Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Soil porosity'
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Duval, Jean. "Assessing porosity characteristics as indicators of compaction in a clay soil." Thesis, McGill University, 1990. http://digitool.Library.McGill.CA:80/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object_id=59275.
Full textThe tests used were: total porosity as calculated from densimeter readings and from soil cores; structural porosity; water desorption characteristics; and soil profile examination. These tests were performed in three layers of 20 cm and evaluation was based on their practicality and their ability to differentiate between treatments and to correlate with corn yield.
The results confirm that total porosity is a poor indicator of compaction in the subsoil. In soil profile assessments, ped descriptions were preferable to examination of pores. Water content and saturation deficit at $-$4.0 and $-$100 kPa were the best indicators of treatments and plant response.
Li, Xu. "Dual-porosity structure and bimodal hydraulic property functions for unsaturated coarse granular soils /." View abstract or full-text, 2009. http://library.ust.hk/cgi/db/thesis.pl?CIVL%202009%20LI.
Full textGao, Yuncai. "Influence of subsurface drainage and subirrigation practices on soil drainable porosity." Thesis, University of British Columbia, 1990. http://hdl.handle.net/2429/28988.
Full textApplied Science, Faculty of
Chemical and Biological Engineering, Department of
Graduate
Jassogne, Laurence. "Characterisation of porosity and root growth in a sodic texture-contrast soil." University of Western Australia. School of Plant Biology, 2009. http://theses.library.uwa.edu.au/adt-WU2009.0092.
Full textMasiyandima, Mutsa Cecelia. "The effect of tine geometry on soil physical properties." Thesis, McGill University, 1995. http://digitool.Library.McGill.CA:80/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object_id=23284.
Full textA field experiment was carried out on a clay soil to determine the effect of the geometry of bladed tillage implements on some soil physical properties after tillage. The soil properties evaluated were bulk density, mean clod size distribution and total pore space after tillage and the extent of loosening achieved.
Implement parameters considered were blade width, rake angle and depth of operation of the implement. Two blade widths of 75 and 150 mm were evaluated in combination with three rake angles of 30, 60 and 90 degrees. Each tillage implement was drawn through the soil at four operating depths of 100, 150, 200 and 250 mm.
Larger rake angles were observed to result in larger mean aggregate sizes and greater bulk density reductions when compared to smaller rake angles. Greater reduction in bulk density was observed with the wider of the two blade widths evaluated. Mean clod size after tillage was also observed to be large for the wider of the two widths evaluated. Irrespective of width and rake angle, greater operating depths resulted in larger mean clod sizes and greater reductions in bulk density as compared to shallower operating depths. Fractal analysis showed the extent of fragmentation to be greater at shallower operating depths, hence the small mean clod sizes obtained.
Esselburn, Jason Dennis. "Porosity and Permeability in Ternary Sediment Mixtures." Wright State University / OhioLINK, 2009. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=wright1245949430.
Full textParry, Samuel Aneurin. "Turning rock into soil : variations in soil mineral reactivity, surface area and porosity through the critical zone." Thesis, University of Reading, 2012. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.559249.
Full textKirk, Alastair James. "Relationships between sediment, moisture and soil crust characteristics in arid environments." Thesis, Durham University, 1997. http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/1051/.
Full textWhite, Thomas Leslie Carleton University Dissertation Earth Sciences. "Cryogenic alteration of clay and silt soil microstructure implications for geotechnical properties." Ottawa, 1996.
Find full textShi, Xiusong. "Deformation behaviour of multi-porosity soils in landfills." Doctoral thesis, Saechsische Landesbibliothek- Staats- und Universitaetsbibliothek Dresden, 2016. http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bsz:14-qucosa-205774.
Full textIn einem Tagebau können die feinkörnigen Böden in unterschiedlichen Zustandsformen entstehen. Dies sind zum einen klumpige Böden mit einer granular ähnlichen Struktur (Pseudokornstruktur) und einer hohen Konsistenzzahl und zum anderen Mischungen aus mehreren Tonen oder Schluffen mit niedriger Konsistenzzahl. Der Zustand wird dabei massgebend von dem Transport (z.B. Länge des Förderbandes) und dem Ausgangszustand (z.B. der Anfangsscherfestigkeit) beeinflusst. Klumpige Böden entstehen bei der Abbaggerung des natürlichen Materials auf der Abbauseite, welches eine hohe Festigkeit besitzt. Alle Böden werden normalerweise ohne Verdichtung verkippt, so entstehen bei der Verkippung von klumpigen Böden grosse Makro-Porenräume zwischen den Klumpen, welche sehr luft- bzw. wasserdurchlässig sind. Nach einiger Zeit entsteht eine neue Struktur aus den Klumpen und dem Material des sich von aussen auflösenden Klumpens, welches das Füllmaterial bildet. Wenn die Festigkeit des Ausgangsmaterials niedrig ist oder lange Transportwege stattfinden, zerfallen die Klumpen. Zudem werden die Böden von verschiedenen Schichten der Abbauseite unter einander gemischt, wodurch die Tongemische entstehen. Sowohl für die Dimensionierung und Berechnung der aus den Verkippungen entstehenden Tagebaurandböschungen sowie für eine spätere Nutzung des ehemaligen Tagebaugebietes ist die Kenntnisüber das Deformations- und Verformungsverhalten von Kippenböden notwendig. Daher wurden in dieser Arbeit Tagebauböden und ihr zeitlich veränderliches Verhalten untersucht. Dabei werden diese, bezugnehmend auf den Anfangszustand, in drei typische Materialien unterschieden: (1) der frisch verkippte klumpige Boden, (2) eine Mischung aus Klumpen und Füllmaterial, welche höhere Liegezeiten repräsentiert und (3) Mischungen von feinkörnigen Ausgangsböden. Zunächst wurden künstlich hergestellte klumpige Böden untersucht. Sie bilden eine Übergangsform zwischen aufbereiteten und natürlichen klumpigen Böden. Das Kompressions- und Scherverhalten sowie die Durchlässigkeit wurden an Ödometer und Triaxialversuchen bestimmt. Das Füllmaterial, welches die Makroporen zwischen den Klumpen füllt, spielt eine entscheidende Rolle für das Materialverhalten. Ähnlich wie bei den künstlich hergestellten klumpigen Böden schliessen sich auch bei den Böden im Tagebau die Makroporenschen bei niedrigen Spannungen. Dabei werden die Klumpen umgelagert. Allerdings befindet sich die Grenze des Spannungszustandes oberhalb der Critical State Line des Füllmaterials, was möglicherweise mit den unter Diagenese entstandenen Bodenstrukturen erklärt werden kann. Die Strukturänderung der klumpigen Böden kann aufgrund des Spannungsniveaus in drei mögliche Stufen unterteilt werden. Am Anfang ist die Kompressibilität der frischen verkippten Klumpen hoch, da sich die Makroporen bereits bei geringen Spannungen schliessen. Zu diesem Zeitpunkt sind auch die Durchlässigkeiten in erster Linie von den grossen Porenräumen der Makroporen, welche als Entwässerungspfade dienen, beeinflusst. Die Scherfestigkeit hingegen, wird durch die aufgeweichten Böden an den Oberflächen der Klumpen massgebend beeinflusst. Bei höheren Konsolidationspannungen sinkt die Kompressibilität und der Boden verhält sich wie einüberkonsolidierter Boden. Obwohl die Struktur aufgrund der veränderten Klumpenoberflächen zu diesem Zeitpunkt homogener wirkt, ist die Struktur noch heterogen und die Durchlässigkeit ist höher als bei einem aufbereiteten Boden mit gleichem spezifischem Volumen (Porenzahl). Letztendlich erreicht der aktuelle Spannungszustand den derüberkonsolidierten Klumpen und der gesamte Boden verhält sich wie ein normal konsolidierter Boden. Des Weiteren wurden isotrop konsolidierte drainierte Triaxialversuche an künstlich aus zwei Ausgangsmaterialien hergestellten Proben mit parallelen und seriellen Strukturen durchgeführt. Die Laborversuche zeigten, dass die Proben mit seriellem Aufbau dieselben Gleitflächen haben, wie der Ausgangsboden mit der niedrigeren Scherfestigkeit. Die Gleitfläche der Proben mit parallelen Strukturen verlief durch beide Materialien. Es wurde festgestellt, dass die Scherfestigkeit der seriell aufgebauten Proben geringfügig höher, als die des Bodens mit der niedrigeren Scherfestigkeit ist. Die Scherfestigkeit der parallel aufgebauten Proben liegt zwischen den beiden Ausgangsmaterialien. Danach wurde das Verhalten der künstlich erzeugten klumpigen Böden mit zufällig verteiltem Füllmaterial mit Hilfe der Finiten Elemente Methode verglichen. Die Simulationen zeigten, dass unter einer isotropen Kompressionsbelastung das Spannungsverhältnis, definiert aus dem Verhältnis der Spannung des Volumendurchschnitts zwischen den Klumpen und dem Füllmaterial, deutlich durch die Volumenanteile und die Vorkonsoliderungsspannung der Klumpen beeinflusst wird. Während das Volumenverhältnis eine untergeordnete Rolle in den in Triaxialzellen unter Scherung belasteten Proben spielt. Aus den Simulationsergebnissen und den Laborversuchen der beiden Grundkonfigurationen wurde ein Homogenisierungsgesetz abgeleitet, welches die Sekandensteifigkeiten verwendet. Das Kompressionsverhalten der Mischungen aus Klumpen und Füllmaterial wurde mit Blick auf die Homogenisierung analysiert. Zunächst kann das Volumen der Mischungen in 4 individuelle Komponentenanteile zerlegt werden. Die Makroporosität zwischen den Klumpen wurde zur Entwicklung der Volumenanteile des Füllmaterials eingeführt. Sie wurde als eine Funktion der totalen Porosität und der Materialien formuliert. Auf Grundlage einer theoretischen Analyse an klumpigen Böden und unter Zuhilfenahme einer numerischen Methode wird ein Gesetz zur Homogenisierung vorgeschlagen. Dieses enthält eine Beziehung zwischen der Tagentensteifigkeit der Klumpen und seinem Füllmaterial. Abschliessend wird ein einfaches Kompressionsmodel für die Mischung aus Klumpen und Füllmaterial vorgeschlagen, welches den Einfluss der Bodenstruktur und der Änderung des Volumenanteils des Füllmaterials berücksichtigt. Darüber hinaus wurde eine allgemeine Formulierung für das Konsolidationsverhalten der klumpigen Böden mit Füllmaterial vorgeschlagen, welche sich auf das Konzept der doppelten Porosität (Klumpen und Füllmaterial) und eine Homogenisierungstheoerie bezieht. Um das Verhalten der Klumpen bei niedrigen Spannungen zu beschreiben, wird eine neue Grenzbedingung unter Zuhilfenahme der äquivalenten Hvorslev-Spannung und des Criticial State Konzeptes vorgeschlagen. Der Struktureffekt für sensitive Böden wurde in die nichtlineare Hvorslev-Oberfläche eingebaut. Das allgemein gültige Cam-Clay-Model von McDowell und Hau (2003) wurde um die nasse Seite des Critical State Konzeptes erweitert. Eine Sekandensteifigkeit, definiert aus dem Verhältnis zwischen der Deviatorspannung und der Deviatordehnung, wurde für das Homogenisieurungsgesetz ebenfalls verwendet. Abschliessend wird ein Modell für natürliche klumpige Böden vorgestellt, welches auch eine Homogenisierung beinhaltet. Die physikalischen Eigenschaften, das Kompressionsverhalten und die undrainierten Scherfestigkeiten von aufbereiten Tongemischen wurden im Labor unter Herstellung künstlicher Bödengemische untersucht. Anschliessend wurde ein Kompressions- und Schermodell für aufbereitete Tongemische vorgeschlagen. Das Modell der Scherfestigkeit der Tongemische entstand aus der Vereinfachung der Tongemischstruktur, in welcher die Elemente der Ausgangsmaterialien zufällig in dem Einheitsvolumen verteilt sind. Werden Wassergehaltsverhältnisse (das Verhältnis der Wassergehalte der Ausgangsmaterialien) definiert, kann die undrainierte Scherfestigkeit für alle Bestandteile separat geschätzt werden und dannüber die Volumenanteile bestimmt werden. Ein Homogenisierungsgesetz wurde auf Grundlage der theoretischen Analyse von zufällig angeordneten Strukturen entwickelt. Ein einfaches Kompressionsmodell, welches N-Ausgangsmaterielien bzw. Tone und eine Homogenisierung enthält, wird vorgeschlagen, und an einer Mischung aus 2 Bestandteilen im Labor validiert
Sukop, Michael C. "POROSITY, PERCOLATION THRESHOLDS, AND WATER RETENTION BEHAVIOR OF RANDOM FRACTAL POROUS MEDIA." UKnowledge, 2001. http://uknowledge.uky.edu/gradschool_diss/459.
