C sequestration and a consequential effect on C storage. Conclusions Sealing causes notable changes in soil properties leading to subsequent impacts upon the microbial community and the reduction of microbial activity and soil C storage potential.

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ZAADY, ELI, and ZVI Y. OFFER. "Biogenic soil crusts and soil depth: a long-term case study from the Central Negev desert highland." Sedimentology 57, no. 2 (February 2010): 351–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3091.2009.01081.x.

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D'Amore, David V., Scott R. Stewart, J. Herbert Huddleston, and J. Reed Glasmann. "Stratigraphy and Hydrology of the Jackson-Frazier Wetland, Oregon." Soil Science Society of America Journal 64, no. 4 (July 2000): 1535–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.2136/sssaj2000.6441535x.

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Ukalska-Jaruga, Aleksandra, Guillaume Debaene, and Bożena Smreczak. "Dissipation and sorption processes of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) to organic matter in soils amended by exogenous rich-carbon material." Journal of Soils and Sediments 20, no. 2 (September 16, 2019): 836–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11368-019-02455-8.

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Abstract Purpose The aim of the research was to assess the effect of biochar addition on aging, degradation, and sorption processes of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) to soil organic matter. The study was carried out as a sorption experiment in strictly controlled water and air conditions, which allowed for the accurate observation and prediction of PAH behavior in soils. Materials and methods Four soils were fortified with a PAH mixture (Fluorene-Flu, Anthracene-Ant, Phenanthrene-Phe, Pyrene-Pyr, Chrysene-Chry) at 20 mg kg−1 of single-compound concentration level. The experiment was carried out in two trials: soils + 5PAHs amended with biochar and soil + 5PAHs without biochar addition with incubation times of 0, 1, 3, 6, and 9 months. After each interval time, the extractable (E-SOM) and stable organic matter (S-SOM) were measured as well as PAHs determined in two forms: total concentration (PAH-tot) and residual concentration (PAH-rest) after E-SOM extraction. The PAH loss and half-life times were estimated according to pseudo first-order kinetics equation. Results and discussion The amounts of PAH-tot in the soils without biochar decreased by an average of 92%, while in soil with biochar, this was 41% after 9 months of aging. The amount of PAHs-rest bounded with S-SOM after 9 months of incubation varied from 0.9 to 3.5% and 0.2 to 1.3% of the initial PAH concentration, respectively, for soils non-induced and induced by biochar. In soils without biochar, Flu, Ant, Phe, and Pyr exhibited similar T1/2 (43–59 days), but Chry was characterized by a much higher and broader T1/2 than other hydrocarbons (67–280 days). Biochar addition to the soils significantly influenced the half-life changes for all PAHs. The highest changes were noted for Phe (14-fold increase), and the lowest was for Flu (7-fold increase). Conclusions The addition of exogenous-rich carbon material such as biochar to the soil significantly changes the behavior and sorption potential of PAHs in the soil. Soils enriched with biochar are characterized by a higher persistence of PAHs, longer aging time, and lower affinity for sorption by native organic matter structures. Soils freshly polluted by PAH are mainly sorbed by E-SOM, which significantly increases their accessibility and reduces formation of bound-residues in the soil.

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Philippot, Laurent, Cristina Abbate, Antonio Bispo, Thierry Chesnot, Sara Hallin, Philippe Lemanceau, Kristina Lindström, et al. "Soil microbial diversity: an ISO standard for soil DNA extraction." Journal of Soils and Sediments 10, no. 7 (July 6, 2010): 1344–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11368-010-0265-8.

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Kruczkowska, Bogusława, Jerzy Jonczak, Sandra Słowińska, Arkadiusz Bartczak, Mateusz Kramkowski, Łukasz Uzarowicz, Sebastian Tyszkowski, and Michał Słowiński. "Stages of soil development in the coastal zone of a disappearing lake—a case study from central Poland." Journal of Soils and Sediments 21, no. 3 (January 29, 2021): 1420–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11368-021-02880-8.

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Abstract Purpose The aim of this study was to estimate the impact of lake disappearance, groundwater table fluctuations, and some aspects of human pressure on stages of soil cover development in the catchment of Lake Rakutowskie. Materials and methods Research was conducted in soil chronosequence composed of eight soil profiles located in 785-m-long transect. Soils were sampled every 10 cm. Physical and chemical properties were determined with the use of disturbed and undisturbed samples. Radiocarbon dates were obtained for the bottom part of peat in each soil profile. The mineral composition of selected soil samples was determined using the X-ray diffraction (XRD) method. Additionally, the hydrological conditions were continuously monitored from July 27, 2013 to September 23, 2014. Results and discussion An increased rate of shallow lakes overgrowth and final disappearance is a commonly observed process in the European lowlands. This paper presents and discusses the influence of changes in the range of the Lake Rakutowskie wetlands complex (central Poland) and water level fluctuations on soil cover transformation in the immediate vicinity of the lake. Five major phases of soil cover development (from Subaquatic Histosols (Limnic) to Hypereutric Regosol (Drainic, Humic)) were hypothetically reconstructed based on detailed studies of soil physical and chemical properties, mineral composition, water level fluctuations, and radiocarbon dating. The degree of peat decomposition in the studied profiles increased with the distance from the contemporary lake surface. Along with the progressive dehydration and mineralization of organic soils, their physical and chemical properties deteriorated, which is visible, e.g., in soil structure, and mineral and chemical composition (especially TOC and TN). Obtained radiocarbon ages of selected samples indicate that the oldest peat layers developed about 5856 cal BCE (6970 ± 70 14C BP), while the youngest were deposited about 1074 cal CE (980 ± 40 14C BP)–1573 cal CE (300 ± 35 14C BP). Hydrological studies indicate a progressive process of lake disappearance. Conclusions The process of soil cover transforming of the studied area takes place relatively quick, mainly recently due to the influence of human activity. Based on these results, it can be predicted that the lake will most likely disappear in a relatively short time, and the soil cover will be entirely in the fifth phase (P5) of evolution.