Full textHess, H. M. "Acoustical determination of physical properties of porous grounds." Thesis, Open University, 1988. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.382953.
Full textWilliams, Todd Joseph. "Effects of temperature and moisture content on transport of organic vapours in dual-porosity soil." Thesis, National Library of Canada = Bibliothèque nationale du Canada, 2000. http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk1/tape4/PQDD_0025/MQ50379.pdf.
Full textSantos, Paulo Ricardo Alves dos. "Corn consortium with forage: attributes physical soil and productivity." Universidade Federal do CearÃ, 2016. http://www.teses.ufc.br/tde_busca/arquivo.php?codArquivo=17324.
Full textThe intensification of agricultural production systems is increasing in the current agriculture. In this sense, the simultaneous planting forage to grain crops, constitutes an alternative in the intensification of the production system, which can increase or not the productivity of the main crop, and produce straw for mulching. In order to check the occurrence of changes in the physical properties of the soil and in corn yield and dry matter production due to the corn consortium / forage in two sowing dates, this study was conducted in the experimental area of the Department of Agricultural Engineering of the Federal University of CearÃ. The design was used in a randomized block design in a factorial scheme (3x2) + 1 with four replications, totaling 28 experimental units. The treatments consisted of three forages: Brachiaria, Panicum maximum cv. MombaÃa and Crotalaria spectabilis intercropped with maize in two of fodder sowing dates, between the lines of simultaneous sowing maize (season 1 - E1) and corn leading the V4 stage of corn (season 2 - E2), and the control. The results showed that intercropping maize / forage did not interfere in phytotechnical characteristics of corn, nor in productivity, however produced changes in soil physical properties when the day of sowing in season 1. Despite the changes that have occurred in the soil, they were not sufficient to enhance the productivity of maize, which could possibly be related assessments on only one crop cycle. But when the goal was the production of dry straw, it is concluded that fodder Brachiaria brizantha and Mombasa at the time 1 (E1) are recommended
A intensificaÃÃo dos sistemas de produÃÃo agrÃcola à cada vez maior na atual agricultura. Nesse sentido, o plantio simultÃneo de forrageiras com culturas produtoras de grÃos, constitui em uma alternativa na intensificaÃÃo do sistema de produÃÃo, que poderà incrementar ou nÃo a produtividade da cultura principal, alÃm de produzir palha para cobertura do solo. Com o objetivo de verificar a ocorrÃncia de mudanÃas nas propriedades fÃsicas do solo, bem como na produtividade do milho e produÃÃo de matÃria seca em funÃÃo do consÃrcio milho/forrageiras em duas Ãpocas de semeadura, o presente trabalho foi conduzido na Ãrea experimental do Departamento de Engenharia AgrÃcola da Universidade Federal do CearÃ. Foi utilizado o delineamento em blocos ao acaso, no esquema fatorial (3x2) + 1 com quatro repetiÃÃes, totalizando 28 unidades experimentais. Os tratamentos foram constituÃdos por trÃs forrageiras: Brachiaria brizantha, Panicum maximum cv. MombaÃa e CrotalÃria spectabilis consorciadas com o milho em duas Ãpocas de semeadura das forrageiras, na entrelinha do milho simultÃneo a semeadura (Ãpoca 1 â E1) e na entrelinha do milho no estÃdio V4 do milho (Ãpoca 2 â E2), alÃm da testemunha. Os resultados permitiram concluir que a consorciaÃÃo milho/forrageiras nÃo interferiram nas caracterÃsticas fitotÃcnicas do milho, nem tampouco, na produtividade, porÃm proporcionaram modificaÃÃes nas propriedades fÃsicas do solo quando da realizaÃÃo da semeadura na Ãpoca 1. Apesar das modificaÃÃes ocorridas no solo, as mesmas nÃo foram suficientes em incrementar a produtividade do milho, o que possivelmente pode estar relacionado as avaliaÃÃes em apenas um ciclo da cultura. Jà quando o objetivo foi a produÃÃo de matÃria seca de palha, conclui-se que as forrageiras Brachiaria Brizantha e MombaÃa na Ãpoca 1 (E1) sÃo recomendadas
Queiroz, Hernandes Andrade [UNESP]. "Caracterização fisiográfica e de alguns atributos físicos e químicos dos solos da microbacia Jardim Novo Horizonte, em Ilha Solteira, SP." Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), 2008. http://hdl.handle.net/11449/98899.
Full textÉ inquestionável a degradação de mananciais devido à erosão e a poluição, decorrentes do desenvolvimento econômico. Estes fatos são caracterizados pelo mau planejamento dos recursos naturais, tanto em propriedades isoladas como nas microbacias. Como conseqüência, o impacto sócio-ambiental atraído pelos problemas de poluição e acúmulo de macrofitas e assoreamento das microbacias, leva a própria destruição da drenagem. Neste sentido este trabalho teve como objetivos caracterizar a fisiografia e alguns atributos físicos e químicos dos principais solos de uma microbacia na cidade de Ilha Solteira, São Paulo. Este estudo dará subsídios para a identificação de áreas de riscos quanto à erosão e poluição dos mananciais de água e do atual estágio de degradação dos solos que compõem a microbacia. Foram utilizadas imagens de satélite de alta resolução 0,6 m Quickbird e o programa SPRING versão 4.3 para caracterização fisiográfica da microbacia e mapeamento dos solos. Utilizando a metodologia de topossequência em relação a vertente, em 5 transetos com pontos locados no sentido do espigão até a foz, foram realizadas coletas de amostras de solo para análise granulométrica, macroporosidade, microporosidade, porosidade total, pH, matéria orgânica, fósforo e cátions trocáveis, em duas profundidades (0,00–0,10 e 0,10–0,20 m). Também foi realizada a medição da taxa de infiltração de água do solo. Realizou-se a estatística descritiva para a análise dos resultados encontrados. Os solos representativos da microbacia estudada foram: Latossolo Vermelho distrófico e Argissolo Vermelho- Amarelo eutrófico; a Microbacia do Jardim Novo Horizonte apresenta relevo com cotas que variam de 280 a 370 m, rede de drenagem dendrítica e a ocupação mais representativa da área é com pastagem; o Latossolo Vermelho apresentou-se com condições físicas mais...
There is no doubt the fountain degradation of due to erosion and pollution resulting from economic development. These facts are characterized by poor planning of natural resources, both in individual properties as in watersheds. In consequence the social and environmental impact attracted the problems with pollution and accumulation of macrophytes and silting of watersheds, leads the very destruction of drainage. The work aimed to characterize the physiography, some physical and chemical attributes from the mains soils of a watershed the city of Ilha Solteira, São Paulo, Brazil. This study will provide subsidies for the identification areas of risk as to erosion and pollution of water sources and the current stage of degradation that make up the watershed. Satellite imagery was use of high-resolution 0.6 m Quickbird and the program SPRING version 4.3 for physiographic characterization of watershed mapping of soils. Using the methodology of topography regarding instance, on 5 points with transect leased to the jetty to the mouth, were made of soil samples for analysis texture, macro, micro and total porosity, pH, organic matter, P e exchangeable cations, in two depths (0.00-0.10 and 0.10-0.20 m). It was also performed to measure the soil water infiltration. There was the descriptive statistics for the analysis of findings. The representative soil were: Oxisol and Alfisol; the altitude variation was 280 to 370 m, the drainage type is dendritica and the more soil use is with pasture; the physical conditions were more deteriorated in Oxisol when use the water infiltration rate quality indicator; the physical conditions for Alfisol were better in areas planted with tree species, compared with horticulture; the physical and chemical attributes variability were higher in the Oxisol compared to Alfisol.
Schiavoni, Edmar de Andrade [UNESP]. "Propriedades físico-químicas e produção da Brachiaria brizantha em um latossolo vermelho fertilizado com Ajifer L-14." Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), 2007. http://hdl.handle.net/11449/98882.
Full textUniversidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP)
A matéria orgânica é considerada por muitos pesquisadores como o principal agente de estabilização dos agregados do solo, tendo alta correlação com a agregação do mesmo. Os estoques de matéria orgânica do solo e seus compartimentos são importantes na disponibilidade de nutrientes, estrutura do solo e no fluxo de gases de efeito estufa entre a superfície terrestre e a atmosfera. Neste sentido o uso de produtos condicionadores de propriedades físicas e químicas do solo, é importante na exploração agropecuária. Portanto, foi realizado este trabalho que teve como objetivo, estudar o comportamento de propriedades físicas e químicas de um Latossolo Vermelho tratado com Ajifer L-14 (fertilizante agromineral fluído), em área com Brachiaria brizantha. O trabalho foi desenvolvido em uma propriedade agrícola no município de Rubiácea, SP, ano agrícola de 2005/06 e utilizou-se de um delineamento em blocos casualizados, com 7 tratamentos mais uma área controle com vegetação nativa, com 4 repetições . Os tratamentos foram: Testemunha (sem aplicação de Ajifer L-14); Testemunha com vegetação natural; Adubação mineral de acordo com a necessidade da cultura e a análise do solo (60 kg de N, 40 kg de P2O5, 100 kg de K2O por ha); Adubação com Ajifer L-14 de acordo com a recomendação da Análise química do solo (60 kg de N ha-1) ; Adubação com Ajifer L-14, com dosagem 50 % acima da recomendação (90 kg de N ha-1); Adubação com Ajifer L-14, com dosagem 50 % abaixo da recomendação (30 kg de N ha-1); Adubação com Ajifer L-14, com dosagem 25 % acima da recomendação (75 kg de N ha-1) e Adubação com Ajifer L-14, com dosagem 25 % abaixo da recomendação (45 kg de N ha-1). Nas camadas do solo de 0,00-0,05 e 0,05-0,10 m foram estudadas as propriedades físicas: macroporosidade; microporosidade; porosidade do solo e densidade do solo...
The organic matter is considered for many researchers as the main agent of soil aggregates stabilization, having high correlation with the soil aggregation. The stocks of organic matter of the soil and its compartments are important in the readiness of nutrients, it structures of the soil and in the flow of gases of effect stove between the terrestrial surface and the atmosphere. In this sense the use of conditioning products of physical and chemical properties of the soil, is important in the agricultural exploration. Therefore, it was accomplished this work that had as objective, to study the behavior of physical and chemical properties of a Oxisoil agreement with Ajifer L-14 (fertilizer flowed agriculture-mineral), in area with Brachiaria brizantha. The work was developed in an agricultural property in the municipal district of Rubiácea, SP, agricultural year of 2005/06, with the desing on randomized blocks, with 7 treatments plus an area controls with native vegetation, and 4 repetitions. The treatments were: Control (without application of Ajifer L-14); Control with natural vegetation; Mineral fertilization in accordance with the need of the culture and the analysis of the soil (60 kg of N, 40 kg of P2O5, 100 kg of K2O for there is); fertilization with Ajifer L-14 in accordance with the recommendation of the chemical Analysis of the soil (60 kg of N ha-1); fertilization with Ajifer L-14, with 50% above of the recommendation (90 kg of N ha-1); fertilization with Ajifer L-14, with 50% below of the recommendation (30 kg of N ha-1); fertilization with Ajifer L-14, with 25% above of the recommendation (75 kg of N ha-1) and fertilization with Ajifer L-14, with 25% below of the recommendation (45 kg of N ha-1). In the layers of the soil of 0,00-0,05 and 0,05-0,10 m they were studied the physical properties: macroporosity; microporosity; soil...(Cmplete abstract click electronic access below)
Tirado-Corbala, Rebecca. "A Lysimeter Study of Vadose Zone Porosity and Water Movement in Gypsum Amended Soils." The Ohio State University, 2010. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=osu1290111537.
Full textMarín, Eduardo José Bittar. "Estudo de campo e laboratório do comportamento mecânico de um solo sulfatado estabilizado com cal." reponame:Biblioteca Digital de Teses e Dissertações da UFRGS, 2017. http://hdl.handle.net/10183/172031.
Full textSulfate rich soils present complications in their behavior when are treated with calcium-based stabilizers such as lime. When a soil containing sulfates reacts with lime, expansive minerals such as ettringite and thaumasite are formed which are responsible for the deterioration and failure of various stabilized soil projects. It has been well demonstrated under laboratory tests that the relationship porosity/cementing agent ratio is an appropriate parameter for the evaluation and prediction of mechanical behavior, such as the unconfined compression strength of various types of artificially cemented soils. This work intends to find out if the predictions of the relation porosity/lime in the unconfined compression strength are effective to design lime stabilized soils mixtures built in field. In order to achieve this objective an experimental program of laboratory tests was carried out together with experimental road sections of lime stabilized soils were built. The laboratory tests helped to understand the behavior of lime stabilized sulfate soils, and demonstrated that the void/lime ratio controls the unconfined compression strength of these stabilized soils and that exist a consistent relationship with the field unconfined compression strength results, finding that both, field and laboratory strengths are controlled and can be predicted by this ratio X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) tests were performed to identify expansive minerals (ettringite) on soils samples stabilized whit lime and fly ash-lime. Finally, some solutions recommended in the literature have been tested in laboratory to improve the stabilization of sulfate rich soils through an experimental design, showing that the fly ash-lime stabilization improve considerably the strength, durability and volumetric stability of the sulfate rich soils whereas that for the mellowing the improve was observed only on the volumetric stability of the material.
Schiavoni, Edmar de Andrade. "Propriedades físico-químicas e produção da Brachiaria brizantha em um latossolo vermelho fertilizado com Ajifer L-14 /." Ilha Solteira : [s.n], 2007. http://hdl.handle.net/11449/98882.
Full textBanca: Edson Lazarini
Banca: Hamilton Caetano
Resumo: A matéria orgânica é considerada por muitos pesquisadores como o principal agente de estabilização dos agregados do solo, tendo alta correlação com a agregação do mesmo. Os estoques de matéria orgânica do solo e seus compartimentos são importantes na disponibilidade de nutrientes, estrutura do solo e no fluxo de gases de efeito estufa entre a superfície terrestre e a atmosfera. Neste sentido o uso de produtos condicionadores de propriedades físicas e químicas do solo, é importante na exploração agropecuária. Portanto, foi realizado este trabalho que teve como objetivo, estudar o comportamento de propriedades físicas e químicas de um Latossolo Vermelho tratado com Ajifer L-14 (fertilizante agromineral fluído), em área com Brachiaria brizantha. O trabalho foi desenvolvido em uma propriedade agrícola no município de Rubiácea, SP, ano agrícola de 2005/06 e utilizou-se de um delineamento em blocos casualizados, com 7 tratamentos mais uma área controle com vegetação nativa, com 4 repetições . Os tratamentos foram: Testemunha (sem aplicação de Ajifer L-14); Testemunha com vegetação natural; Adubação mineral de acordo com a necessidade da cultura e a análise do solo (60 kg de N, 40 kg de P2O5, 100 kg de K2O por ha); Adubação com Ajifer L-14 de acordo com a recomendação da Análise química do solo (60 kg de N ha-1) ; Adubação com Ajifer L-14, com dosagem 50 % acima da recomendação (90 kg de N ha-1); Adubação com Ajifer L-14, com dosagem 50 % abaixo da recomendação (30 kg de N ha-1); Adubação com Ajifer L-14, com dosagem 25 % acima da recomendação (75 kg de N ha-1) e Adubação com Ajifer L-14, com dosagem 25 % abaixo da recomendação (45 kg de N ha-1). Nas camadas do solo de 0,00-0,05 e 0,05-0,10 m foram estudadas as propriedades físicas: macroporosidade; microporosidade; porosidade do solo e densidade do solo...(Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo)
Abstract: The organic matter is considered for many researchers as the main agent of soil aggregates stabilization, having high correlation with the soil aggregation. The stocks of organic matter of the soil and its compartments are important in the readiness of nutrients, it structures of the soil and in the flow of gases of effect stove between the terrestrial surface and the atmosphere. In this sense the use of conditioning products of physical and chemical properties of the soil, is important in the agricultural exploration. Therefore, it was accomplished this work that had as objective, to study the behavior of physical and chemical properties of a Oxisoil agreement with Ajifer L-14 (fertilizer flowed agriculture-mineral), in area with Brachiaria brizantha. The work was developed in an agricultural property in the municipal district of Rubiácea, SP, agricultural year of 2005/06, with the desing on randomized blocks, with 7 treatments plus an area controls with native vegetation, and 4 repetitions. The treatments were: Control (without application of Ajifer L-14); Control with natural vegetation; Mineral fertilization in accordance with the need of the culture and the analysis of the soil (60 kg of N, 40 kg of P2O5, 100 kg of K2O for there is); fertilization with Ajifer L-14 in accordance with the recommendation of the chemical Analysis of the soil (60 kg of N ha-1); fertilization with Ajifer L-14, with 50% above of the recommendation (90 kg of N ha-1); fertilization with Ajifer L-14, with 50% below of the recommendation (30 kg of N ha-1); fertilization with Ajifer L-14, with 25% above of the recommendation (75 kg of N ha-1) and fertilization with Ajifer L-14, with 25% below of the recommendation (45 kg of N ha-1). In the layers of the soil of 0,00-0,05 and 0,05-0,10 m they were studied the physical properties: macroporosity; microporosity; soil...(Cmplete abstract click electronic access below)
Mestre
Queiroz, Hernandes Andrade. "Caracterização fisiográfica e de alguns atributos físicos e químicos dos solos da microbacia Jardim Novo Horizonte, em Ilha Solteira, SP /." Ilha Solteira : [s.n.], 2008. http://hdl.handle.net/11449/98899.
Full textAbstract: There is no doubt the fountain degradation of due to erosion and pollution resulting from economic development. These facts are characterized by poor planning of natural resources, both in individual properties as in watersheds. In consequence the social and environmental impact attracted the problems with pollution and accumulation of macrophytes and silting of watersheds, leads the very destruction of drainage. The work aimed to characterize the physiography, some physical and chemical attributes from the mains soils of a watershed the city of Ilha Solteira, São Paulo, Brazil. This study will provide subsidies for the identification areas of risk as to erosion and pollution of water sources and the current stage of degradation that make up the watershed. Satellite imagery was use of high-resolution 0.6 m Quickbird and the program SPRING version 4.3 for physiographic characterization of watershed mapping of soils. Using the methodology of topography regarding instance, on 5 points with transect leased to the jetty to the mouth, were made of soil samples for analysis texture, macro, micro and total porosity, pH, organic matter, P e exchangeable cations, in two depths (0.00-0.10 and 0.10-0.20 m). It was also performed to measure the soil water infiltration. There was the descriptive statistics for the analysis of findings. The representative soil were: Oxisol and Alfisol; the altitude variation was 280 to 370 m, the drainage type is dendritica and the more soil use is with pasture; the physical conditions were more deteriorated in Oxisol when use the water infiltration rate quality indicator; the physical conditions for Alfisol were better in areas planted with tree species, compared with horticulture; the physical and chemical attributes variability were higher in the Oxisol compared to Alfisol.
Orientador: Marlene Cristina Alves
Coorientador: Hélio Ricardo Silva
Banca: Elizete Aparecida Checon de Freitas Lima
Banca: Arnaldo Yoso Sakamoto
Mestre
PORTEZAN, FILHO OTAVIO. "Analise critica da determinacao da condutividade hidraulica do solo utilizando atenuacao da radiacao gama monoenergetica." reponame:Repositório Institucional do IPEN, 1997. http://repositorio.ipen.br:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/10680.
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Tese (Doutoramento)
IPEN/T
Instituto de Pesquisas Energeticas e Nucleares - IPEN/CNEN-SP
Brito, Alexsandro dos Santos. "Variabilidade espacial da condutividade hidráulica e da permeabilidade ao ar em função dos conteúdos de água e ar no solo." Universidade de São Paulo, 2010. http://www.teses.usp.br/teses/disponiveis/11/11140/tde-02082010-141712/.
Full textThe knowledge of soil properties directly related to crops yield is na incessant search. The soil properties strongly correlated with the soil porosity are very important for their direct action on plant development: it is through the soil porous space that occurs water and air displacement to plant rhizosfere. Each kind of soil and even each soil horizont have a pore geometry that the chracterizes and permits a higher or lower facility in transporting water and air. Since these soil properties are highly variable in space, the objective of this work was to study the spatial variability: a) of the parameters of the equation correlating soil hydraulic conductivity and soil water content and, b) of the soil air permeability. For this, 60 acess tubes for a neutron probe were installed in a medium texture Yellow Red Latosol, in a regular grid of 5 x 5 m, in order to measure the soil water content a long the time, in depths of 0.2; 0.4; 0.6; 0.8 m and to determine the hydraulic conductivity by instantaneous profile method. The soil air permeability was determined by the decreasing pressure method in laboratory, using undisturbed soil samples under stabilized matric soil water potentials of -6 and -10 kPa. The higher values of saturated hydraulic conductivity and soil air permeability were found in the lower altitudes of the experimental area, showing that topography can influence soil structure, due mainly the higher amount of clay in lower altitudes. The predict map of saturated hydraulic conductivity shows that this soil propertie is directly correlated with the saturated soil water content and inversely correlated with the slope of the curve of logarithm of hydraulic conductivity as a function of soil water content. Predict maps of soil air permeability were similar, since the higher and lower values were found in the same place. However, there were an increase of the area with higher air permeability, measured under -10 kPa, due to higher amount of air filled pores, increasing the porous connectivity and the air flow.
Silva, Bruna de Oliveira [UNESP]. "Emissão de CO2 e consolidação do solo a curto prazo após atividades de preparo." Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), 2017. http://hdl.handle.net/11449/151313.