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Kulatilake, Pinnaduwah H. S. W. "Modelling of cyclical stratigraphy using Markov chains." International Journal of Mining and Geological Engineering 5, no. 2 (July 1987): 121–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf01560870.

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Römbke, Jörg. "Workshop on Research Projects on Soil Biology, Soil Ecotoxicity and Precautionary Soil Protection (Bonn, 22nd—23rd October 2001)." Journal of Soils and Sediments 2, no. 3 (September 2002): 159. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02988473.

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Wang, Ke, Xiaoyuan Zhang, Cengceng Sun, Kaiqi Yang, Jiyong Zheng, and Jihai Zhou. "Biochar application alters soil structure but not soil hydraulic conductivity of an expansive clayey soil under field conditions." Journal of Soils and Sediments 21, no. 1 (September 30, 2020): 73–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11368-020-02786-x.

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Gunarathne, Viraj, Nishanta Rajakaruna, Udaya Gunarathne, Jayanta Kumar Biswas, Zach A. Raposo, and Meththika Vithanage. "Influence of soil water content and soil amendments on trace metal release and seedling growth in serpentine soil." Journal of Soils and Sediments 19, no. 12 (June 4, 2019): 3908–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11368-019-02349-9.

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Kwiatkowska-Malina, Jolanta. "Qualitative and quantitative soil organic matter estimation for sustainable soil management." Journal of Soils and Sediments 18, no. 8 (December 28, 2017): 2801–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11368-017-1891-1.

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Urbańska, Magdalena, and Przemysław Charzyński. "SUITMAs as an archive of the human past: educational implications." Journal of Soils and Sediments 21, no. 5 (February 18, 2021): 1928–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11368-021-02886-2.

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Abstract Purpose The relics of the industry are widely used for educational and touristic purposes. There are many examples of brownfield sites turned into tourist attractions. Interest in post-industrial areas concerns not only an infrastructure and ruins but also the soil cover. Soils in such areas should be also considered as important element of this type of landscape due to the artefacts’ stored. This article aim is to present educational potential of post-industrial soils and artefacts to be found there on the example of the area of “Polchem”. Methods and materials This publication is based on the analysis of soils’ artefacts in the non-reclaimed area of former chemical plant. Photographic material and literature studies focus on technogenic soils and its functions. The history of “Polchem”, industrial tourism and industrial archaeology as well as verbal communication of people associated with the company were important components of this publication. Results and discussion Soils play many ecological functions, one of them is archiving human history. In this approach, archaeology is combined with soil science serving as a tool in archaeological research. Such cooperation within two scientific fields leads often to valuable scientific achievements. Relatively young post-industrial areas are generally out of interest of archaeology. However, they can form the basis of soil education activities targeted at a larger number of recipients. Conclusions Soils within cities are interesting due to recorded marks of human activity. Artefacts in soils can be used in various ways. One of them is an educational purpose. “Polchem” area is out of use now so it can be accessed by visitors (students and teachers). Artefact’s diversity allows for quick finding and recognition of industrial history of the former plant. In this way, it could be present an important soil function—protecting cultural heritage.

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Zuo, Feng-Lin, Xiao-Yan Li, Xiao-Fan Yang, Yang Wang, Yu-Jun Ma, Yu-Han Huang, and Chao-Fu Wei. "Soil particle-size distribution and aggregate stability of new reconstructed purple soil affected by soil erosion in overland flow." Journal of Soils and Sediments 20, no. 1 (August 9, 2019): 272–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11368-019-02408-1.

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Schneckenburger, Tatjana, and Sören Thiele-Bruhn. "Sorption of PAHs and PAH derivatives in peat soil is affected by prehydration status: the role of SOM and sorbate properties." Journal of Soils and Sediments 20, no. 10 (June 23, 2020): 3644–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11368-020-02695-z.