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Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)
Concomitantemente ao desenvolvimento agrícola brasileiro surge a preocupação com os impactos ambientais causados pelo setor, dentre esses, as emissões de CO2 oriundas de práticas de cultivo e manejo dos solos nos sistemas produtivos. Neste estudo, objetivou-se investigar a variação temporal da emissão de CO2 e atributos físicos do solo sob influência do processo de reorganização das partículas do solo após as atividades de preparo do solo. O estudo foi conduzido em três áreas adjacentes medindo 10 × 3 m cada, nas quais foram conduzidos dois sistemas de preparo do solo: (i) enxada rotativa + grade niveladora convencional, representando um preparo intenso do solo (PI); (ii) grade aradora + niveladora, caracterizando um preparo reduzido (PR), e a terceira área envolvida no estudo foi mantida sem revolvimento do solo caracterizando o sistema semeadura direta (SD). Foram realizadas avaliações diárias da emissão de CO2 do solo (FCO2), temperatura e umidade do solo, distribuição de classes de poros, densidade do solo, resistência do solo à penetração, porosidade livre de água, diâmetro médio ponderado, índice de estabilidade de agregado, carbono orgânico total e carbono orgânico particulado, durante um período de 29 dias após o preparo do solo. No primeiro dia após preparo, a FCO2 foi 87% superior na parcela PI (3,86 µmol m-2 s-1) quando comparado a PR(2,06 µmol m-2 s-1) e 147% superior quando comparado a parcela sem distúrbio (1,56 µmol m-2 s -1). A densidade e a resistência do solo à penetração apresentaram menor variação a partir do 12º dia após as atividades de preparo do solo, tal efeito foi considerado como um processo natural de consolidação do solo, sendo que esse processo influenciou na variação temporal da emissão de CO2 do solo. A distribuição de classes de poros são atributos físicos importantes para explicar as variações temporais da emissão de CO2 do solo, e essas classes são influenciadas pelo manejo adotado. Portanto, o estudo desses atributos deve ser levado em consideração quando avaliada a variação da emissão de CO2 em solos agrícolas.
The development of the Brazilian agricultural sector necessarily implies a greater concern with diverse environmental impacts caused by the sector, among them the CO2 emissions from soil and crop management in the production systems. This study aimed to investigate the CO2 emission associated to physical properties in the short term after soil management submitted to different intensities. The study was conducted in three adjacent areas, measuring 10 × 3 m each, in which two soil tillage systems were performed: (i) rotary hoe + conventional harrow representing a much more intense soil tillage (PI); (ii) disc plowing + disc harrowing, characterizing a reduced soil tillage (PR), and in the third area was no-tillage (SD), without disturbance. They were carried out daily evaluations of soil CO2 emissions (FCO2), temperature and soil moisture, bulk density, soil resistance to penetration, water-free porosity, mean weight diameter, stability indices of soil aggregates, total organic carbon and particulate organic carbon, over a period of 29 days. On the first day after management, FCO2 was 87% higher in PI (3.86 μmol m-2 s-1) when compared to PR (2.06 μmol m-2 s-1) and was 147% higher when compared to area without disturbance (1.56 μmol m-2 s-1).The physical soil attributes: bulk density, resistance to penetration; showed lower variation from day 12 after soil management, this effect was considered in this study as a natural process of soil consolidation, and this process may also have influenced the temporal variation of soil CO2 emission. However, future studies involving a longer period of time are necessary in order to establish more concrete relationships. However, future studies involving a longer period of time are necessary to fortify the interrelations observed in this study. The distribution of pore classes are important physical attributes to explain the temporal variations of the soil CO2 emission, and these classes are influenced by the adopted management. Therefore, the study of these attributes should be taken into account when evaluating the variation of CO2 emission in agricultural soils.
FAPESP: 2015/25615-3
Colet, Marcelo Jose. "Alteração de atributos fisicos de um solo, sob pastagem degradada, submetido a escarificação." [s.n.], 2006. http://repositorio.unicamp.br/jspui/handle/REPOSIP/257167.
Full textDissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Agricola
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Resumo: O uso intensivo do solo, associado ao emprego de práticas de manejo inadequadas, implica em sua degradação. Este problema é de comum ocorrência em áreas de pastagens, onde usualmente o produtor prioriza investimentos no rebanho, negligenciando o manejo do solo. Nessas áreas, a compactação do solo pode ser considerada uma das principais causas de limitação da capacidade de produção da forrageira. Várias técnicas podem ser utilizadas para romper camadas compactadas do solo, dentre elas a escarificação. Sendo assim, o objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar as alterações ocorridas em atributos físicos de um solo sob pastagem mediante sua escarificação, visualizando a recuperação de pastagens degradadas. Para tal, implementou-se um experimento em uma área de Brachiaria decumbens no Instituto de Zootecnia em Nova Odessa (SP), utilizando um protótipo de máquina agrícola desenvolvido na Feagri/Unicamp, que permite a escarificação do solo e distribuição de corretivos simultaneamente. O efeito da escarificação do solo foi avaliado pela resistência do solo à penetração, determinada com um penetrógrafo hidráulico eletrônico, e pelos atributos físicos macroporosidade, microporosidade, porosidade total e densidade do solo, em avaliação aos 60 dias após instalação do experimento. A escarificação do solo propiciou o aumento da macroporosidade e da porosidade total e, redução da densidade do solo nos 100 milímetros superficiais, quando observados na entrelinha da passagem do escarificador, porém, não afetou as propriedades macroporosidade, microporosidade e densidade do solo na profundidade de 100-200 milímetros. Para a condição deste experimento, a escarificação do solo provocou uma leve compactação logo abaixo da profundidade de trabalho, evidenciada pela redução na macroporosidade. A metodologia de análise da área sob a curva possibilitou comparar estatisticamente a resistência do solo à penetração. A escarificação do solo reduziu os valores de resistência do solo à penetração, evidenciada de forma estatisticamente significativa quando comparados pela metodologia de análise da área sob a curva de resistência
Abstract: The intensive use of the soil combined with inadequate management practices leads to soil degradation. This problem is common with pasturelands, where the farm manager specializes in animal husbandry, and not in soil management. Soil compaction in such areas can be considered as one of the main limitations to forage production capability. Several techniques may be applied to break through compacted soil layers, and scarification is one of them. The objective of this study is to evaluate the changes to soil physical properties in pasture areas after scarification, aiming at the recovery of degraded pasturelands. The experiment was set up at the Zootechny Institute in Nova Odessa (SP) on a Brachiaria decumbens field. The machine used in the study was a prototype developed at Feagri/Unicamp for simultaneous soil scarification and fertilizer distribution. The effect of scarification on the soil was evaluated by soil resistance to penetration with an electronic hydraulic penetrographer, and by the physical attributes of macroporosity, microporosity, total porosity and soil density 60 days after setup. Scarification increased soil macro and total porosity, and reduced soil density on the top 100 mm, observed between scarification rows. Macroporosity, microporosity and soil density was not affected in the depth of 100-200 mm. Scarification caused a slight compaction immediately below the work-depth, made evident by the higher macroporosity in this section of the soil. The methodology of analyzing the area below the resistance curve allowed the statistical comparison of soil resistance to penetration. This methodology showed that scarification caused statistically significant reduction of the figures on soil resistance to penetration
Mestrado
Agua e Solo
Mestre em Engenharia Agrícola
Kitamura, Aline Emy [UNESP]. "Recuperação de um subsolo de cerrado com cultivo de plantas nativa e introduzidas." Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), 2007. http://hdl.handle.net/11449/106205.
Full textUniversidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP)
A utilização incorreta dos solos vem causando alterações nos mesmos, tornando-os cada vez menos produtivos, aumentando assim as áreas com solos degradados. O presente trabalho teve por objetivos estudar a recuperação de um Latossolo Vermelho degradado, por meio do uso de adubos verdes e lodo de esgoto, sendo cultivado com uma espécie arbórea nativa de cerrado. A pesquisa foi instalada em 2004, na Fazenda de Ensino e Pesquisa, Setor de Produção Animal, da Faculdade de Engenharia, Campus de Ilha Solteira (Universidade Estadual Paulista – UNESP), situada no município de Selvíria, MS. O monitoramento das alterações do solo foi realizado nos anos de 2005, 2006 e 2007. O delineamento experimental foi o de blocos casualizados com 5 tratamentos e 5 repetições, sendo também caracterizada uma área controle (solo com vegetação nativa de cerrado). Os tratamentos foram: testemunha - solo exposto (sem manejo); espécie arbórea Astronium fraxinifolium; Astronium fraxinifolium+Canavalia ensiformis; Astronium fraxinifolium+Raphanus sativus até 2005, depois substituído por Crotalaria juncea; e Astronium fraxinifolium+Brachiaria decumbens+lodo de esgoto (60 t ha-1 a base seca). Avaliaram-se no solo: macroporosidade, microporosidade, porosidade total, densidade do solo, estabilidade de agregados em água, cátions trocáveis, pH, acidez potencial (H+Al), soma de bases (SB), saturação por bases (V %), CTC e macrorganismos. Nos tratamento com adubos verdes, foi avaliada a massa seca e, para a espécie arbórea, a altura e diâmetro de caule. Na testemunha não foi aplicada nenhuma 8 écnica de recuperação do solo. O preparo inicial do solo foi realizado com subsolagem, gradagem leve e incorporação de 2 t ha-1 de calcário. Os tratamentos adotados estão recuperando as propriedades físicas e químicas do solo. O tratamento com Astronium fraxinifolium+Brachiaria...
The inadequate soil use causes changes which lead to lower productivity, thus increasing the areas with degraded soil. The present work had as objective to recovery a degraded soil, using green manure, sewage sludge and native tree specie. The investigation began in 2004 and was conducted in Selvíria, Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil. The evaluations were done in the years of 2005, 2006 and 2007. The experimental design was a randomized blocks with 5 treatments and 5 replications. The treatments were: control (degraded soil without management); Astronium fraxinifolium; Astronium fraxinifolium + Canavalia ensiformis; Astronium fraxinifolium + Raphanus sativus after substituted by Crotalaria juncea; and Astronium fraxinifolium + Brachiaria decumbens + sewage sludge (60 t ha-1 on dry basis). A control area whit the original vegetation (savannah) was also used as control. The following soil properties were evaluated: macro porosity, micro porosity, total porosity, bulk density, exchangeable cations, pH, potential acidity, base saturation, CEC and macrofauna. For green manure the dry matter was evaluated. In tree species were evaluated: average and diameter of stem. In the control the technique of recovery of the soil was not applied. The initial preparation of the soil was carried out with sub soiling, leveling disk and incorporation of 2 t ha-1 of lime. The treatments are recovering the physical and chemical properties of the soil. The Astronium fraxinifolium + Brachiaria decumbens + sewage sludge was the best treatment because of its similarity in macrofauna compared to the natural soil conditions. The macrofauna increased in the soil with time and this indicates the improvement in soil properties. The presence of grub and beetle was the best indicator of soil macrofauna recovery. The treatment Astronium 10 fraxinifolium + Brachiaria decumbens + sewage sludge is...(Complete abstract click electronic access below)
Sanchez, Maria Ambert. "Quantification of Soil Physical Properties by Using X-Ray Computerized Tomography (CT) and Standard Laboratory (STD) Methods." Washington, D.C. : Oak Ridge, Tenn. : United States. Dept. of Energy. Office of Science ; distributed by the Office of Scientific and Technical Information, U.S. Dept. of Energy, 2003. http://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/822059-1gxx3T/native/.
Full textPublished through the Information Bridge: DOE Scientific and Technical Information. "IS-T 2608" Maria Ambert Sanchez. 12/12/2003. Report is also available in paper and microfiche from NTIS.
Souto, Filho Sebastião Nilce [UNESP]. "Nanopartículas, morfologia da nanoestrutura e espectrometria de massa como indicadores da recuperação de um latossolo vermelho." Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), 2016. http://hdl.handle.net/11449/146702.
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Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)
Fundação para o Desenvolvimento da UNESP (FUNDUNESP)
A utilização incorreta do uso e ocupação dos solos agrícolas vêm causando alterações no mesmo, tornando-os menos produtivos, aumentando assim as áreas degradadas. No processo de recuperação de um solo dois pontos são fundamentais: definir as melhores interferências quanto à aceleração do seu processo de reabilitação e, os indicadores mais adequados para diagnosticar a sua qualidade. Portanto, este trabalho teve como objetivo investigar as nanopartículas, a morfologia da nanoestrutura e a espectometria de massa de um Latossolo Vermelho em recuperação há oito anos, como indicadores da sua qualidade. O trabalho foi desenvolvido na Fazenda de Ensino e Pesquisa, da Faculdade de Engenharia, Campus de Ilha Solteira (UNESP), localizada em Selvíria, MS. Utilizou-se um delineamento em blocos casualizados, com três tratamentos, cinco blocos e três replicações. Os tratamentos foram: solo sob vegetação natural do cerrado, solo sem tratamento para recuperação (solo degradado) e solo cultivado com espécie natival Astronium fraxinifolium Schott+Urochoa decumbens Stapf. + lodo de esgoto (60 t ha-1 base seca). Comparou-se o solo em processo de recuperação com o seu estado natural e degradado. Na camada superficial do solo (0,00-0,05 e de 0,05- 0,10 m) foram quantificadas as nanopartículas (ø <100 nm) e a argila fina (ø <200 nm), assim como a argila total e areia, estudada a morfologia de nanoestruturas por meio de imagens obtidas por microscópio eletrônico de transmissão e realizada análises de espectrometria de massa das condições do solo em estudo. Para auxiliar na interpretação da qualidade do solo foram analisados alguns atributos físicos (porosidade e densidade do solo) e químicos (C, nitrogênio total e hidrogênio). As nanopartículas, e a morfologia de nanoestruturas de um Latossolo Vermelho são melhores indicadores que os atributos físicos e químicos estudados. A espectrometria de massa é eficaz na identificação da qualidade da MOS, possibilitando visualizar as diferenças entre o solo em recuperação e degradado, o que não foi apontado em termos de quantidade da MOS entre ambas condições. Na classe de partículas com diâmetro menor que 200 nm, para o Latossolo Vermelho estudado, é mais eficaz a visualização de nanoestruturas.
Inappropriate use and occupation of arable land affects agricultural soils making them less productive and consequently, increasingdegraded areas. In the soil reclamation process two points are essential: i) to define the optimal strategies to accelerate the restoration process and, ii) to determine which are the most appropriate indicators to diagnose soil quality. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the nanoparticles and the nanostructure morphology by mass spectrometry, as indicators of soil quality in an Oxisol that has been under restoration process for eight years. This research was conducted at the Experimental Station of theFaculdade de Engenharia da UniversidadeEstadual do São Paulo (UNESP), Campus de Ilha Solteira, in Selvíria, MatoGrosso do Sul, Brazil. The experiment was arranged in a randomized complete block design with three treatments and five blocks per treatment. The experiment was conducted three times. The treatments tested were: a) soil under native vegetation (Savannah) canopy, b) untreated soil (degraded soil) and, c) soil cultivated with AstroniumfraxinifoliumSchott (native species) and UrochloadecumbensStapf. and amended with sewage sludge (60 ton ha-1 dry matter). We aimed to compare soil undergoing reclamation process with soil in its natural state and degraded soil. In the topsoil layer we quantified nanoparticles (ø< 100 nm), fine clay (ø<200 nm), thick clay, as well as clay and sand total content.We also studied the nanostructure morphology by transmission electron microscopy and mass spectrometry. In addition, to assess soil quality we determined soil physical (soil porosity and bulk density) and chemical (carbon, nitrogen and hydrogen content) attributes of soil samples under the three treatments. Our results showed that nanoparticles and nanostructure morphology of Oxisol are better indicators of soil quality than the soil physical and chemical attributes examined in this study. Mass spectrometry was effective for identifying the quality of soil organic matter (SOM) and for visualizing differences between degraded and reclaimed soils that were not evidenced by SOM quantification. The examination of nanostructure morphology was the most efficient indicator for particles of ø<200 nm in an Oxisol.
FUDUNESP: 010/2013-DFP
Souto, Filho Sebastião Nilce. "Nanopartículas, morfologia da nanoestrutura e espectrometria de massa como indicadores da recuperação de um latossolo vermelho /." Ilha Solteira, 2016. http://hdl.handle.net/11449/146702.
Full textResumo: A utilização incorreta do uso e ocupação dos solos agrícolas vêm causando alterações no mesmo, tornando-os menos produtivos, aumentando assim as áreas degradadas. No processo de recuperação de um solo dois pontos são fundamentais: definir as melhores interferências quanto à aceleração do seu processo de reabilitação e, os indicadores mais adequados para diagnosticar a sua qualidade. Portanto, este trabalho teve como objetivo investigar as nanopartículas, a morfologia da nanoestrutura e a espectometria de massa de um Latossolo Vermelho em recuperação há oito anos, como indicadores da sua qualidade. O trabalho foi desenvolvido na Fazenda de Ensino e Pesquisa, da Faculdade de Engenharia, Campus de Ilha Solteira (UNESP), localizada em Selvíria, MS. Utilizou-se um delineamento em blocos casualizados, com três tratamentos, cinco blocos e três replicações. Os tratamentos foram: solo sob vegetação natural do cerrado, solo sem tratamento para recuperação (solo degradado) e solo cultivado com espécie natival Astronium fraxinifolium Schott+Urochoa decumbens Stapf. + lodo de esgoto (60 t ha-1 base seca). Comparou-se o solo em processo de recuperação com o seu estado natural e degradado. Na camada superficial do solo (0,00-0,05 e de 0,05- 0,10 m) foram quantificadas as nanopartículas (ø <100 nm) e a argila fina (ø <200 nm), assim como a argila total e areia, estudada a morfologia de nanoestruturas por meio de imagens obtidas por microscópio eletrônico ... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo)
Doutor
Jangorzo, Salifou Nouhou. "Quantification du processus d'agrégation dans les Technosols." Thesis, Université de Lorraine, 2013. http://www.theses.fr/2013LORR0004/document.
Full textTechnosols form a new class of soils, which is characterized by a strong anthropogenic influence of which functioning is less studied. Aggregates can be considered as an integrator of soil history and an indicator of soil bio functioning, therefore studying the process of aggregation is a relevant way to understand how technosols operate and states towards which they will evolve. Through samples collected on a hone hectare plot, a protocol of none destructive direct quantification of aggregates and porosity by thin sections images analysis has been performed. Results showed that this Technosol is compacting with a decrease of pores with an equivalent diameter >2000 µm and an increase of those <25µm. Despite this compaction, the aggregation increases with time. To study the dynamics of porosity and aggregation of this constructed Technosol as function of pedogenetic factors, a dispositive of in situ soil visualization has been developed. Results of images analysis showed that, during the early stage of soil evolution, porosity and aggregation increase significantly in all modalities. Then, they significantly decrease in ?wetting drying cycle? modality but continued increasing in ?plant? and ?plant-earthworm? modalities. This increase is proportional to the age of plants roots and intensity of earthworm?s activity. The ?constructed Technosol? is therefore an experimental soil model whose organomineral contents and function are well controlled compared to so-called ?natural soils?. In these evolved natural soils, the starting point is quite systematically unknown
Souza, Fábio Henrique de [UNESP]. "Desempenho das culturas de soja e milho e atributos físicos do solo em diferentes sistemas de preparo e retomada do sistema de plantio direto." Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), 2017. http://hdl.handle.net/11449/151916.
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Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)
O emprego de técnicas racionais de preparo do solo vem se tornando fundamentais para garantir a máxima exploração do potencial produtivo das culturas agrícolas e reduzir os problemas de degradação dos solos. Assim, o objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar, para as culturas de soja e do milho, qual sistema de preparo do solo proporciona melhor condição para a descompactação do solo e retomada do plantio direto em área anteriormente conduzida sob este sistema. O experimento foi realizado nos anos de 2014, 2015 e 2016. O delineamento experimental foi em blocos ao acaso com quatro repetições e quatro tratamentos na safra 2014/2015 e passou a ter oito tratamentos a partir da safra outono/inverno de 2015 constituídos por: Plantio direto contínuo (PDC); Preparo convencional com arado de aiveca (AA); Preparo convencional com grade pesada implantado na safra verão 2014/2015 (GrPa); Preparo convencional com grade pesada implantado na safra outono/inverno de 2015 (GrPb); Cultivo mínimo com escarificação do solo (CM); Plantio direto sobre gradagem da safra verão 2014/15 (PD-GrP); Plantio direto sobre aração (PD-AA); Plantio direto sobre escarificação (PD-ESC). Os efeitos dos tratamentos foram avaliados a partir dos atributos: macroporosidade, microporosidade, porosidade total, densidade do solo, parâmetros de desenvolvimento e produtividade das culturas da soja e do milho. As condições físicas do solo encontradas no plantio direto contínuo (PDC) restringiram a produtividade da cultura do milho, indicando a necessidade de mobilização do solo para redução da compactação. O preparo do solo com uso do escarificador reduziu a compactação formada no sistema de plantio direto, proporcionando os maiores índices de produtividade da cultura do milho e da soja e melhorando a qualidade física do solo. Por fim, a utilização consecutiva de grade pesada deve ser evitada por apresentar degradação do solo.
The use of rational soil tillage techniques is becoming essential to ensure maximum exploitation of crop production potential and to reduce problems of soil degradation. hus the objective of this work was to evaluate, for soybean and corn crop, which soil tillage system provides a better condition for soil decompression and reinstatement of the no-tillage system. The experiment was carried out in 2014, 2015 and 2016. The experimental design was a randomized complete block design with four replications and four treatments in the 2014/2015 harvest, and started having eight treatments from the autumn/winter harvest of 2015, consisting of: No-tillage continuous (PDC); Conventional preparation with plow (AA); Conventional preparation with heavy grid implanted in the summer harvest 2014/2015 (GrPa); Conventional preparation with heavy grid implanted in the fall/winter crop of 2015 (GrPb); Minimum cultivation with soil scarification (CM); No-tillage on harrowing of the summer harvest 2014/15 (PD-GrP); No-tillage on plowing (PD-AA); No-tillage on scarification (PD-ESC). The effects of the treatments were evaluated from the macroporosity, microporosity, total porosity, soil density, development parameters and yield of soybean and maize crops. The physical soil conditions found in no-tillage systems restricted maize crop productivity, indicating the need for soil mobilization to reduce compaction. Soil preparation using the scarifier reduced the compaction formed in the no-tillage system, providing the highest productivity indexes of maize and soybean crop and improving soil physical quality. Finally, the consecutive use of heavy grating should be avoided because of soil degradation.
Souza, Fábio Henrique de. "Desempenho das culturas de soja e milho e atributos físicos do solo em diferentes sistemas de preparo e retomada do sistema de plantio direto /." Ilha Solteira, 2017. http://hdl.handle.net/11449/151916.
Full textResumo: O emprego de técnicas racionais de preparo do solo vem se tornando fundamentais para garantir a máxima exploração do potencial produtivo das culturas agrícolas e reduzir os problemas de degradação dos solos. Assim, o objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar, para as culturas de soja e do milho, qual sistema de preparo do solo proporciona melhor condição para a descompactação do solo e retomada do plantio direto em área anteriormente conduzida sob este sistema. O experimento foi realizado nos anos de 2014, 2015 e 2016. O delineamento experimental foi em blocos ao acaso com quatro repetições e quatro tratamentos na safra 2014/2015 e passou a ter oito tratamentos a partir da safra outono/inverno de 2015 constituídos por: Plantio direto contínuo (PDC); Preparo convencional com arado de aiveca (AA); Preparo convencional com grade pesada implantado na safra verão 2014/2015 (GrPa); Preparo convencional com grade pesada implantado na safra outono/inverno de 2015 (GrPb); Cultivo mínimo com escarificação do solo (CM); Plantio direto sobre gradagem da safra verão 2014/15 (PD-GrP); Plantio direto sobre aração (PD-AA); Plantio direto sobre escarificação (PD-ESC). Os efeitos dos tratamentos foram avaliados a partir dos atributos: macroporosidade, microporosidade, porosidade total, densidade do solo, parâmetros de desenvolvimento e produtividade das culturas da soja e do milho. As condições físicas do solo encontradas no plantio direto contínuo (PDC) restringiram a produtividade da cultura do mi... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo)
Doutor
Santos, Carlos Levi Anastacio dos. "Curva caracterÃstica de Ãgua no solo: relaÃÃes com estrutura e volume da amostra." Universidade Federal do CearÃ, 2014. http://www.teses.ufc.br/tde_busca/arquivo.php?codArquivo=14625.