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Abstract Purpose Sorption of organic compounds to soil largely determines their mobility and bioavailability in ecosystems. It is well known that molecular properties of the organic sorbates affect the sorbed amounts and sorption kinetics. But also changes in the hydration status of soils alter the physicochemical and sorptive properties of soil organic matter (SOM), which is the main sorbent for organic compounds in soils. This study elucidates the effects of varying SOM prehydration status on sorption of PAHs and PAH derivatives in peat soil. Materials and methods For sorption experiments, topsoil samples of a peat soil with 51% SOM were adjusted to water contents of 15, 30, and 50% (w/w based on dry soil mass) and conditioned for different water contact times of up to 2 years at one constant water content. Sorption kinetics and isotherms of naphthalene, three naphthalene derivatives, phenanthrene, and pyrene to these samples were investigated in batch experiments. Effects of the sorbates’ properties and SOM hydration on sorption were analyzed. Results and discussion Sorption to the peat soil was nonlinear and varied among sorbates and differently prehydrated soil samples. Sorbate polarizability, molecular volume, and weight increased the sorbed amount. Sorption kinetics were two-phased with a fast and a slow sorbing fraction. Hydroxyl groups in sorbates acting as H-donor or acceptor led to an increase of the slow sorbing fraction. Increasing total water contents, amounts of non-freezable water in SOM, increasing pore sizes, and decreasing hydrophobicity of SOM decreased the total sorbed amount and the fast sorbing fraction while increasing the slow sorbing fraction. The latter effects increased with increasing polarity and dipole moment of the sorbate. The SOM matrix rigidity varied with prehydration status; higher SOM matrix rigidity led to non-ideal sorption processes, namely, higher sorption nonlinearity and slower sorption. Conclusions The study revealed the effects and interplay of SOM prehydration status and molecular properties of the sorbates on sorption of PAHs and PAH derivatives. As sorbed amounts may decrease and become non-ideal upon aging at the presence of water, estimations of the mobility of organic compounds in the environment need to consider SOM prehydration status in high organic soils.

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Yu, Kun, Yang Duan, Maosheng Zhang, Ying Dong, Luchen Wang, Ye Wang, Xu Guo, and Fusheng Hu. "Using micro focus industrial computed tomography to characterize the effects of soil type and soil depth on soil pore characteristics, morphology, and soil compression in Xi’an, China." Journal of Soils and Sediments 20, no. 4 (December 19, 2019): 1943–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11368-019-02536-8.

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Anker, Yaakov, Eliahu Rosenthal, Haim Shulman, and Akiva Flexer. "Multi-disciplinary modeling, in stratigraphy and groundwater stratigraphy of the Jordan River basin." Environmental Geology 57, no. 2 (May 7, 2008): 275–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00254-008-1335-8.

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Sipos, Péter, Viktória Kovács Kis, Réka Balázs, Adrienn Tóth, and Tibor Németh. "Effect of pedogenic iron-oxyhydroxide removal on the metal sorption by soil clay minerals." Journal of Soils and Sediments 21, no. 4 (February 19, 2021): 1785–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11368-021-02899-x.

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Abstract Purpose The close association of Fe-oxyhydroxides and clay minerals might influence the sorption properties of these components. We aimed to study the effect of removing the pedogenic Fe-oxyhydroxides on the sorption of Cd, Cu, Pb, and Zn by the clay mineral particles in soils with contrasting pH. Methods Competitive batch sorption experiments before and after Fe-oxyhydroxide extraction in soils were carried out together with the direct analysis of the metal sorption on individual particles of ferrihydrite, smectite, and illite/smectite by TEM. Results Ferrihydrite was a more effective metal sorbent than clay minerals, although its removal resulted in decreased sorption only for Cd, Cu, and Zn. Ferrhydrite coating blocked metals’ access for certain sorption sites on clay surfaces, which were only accessible for Pb as the most efficient competitor after removing the coating. This observation was the most remarkable for the smectite particles in the alkaline soil. Mineral surfaces sorbed higher Cu than Pb concentrations and higher Zn than Cd concentrations despite the former metals’ lower bulk sorption. Thus, organic surfaces and precipitation contributed to Pb and Cd’s retention to a greater extent than for Cu and Zn. The structural Fe of smectite also promoted the metal sorption in both soils. Conclusion Removal of iron-oxyhydroxide coatings from the soil affects metal sorption selectively. Direct study of metal sorption on individual soil particles enables us to gain a more in-depth insight into soil minerals’ role in this process.

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Matschullat, Jörg. "Fundamentals of Soil Ecology." Journal of Soils and Sediments 5, no. 4 (October 2005): 256. http://dx.doi.org/10.1065/jss2005.11.005.

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Guerin, Turlough F. "Soil and sediments listservers." Journal of Soils and Sediments 1, no. 3 (September 2001): 133–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02986475.

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Blum, Winfried E. H. "European soil protection strategy." Journal of Soils and Sediments 3, no. 4 (December 2003): 242. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02988670.

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Blum, Winfried E. H., Martin H. Gerzabek, and Sigrid Schwarz. "Soil protection in Austria." Journal of Soils and Sediments 3, no. 4 (December 2003): 245–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02988672.

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