Full textA curva caracterÃstica de Ãgua no solo (CCAS) à considerada uma propriedade fÃsico-hÃdrica do solo, uma vez que modificaÃÃes na granulometria ou na estrutura do solo alteram o seu formato. A partir dela à possÃvel manejar a irrigaÃÃo de uma cultura e inferir acerca da qualidade fÃsica do solo. No entanto, sua determinaÃÃo à lenta e onerosa. Uma abordagem para tal inconveniente consiste em reduzir o volume da amostra de solo, pressupondo que o tempo para obtenÃÃo da CCAS seja proporcional ao quadrado da altura da amostra. Mas atà que ponto a reduÃÃo do volume da amostra nÃo altera a representatividade da CCAS? Para tanto admite-se as seguintes hipÃteses: 1- O comportamento da CCAS à coincidente para amostras que possuem a mesma textura e estrutura, independente do volume, considerando que mudanÃas na textura e/ou estrutura provocam alteraÃÃes na curva; e 2- O comportamento da CCAS à coincidente para amostras que apresentam a mesma textura e estruturas diferente, apenas na faixa de alta tensÃo (33 â 1500 kPa), considerando que nessa faixa o fenÃmeno responsÃvel pela retenÃÃo de Ãgua seja a adsorÃÃo, cuja aÃÃo independe da estrutura e do volume da amostra. Afim de testar as hipÃteses, coletaram-se amostras com estrutura deformada e indeformada com volume de 20, 50 e 100 cm3, aproximadamente, para diferentes classes texturais. Assim estabeleceu-se o delineamento inteiramente casualizado com 8 repetiÃÃes para cada tratamento e aplicou-se os testes de Jarque-Bera para normalidade, F para a anÃlise de variÃncia e de Dunnett para comparaÃÃo de mÃdias. Afora isso, foram feitas anÃlises de regressÃo e correlaÃÃo entre o log neperiano do potencial mÃtrico e conteÃdo de Ãgua no solo, o que possibilitou a obtenÃÃo de retas para entÃo aplicar testes de coincidÃncia a 5%. Verifica-se que à possÃvel obter a CCAS com um volume mÃnimo de 50 cm3, sem a perda da sua representatividade, considerando amostras com estrutura indeformada e textura franco argiloarenosa e que amostras com estrutura deformada nÃo podem substituir amostras com estrutura indeformada na parte mais Ãmida da curva (0 â 10 kPa), independente da textura e do volume da amostra; enquanto na parte mais seca da curva caracterÃstica de Ãgua (33 â 1500 kPa) à possÃvel, desde que se considere a textura e o volume da amostra.
Gloaguen, Roberta Alessandra Bruschi Gonçalves. "Efeito da irrigação com efluente de esgoto tratado nas propriedades físico-hídricas de um latossolo." Universidade de São Paulo, 2005. http://www.teses.usp.br/teses/disponiveis/11/11143/tde-27012006-154308/.
Full textFrom the agronomic point of view, irrigation using treated sewage effluent has a great advantage in saving water and fertilizers, once effluent is naturally rich in nutrients and organic matter. However, some concerns related to the environment are raised regarding this aspect. The excess of nutrients and organic matter can cause pollution and provoke changes in the soil chemical, physical and hydraulic properties, in case this application is not well planned. The present work aimed to study the effect of irrigation using sewage treated effluent on the physical and hydraulic properties of an Oxisol. The experimental area is located in Lins-SP, and it is composed of three plots: Water plot, Effluent plot and Control plot located on a slope beside the ponds. All the study was carried out in 8 depths up to 1,875 m. The unsaturated soil hydraulic conductivity K(θ) was determined under field conditions using the instantaneous profile method. Similarly, saturated soil hydraulic conductivity, Ksat, was determined by using the falling head method. K(θ) was also evaluated, under laboratory conditions, by using the Wind system (based on evaporation), which was compared afterwards to the instantaneous profile method (based on drainage). The soil porosity was analyzed by means of the pores diameter distribution obtained from the water retention curve. The results showed that there were changes in the soil hydraulic conductivity in both plots irrigated with water and effluent, in relation to the reference one. This fact demonstrates that not only the irrigation with effluent, but also the conventional one must be managed with precautions in the studied area, once the water supplied to the city is rich in sodium. The irrigated plots presented a significant decrease in K(θ) in relation to the Control plot with higher water contents. On the other hand, K(θ) increased in the irrigated plots with lower water content, suggesting a change in the soil porosity. In relation to Ksat, a decrease in the irrigated plots in relation to the Control was identified along the whole soil profile. The Wind system showed to be more adapted to soils irrigated with sodium-rich water when compared to the instantaneous profile method. The irrigation with effluent and with water (sodium-rich waters) induced a decrease in the microporosity, that is, the pores class with diameter comprising between 0,2 µm and 50 µm. On the other hand, a significant increase in criptoporosity (<0,2 µm) was identified in the whole soil profile. Significant correlations among micropores and criptopores volumes, water clay dispersion, and Na+, which resulted from the aggregates dispersion and expansion processes.
Rosa, Jaqueline Dalla. "Dinâmica da formação de crostas superficiais em função de práticas de preparo do solo e chuva simulada." Universidade de São Paulo, 2012. http://www.teses.usp.br/teses/disponiveis/11/11140/tde-20092012-154056/.
Full textThe crusts are the result of degradation of the surface structure of the soil, favoring erosion and environmental degradation of soils. This study evaluated the dynamics of the develop surface crusts and its consequences on the porosity, hydraulic conductivity (K), water retention, bulk density (Ds) and the roughness of a Typic Hapludult conducted with different systems of tillage and application of sheets simulated rainfall. Was also evaluated through the an laboratory experiment, the processes involved in the breakdown of aggregates under simulated rainfall. The experiment was conducted in the years 2009 and 2010. In plots of 15 x 30 m were installed the soil tillage: conventional tillage (CT), reduced tillage (RT) and no-tillage (NT). Inside of the plots was installed micro-plots of 1m x 1m, which were applied different sheets of simulated rainfall (0, 27, 54 and 80 mm) with intensity of 80 mm h-1. Roughness data, K measurements, sampling of undisturbed soil samples for porosity analysis and preparation of thin sections, and also cylindrical rings for water retention curve (SWRC) and Ds, were collected. In the laboratory experiment two soils (Silt Loam and Clay Loam) and two aggregate classes (1-3 and 3-5 mm) were used. The aggregates were submitted to different simulated rainfall (28mmh-1 + KE strong; 28mmh-1 + KE weak; 90mmh-1 + KE strong; 90mmh-1 + KE weak) and after the mean weight diameter (MWD) was evaluated. The dynamics of crust formation occurred differently in both tillage systems. In the CT and RT systems the major reduction of the porosity, by effect of the applied rainfall, occurred in the crust layer and in the NT system occurred in the subcrosta layer. Crust formation was responsible for reducing the porosity and K, and increasing Ds, in RT and CT systems. The higher volumetric moisture contents observed in CRA occurred in the PR system and the lowest in CT. The CRA did not show changes between the applied rainfall. The surface roughness of the soil varied in relation to the tillage systems. RT and NT systems showed a higher roughness in the first year during the second year a higher roughness was observed in the NT system. The CT in the two years studied showed the same trend of evolution according to of applied rainfall, initially there was an increase in roughness up to a maximum rain and then decrease. In the laboratory experiment, the largest DMP reductions occurred in the 3 and 2 mm rainfall for the Silt Loam and Clay Loam soils, respectively. In the initial amounts of rainfall, the intensity was determinant in the MWD reduction. With the increase in the amount of rainfall, the kinetic energy influences the MWD reduction. The intensity of 28 mm h-1 produced the greatest reductions in DMP, possibly due to the longer exposure of the aggregates to wetting.
Eastman, Christopher Mark. "Soil Physical Characteristics of an Aeric Ochraqualf amended with Biochar." The Ohio State University, 2011. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=osu1316548127.
Full textKitamura, Aline Emy. "Recuperação de um subsolo de cerrado com cultivo de plantas nativa e introduzidas /." Ilha Solteira : [s.n.], 2007. http://hdl.handle.net/11449/106205.
Full textBanca: Marcelo Andreotti
Banca: Sérgio Luis de Carvalho
Banca: Diva de Souza Andrade
Banca: José Miguel Reichert
Resumo: A utilização incorreta dos solos vem causando alterações nos mesmos, tornando-os cada vez menos produtivos, aumentando assim as áreas com solos degradados. O presente trabalho teve por objetivos estudar a recuperação de um Latossolo Vermelho degradado, por meio do uso de adubos verdes e lodo de esgoto, sendo cultivado com uma espécie arbórea nativa de cerrado. A pesquisa foi instalada em 2004, na Fazenda de Ensino e Pesquisa, Setor de Produção Animal, da Faculdade de Engenharia, Campus de Ilha Solteira (Universidade Estadual Paulista - UNESP), situada no município de Selvíria, MS. O monitoramento das alterações do solo foi realizado nos anos de 2005, 2006 e 2007. O delineamento experimental foi o de blocos casualizados com 5 tratamentos e 5 repetições, sendo também caracterizada uma área controle (solo com vegetação nativa de cerrado). Os tratamentos foram: testemunha - solo exposto (sem manejo); espécie arbórea Astronium fraxinifolium; Astronium fraxinifolium+Canavalia ensiformis; Astronium fraxinifolium+Raphanus sativus até 2005, depois substituído por Crotalaria juncea; e Astronium fraxinifolium+Brachiaria decumbens+lodo de esgoto (60 t ha-1 a base seca). Avaliaram-se no solo: macroporosidade, microporosidade, porosidade total, densidade do solo, estabilidade de agregados em água, cátions trocáveis, pH, acidez potencial (H+Al), soma de bases (SB), saturação por bases (V %), CTC e macrorganismos. Nos tratamento com adubos verdes, foi avaliada a massa seca e, para a espécie arbórea, a altura e diâmetro de caule. Na testemunha não foi aplicada nenhuma 8 écnica de recuperação do solo. O preparo inicial do solo foi realizado com subsolagem, gradagem leve e incorporação de 2 t ha-1 de calcário. Os tratamentos adotados estão recuperando as propriedades físicas e químicas do solo. O tratamento com Astronium fraxinifolium+Brachiaria...(Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo)
Abstract: The inadequate soil use causes changes which lead to lower productivity, thus increasing the areas with degraded soil. The present work had as objective to recovery a degraded soil, using green manure, sewage sludge and native tree specie. The investigation began in 2004 and was conducted in Selvíria, Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil. The evaluations were done in the years of 2005, 2006 and 2007. The experimental design was a randomized blocks with 5 treatments and 5 replications. The treatments were: control (degraded soil without management); Astronium fraxinifolium; Astronium fraxinifolium + Canavalia ensiformis; Astronium fraxinifolium + Raphanus sativus after substituted by Crotalaria juncea; and Astronium fraxinifolium + Brachiaria decumbens + sewage sludge (60 t ha-1 on dry basis). A control area whit the original vegetation (savannah) was also used as control. The following soil properties were evaluated: macro porosity, micro porosity, total porosity, bulk density, exchangeable cations, pH, potential acidity, base saturation, CEC and macrofauna. For green manure the dry matter was evaluated. In tree species were evaluated: average and diameter of stem. In the control the technique of recovery of the soil was not applied. The initial preparation of the soil was carried out with sub soiling, leveling disk and incorporation of 2 t ha-1 of lime. The treatments are recovering the physical and chemical properties of the soil. The Astronium fraxinifolium + Brachiaria decumbens + sewage sludge was the best treatment because of its similarity in macrofauna compared to the natural soil conditions. The macrofauna increased in the soil with time and this indicates the improvement in soil properties. The presence of grub and beetle was the best indicator of soil macrofauna recovery. The treatment Astronium 10 fraxinifolium + Brachiaria decumbens + sewage sludge is...(Complete abstract click electronic access below)
Doutor
Ibeiro, Lidiane da Silva. "Estudo da distribuição dimensional de poros e da condutividade hidráulica de solos arenosos compactados tratados com cal e cimento." reponame:Biblioteca Digital de Teses e Dissertações da UFRGS, 2016. http://hdl.handle.net/10183/153307.
Full textThe soil stabilization technique which incorporates cementing agents is an effective alternative and widely used in geotechnical engineering works. Therefore, research on the aspects not well understood related to the effects caused by the addition of cementing agents on the porosity of the obtained materials and, consequently, on the performance properties of cemented blends, are relevant. In this sense, this study aims to contribute improving the knowledge on the pore structure of compacted soils treated with lime and cement, as well as to the relationship between pore structure and the hydraulic behavior of these materials. The used soils have a sandy and sandy-silty grain size distribution. The studied variables involved in the analysis are: the cement and lime contents; compaction density; and curing time (for samples with lime). To characterize the pore systems it was employed the Mercury intrusion porosimetry test and, additionally, in order to quantify the global porosities, it was used x-ray computed microtomography tests. A flexible wall permeameter was used to determinate the hydraulic conductivity of the samples through constant head tests. For sandy samples, the intrusion volumes indicated a more significant reduction of the porous media, under the effect of the cementation, when compacted in denser conditions. For the sandy-silt samples, it was observed that by maintaining the specific dry unit weight constant and by varying the cementation conditions, the intruded volumes indicated a reduction of the pores after the addition of lime or cement compared to the uncemented samples. With regards to the influence of the curing time for samples treated with lime, the results suggested that the addition of lime after 7 days of curing did not cause variation in porosity, compared to condition without cementing additions; however, after 28 days of curing it was observed a slight increase on the overall porosity and, after 180 days of curing, it was observed a reduction of the porosity. The reduction of the pores became more significant with the curing time. Related to the sandy soil, the results indicated that addition of cement to the soil and variations on the molding porosity did not result in measurable changes in the hydraulic conductivity, when compared the conditions with and without cement. For the sandy-silt samples, which were analyzed under different conditions (addition of lime and different curing times, and addition of cement), it was shown that the specific dry unit weight caused significant influence on the hydraulic conductivity. It was observed a satisfactory correlation between hydraulic conductivity and porosity/cementing agent ratio when the volumetric cementing agent content is to the power of 0,032. The obtained curves showed distinct relationships and indicated the following aspects of the material behaviour: the increasing of the hydraulic conductivity after 28 days of curing of the sample with lime, compared to 7 days of curing; after 180 days of curing and under low compaction conditions, it was observed no changes when compared to the samples tested after 28 days of curing; however, in the densest condition the investigated parameter became dependent on the curing time; moreover, for the samples molded with cement, it was observed a more significant reduction of the hydraulic conductivity related to denser molded conditions.
Tseng, Chien Ling. "Tomografia computadorizada de raios-X aplicada à análise da qualidade ambiental de solo no entorno da Usina Hidrelétrica de Ilha Solteira - SP." Universidade de São Paulo, 2013. http://www.teses.usp.br/teses/disponiveis/18/18139/tde-24052013-150536/.
Full textThe process of recovery of land degraded by livestock, mainly in Brazil, has become an incontestable solution to meet the needs of national and international food. This dissertation reports on the application of the X-ray Computed Tomography, more precisely a non-medical microtomograph, to the analysis of the physical quality of soils in the degraded area recovering. The soil samples were collected in the surroundings of Usina Hidrelétrica de Ilha Solteira (SP) and pastures in MS. Six sites were selected for the application of the technical procedures: a portion occupied by native vegetation (cerrado), a recovered pasture, a degraded pasture, a pasture treated with Astronium fraxinifolium (Gonçalo-alves)+Brachiaria decumbens+sewage sludge, a pasture of degraded/beheaded soil and a recovered soil. Initially, a theoretical study of the Soil Physics, the Computerized Tomography method and the techniques of soil recovery was conducted. The tomographic images were obtained by means of a microtomograph and NRCon software from Embrapa Instrumentação and UNESP Dentistry School - Araraquara. The CT-Analyser software was used to obtain the physical attibutes, such as density, porosity and size of aggregates, which are fundamental to evaluate the physical characteristics of the soil. The image analysis showed qualitative and quantitative differences in the six types of soil and the results were compared with those obtained by the conventional method. A tridimensional model was constructed to show the interior of the soil samples. The study has proved the potential and application of the C.T. method to the soil investigations, especially in the indicators of the physical and environmental quality of the soils studied.
Martins, Olga. "Contribuição para o estudo dos efeitos da aplicação de poliacrilamidas aniónicas na rega e nos recursos naturais solo e água." Master's thesis, Universidade de Évora, 2001. http://hdl.handle.net/10174/14989.
Full textSurvilaitė, Oksana. "Kraštovaizdžio pažeidimų būklės tyrimai ir vertinimas Gaižiūnų ir Kairių kariniuose poligonuose." Master's thesis, Lithuanian Academic Libraries Network (LABT), 2004. http://vddb.library.lt/obj/LT-eLABa-0001:E.02~2004~D_20040628_120746-98569.
Full textJohann, Amanda Dalla Rosa. "Metodologias para a previsão do comportamento mecânico e para a análise da variação da porosidade de um solo siltoso tratado com cal em diferentes tempos de cura." reponame:Biblioteca Digital de Teses e Dissertações da UFRGS, 2013. http://hdl.handle.net/10183/72907.
Full textThe technique of treating soil with lime or cement has been used successfully in geotechnical engineering, improving the characteristics of the soil, which is a highly variable and complex material, and does not always meet the needs of the earthwork to be performed. The last researches in soils treated with lime are in the development of dosage methodologies based on rational criteria (such as water/cement ratio for concrete), where the voids/lime ratio plays a fundamental role in the assesstment of the target strength. The void volume (or porosity) is an important factor in these dosage methodologies, and there are not techniques that quantify this factor (as the test porosimetry with intrusion of mercury, for concrete) and also models that allow understanding the behavior of porosity for these mixtures in long curing times (such as the Powers’s model for concrete). Thus, this research aims to determine the influence of the amount of lime (Ca), porosity (h), moisture content (w) and curing time period (t) on the unconfined compression strength (qu), tensile strength (qt) and initial stiffness (Go) of a silty soil stabilized with lime (kaolin-lime mixtures), checking the suitability of the use of voids/lime ratio in estimating qu, qt and Go. Besides, this research aims to quantify the porosity of these soil-lime mixtures and also adjusting a model that allows understanding the behavior of their porosity during the curing time. For that, a number of unconfined compression tests, splitting tensile tests, the measurement of Go, measurement of matric suction and porosimetry with intrusion of mercury tests were carried out in present work. The results of unconfined compression strength, tensile strength and initial stiffness show that increasing the amount of Ca, decreasing of h and increasing of t, causes increased of qu, qt and Go. Further, qu, qt and Go grow linearly with the increased amount of lime and exponentially with reducing its porosity. The voids/lime ratio, defined as the ratio of the compacted mixture porosity and the lime volumetric content, adjusted by an exponent, proves to be an appropriate parameter to estimate the qu, qt and Go. From these results, it is observed that the w also plays a fundamental parameter in predicting the qu, qt and Go. Moreover, it is noted that the existence of distinct and unique relationships in the control of qu, qt and Go according to h, Cav and w proved to be very efficient for dosage relationships. Relations between qu, qt, Go and h/Cav were very satisfactory too. Furthermore, statistical analyzes were performed of the results obtained in this experiment, and results demonstrate, through analysis of variance, that all controllable factors chosen in the experiment are significant. The results of test porosimetry with intrusion of mercury show that the porosity decreases with increasing curing time. However, the Powers’s model has not adapted perfectly to predict the variation of the porosity of kaolin-lime mixtures studied.
Silvani, Carina. "Influência da temperatura de cura no comportamento mecânico de misturas areia-cinza volante-cal." reponame:Biblioteca Digital de Teses e Dissertações da UFRGS, 2013. http://hdl.handle.net/10183/75908.
Full textSoil is the base of most civil engineering constructions, and when it cannot support the construction loads, such problem can be solved through the use of soil stabilization technique. Lime stabilization is a classical technique, but there are still no dosage methods of these mixtures based on more rational criteria. This situation has been changed with researches using the porosity/lime ratio to dose soil-lime. Thereby this research aims to evaluate the influence of the quotient /(Liv) in the assessment of splitting tensile and unconfined compressive strength at different temperatures, due to the endothermic nature of the reactions of lime hydration. For this research splitting tensile tests and unconfined compression tests were carried out with cylindrical specimens with diameter and height equal to 50 and 100mm, respectively, with lime contents varying from 3% to 7%, dry unit weight ranging from 14kN/m³ to 16kN/m³, time curing period of 28 days and fly ash content of 25%. The results show the unconfined compressive and the splitting tensile strength increasing linearly with the increase of lime amount and exponentially with the reduction of its porosity. The porosity/lime ratio, defined as the ratio of the compacted mixture porosity and the lime volumetric content, adjusted by an exponent, proves to be an appropriate parameter to estimate the unconfined compressive and the splitting tensile strength of the soil-fly ash-lime studied. The temperature has influence in both resistances studied. For a given curing time period, the relation [ ( ) ] versus T is shown to vary linearly up to a threshold, 35°C for the splitting tensile strength and 27°C for the unconfined compressive strength, when becomes an asymptote. Finally, the qt/qu relationship is not unique for the mixture studied, being 0,18, 0,14, 0,20 e 0,19 for the temperatures 20, 27, 35 e 50°C, respectively.
Ulyett, James. "Impact of biochar manipulations on water and nitrogen." Thesis, Cranfield University, 2014. http://dspace.lib.cranfield.ac.uk/handle/1826/9325.
Full textToma, Raul Shiso. "Evolução do funcionamento físico-hidrico do solo em diferentes sistemas de manejo em áreas de agricultura familiar na região do Vale do Ribeira, SP." Universidade de São Paulo, 2012. http://www.teses.usp.br/teses/disponiveis/11/11140/tde-25092012-105707/.
Full textThis study evaluated the evolution of hydro-physical attributes of the soil under different management systems (Organic, Conventional and Agroforestry), characterized the hydro-physical functioning and assessed the Hydrus 1D model in three different cover crops (Organic agriculture, Agroforestry Systems and \"Capoeira\") in family agriculture areas , municipality of Apiaí - SP. The evaluation of the evolution over time of the hydro-physical attributes of the soil was performed by monitoring the soil bulk density, calculated porosity, porosity by image analysis, hydraulic conductivity and organic matter content for each family agriculture property with different management systems. The characterization of the hydro-physical functioning of the soil, as well as the attainment of the input data for the Hydrus 1D model, were done by collecting samples for chemical analysis, particle size distribution, particle density, bulk density, soil water retention curve, hydraulic saturated conductivity and image analysis. The monitoring of soil moisture \"in situ\" was obtained by sensors installed in the main horizons of the pits and associated with rainfall data collected from an automatic weather station installed in the area. The results of the evolution over time of the three management systems showed high levels of organic matter, especially in depth from 0.0 to 0.2 m, but showed no tendency to accumulate. These high values of organic matter provide a low soil bulk density and high porosity, resulting in a increased water conductivity of the soil. Each system had hydro-physical attributes with good conditions for cultivation and the soil was not an impediment to the maintenance of these systems in this region, moreover, the use of agroecological management systems is an interesting alternative for the region as a form of conservationist agricultural practices. Regarding the hydro-physical characterization, the three soils under different crop cover, presented, mainly in the surface horizons, high values of organic matter and porosity, being this porosity represented by large complex pores, that are responsible for the high hydraulic conductivity and are crucial in the presence of two regions with contrasting hydraulic properties conferring bimodal behavior of the soil water retention curve. In the comparisons of the modeling data, the Hydrus model was not effective for predicting the moisture values in the studied soils. This data presented simulated moisture values lower for all horizons of the pits in the three areas, when compared with the observed data. However, good results were obtained in predicting runoff volumes, which were not measured in this work, but observed in the field. These results confirm the need for further studies with respect to the prediction of water movements under conditions of heterogenous cultures, since the input data with respect to vegetation, are difficult to chose, especially in AFS, due to its high diversity of species.
Juarez, Sabrina. "Régulations biotiques et abiotiques de la décomposition des matières organiques des sols." Phd thesis, AgroParisTech, 2013. http://pastel.archives-ouvertes.fr/pastel-01049725.
Full textAlmeida, Angela Billar de [UNESP]. "Propriedades físicas de um latossolo vermelho manejado com material orgânico e submetido à compactação." Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), 2009. http://hdl.handle.net/11449/86351.
Full textConselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)
As propriedades físicas dos solos agricultáveis vêm sofrendo grandes modificações, sendo a compactação apontada como a principal causa destas mudanças em virtude do tráfego máquinas e uso inadequado de equipamentos agrícolas. A compactação ocorre principalmente em solos úmidos, pois a água age como agente lubrificante, melhorando o arranjo entre as partículas. Por isso a importância da adição de matéria orgânica ao solo, já que esta possui um alto poder de adsorção de água, minimizando os efeitos ocasionados pela compactação. O trabalho foi desenvolvido com o objetivo de avaliar a eficiência da utilização de materiais orgânicos em algumas propriedades físicas de um Latossolo Vermelho submetido à compactação, por análises de imagens e de rotina. O experimento foi conduzido em laboratório no Departamento de Recursos Naturais - Ciência do Solo, na Faculdade de Ciências Agronômicas – UNESP, em Botucatu-SP. O delineamento adotado foi o inteiramente casualizado, constituído por 32 tratamentos, em esquema fatorial duplo 4x4, sendo, para cada material orgânico (serragem e BIOMIX®), quatro intensidades de compactação e quatro doses dos materiais (0, 30, 50 e 80 t ha-1), com quatro repetições. Amostras deformadas foram coletadas na camada de 0 a 20 cm de um Latossolo Vermelho distroférrico textura argilosa sob vegetação de mata. A umidade de máxima compactação do solo foi obtida pelo ensaio de Proctor Normal. As amostras de solo foram peneiradas, misturadas às doses dos materiais orgânicos, mantidas em repousou por 30 dias, novamente peneiradas e o conteúdo de água corrigido para 27%. Subamostras foram colocadas em tubos de PVC e compactadas com o auxílio de uma prensa hidráulica, a fim de atingir as intensidades de compactação desejadas. As propriedades físicas avaliadas foram a densidade do solo, a porosidade total...
Compaction is a process that changes negatively the soil physical properties and occurs mainly due to intensive use of machinery and implements for agricultural activities. The addition of organic matter in soil is of great importance to minimize this process by increasing the water demand for the soil reaches the optimum moisture content for compaction. To evaluate the change in physical properties of a soil submitted to compaction, when managed with organic material, an experiment was conducted in the laboratory of the Natural Resources Department - Soil Science, FCA/UNESP, Botucatu-SP, assessed by routine and image analysis. The experimental design was completely randomized design, consisting of 32 treatments in a factorial 4x4 double, and, for each organic material (sawdust and BIOMIX®) four compaction levels and four doses of the materials (0, 30, 50 and 80 t. ha-1), with four replications. Deformed samples were collected from a clayey Oxisol under forest in the layer from 0 to 20 cm. The moisture for maximum soil compaction was obtained using the Standard Proctor test. Soil samples were sieved, mixed with doses of organic materials, incubated for 30 days, sieved again and the water content adjusted to 27%. Sub samples were put in PVC tubes and compressed with the aid of a hydraulic press in order to obtain the desired compaction levels. The physical properties evaluated were soil bulk density, porosity, macroporosity, microporosity, soil penetration resistance and hydraulic 5 conductivity. In addition to the routine method, the evaluation of the compaction effects on macroporosity was done by image analysis acquired from samples after the resin impregnation in the soil samples. The images taken with digital camera were processed in the Visilog 5.4. Statistical analysis was performed using Sisvar version 4.6 (2003), resulting in the analysis of variance and regression test... (Complete abstract click electronic access below)
Almeida, Angela Billar de 1983. "Propriedades físicas de um latossolo vermelho manejado com material orgânico e submetido à compactação /." Botucatu : [s.n.], 2009. http://hdl.handle.net/11449/86351.
Full textBanca: Celia Regina Paes Bueno
Banca: Ana Maria Conte e Castro
Resumo: As propriedades físicas dos solos agricultáveis vêm sofrendo grandes modificações, sendo a compactação apontada como a principal causa destas mudanças em virtude do tráfego máquinas e uso inadequado de equipamentos agrícolas. A compactação ocorre principalmente em solos úmidos, pois a água age como agente lubrificante, melhorando o arranjo entre as partículas. Por isso a importância da adição de matéria orgânica ao solo, já que esta possui um alto poder de adsorção de água, minimizando os efeitos ocasionados pela compactação. O trabalho foi desenvolvido com o objetivo de avaliar a eficiência da utilização de materiais orgânicos em algumas propriedades físicas de um Latossolo Vermelho submetido à compactação, por análises de imagens e de rotina. O experimento foi conduzido em laboratório no Departamento de Recursos Naturais - Ciência do Solo, na Faculdade de Ciências Agronômicas - UNESP, em Botucatu-SP. O delineamento adotado foi o inteiramente casualizado, constituído por 32 tratamentos, em esquema fatorial duplo 4x4, sendo, para cada material orgânico (serragem e BIOMIX®), quatro intensidades de compactação e quatro doses dos materiais (0, 30, 50 e 80 t ha-1), com quatro repetições. Amostras deformadas foram coletadas na camada de 0 a 20 cm de um Latossolo Vermelho distroférrico textura argilosa sob vegetação de mata. A umidade de máxima compactação do solo foi obtida pelo ensaio de Proctor Normal. As amostras de solo foram peneiradas, misturadas às doses dos materiais orgânicos, mantidas em repousou por 30 dias, novamente peneiradas e o conteúdo de água corrigido para 27%. Subamostras foram colocadas em tubos de PVC e compactadas com o auxílio de uma prensa hidráulica, a fim de atingir as intensidades de compactação desejadas. As propriedades físicas avaliadas foram a densidade do solo, a porosidade total... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo)
Abstract: Compaction is a process that changes negatively the soil physical properties and occurs mainly due to intensive use of machinery and implements for agricultural activities. The addition of organic matter in soil is of great importance to minimize this process by increasing the water demand for the soil reaches the optimum moisture content for compaction. To evaluate the change in physical properties of a soil submitted to compaction, when managed with organic material, an experiment was conducted in the laboratory of the Natural Resources Department - Soil Science, FCA/UNESP, Botucatu-SP, assessed by routine and image analysis. The experimental design was completely randomized design, consisting of 32 treatments in a factorial 4x4 double, and, for each organic material (sawdust and BIOMIX®) four compaction levels and four doses of the materials (0, 30, 50 and 80 t. ha-1), with four replications. Deformed samples were collected from a clayey Oxisol under forest in the layer from 0 to 20 cm. The moisture for maximum soil compaction was obtained using the Standard Proctor test. Soil samples were sieved, mixed with doses of organic materials, incubated for 30 days, sieved again and the water content adjusted to 27%. Sub samples were put in PVC tubes and compressed with the aid of a hydraulic press in order to obtain the desired compaction levels. The physical properties evaluated were soil bulk density, porosity, macroporosity, microporosity, soil penetration resistance and hydraulic 5 conductivity. In addition to the routine method, the evaluation of the compaction effects on macroporosity was done by image analysis acquired from samples after the resin impregnation in the soil samples. The images taken with digital camera were processed in the Visilog 5.4. Statistical analysis was performed using Sisvar version 4.6 (2003), resulting in the analysis of variance and regression test... (Complete abstract click electronic access below)
Mestre
Venson, Guilherme Irineu. "Módulo de resiliência e vida de fadiga de areia artificialmente cimentada." reponame:Biblioteca Digital de Teses e Dissertações da UFRGS, 2015. http://hdl.handle.net/10183/135364.
Full textWith the growth of large urban centers and expansion of human activities, many engineering projects become infeasible due to the absence of soils that meet the necessary requests on site, high transportation costs and excessive environmental damage. One of the alternatives is to improve the conditions of these soils and, among multiple improvement techniques, the artificially cemented soil is highlighted. This practice has one of its most usual applications on the field to improve materials strength to cyclic loads, especially in pavement designs, reinforcement of areas susceptible to earthquakes and foundations of coastal structures. This research studies the cyclic behavior of a artificially cemented sand, checking its compressive strength, shear modulus, suction and focusing on the resilient modulus and fatigue life parameters. Additionally it seeks to correlate them with the porosity/volumetric cement content ratio. To this end it was designed and built a device for carrying out the fatigue tests and calibrated another existing equipment to run resilient modulus tests according to current standards. Along with the tests results, a modulus prediction relationship is shown based on the composite model of stress state and good correlations of cyclic parameters obtained with the porosity/volumetric content of cement ratio are observed proving the possibility of its use for predicting behavior and dosage of this soil-cement.
Santos, Carlos Levi Anastacio dos. "Curva característica de água no solo: relações com estrutura e volume da amostra." reponame:Repositório Institucional da UFC, 2014. http://www.repositorio.ufc.br/handle/riufc/19333.
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A curva característica de água no solo (CCAS) é considerada uma propriedade físico-hídrica do solo, uma vez que modificações na granulometria ou na estrutura do solo alteram o seu formato. A partir dela é possível manejar a irrigação de uma cultura e inferir acerca da qualidade física do solo. No entanto, sua determinação é lenta e onerosa. Uma abordagem para tal inconveniente consiste em reduzir o volume da amostra de solo, pressupondo que o tempo para obtenção da CCAS seja proporcional ao quadrado da altura da amostra. Mas até que ponto a redução do volume da amostra não altera a representatividade da CCAS? Para tanto admite-se as seguintes hipóteses: 1- O comportamento da CCAS é coincidente para amostras que possuem a mesma textura e estrutura, independente do volume, considerando que mudanças na textura e/ou estrutura provocam alterações na curva; e 2- O comportamento da CCAS é coincidente para amostras que apresentam a mesma textura e estruturas diferente, apenas na faixa de alta tensão (33 – 1500 kPa), considerando que nessa faixa o fenômeno responsável pela retenção de água seja a adsorção, cuja ação independe da estrutura e do volume da amostra. Afim de testar as hipóteses, coletaram-se amostras com estrutura deformada e indeformada com volume de 20, 50 e 100 cm3, aproximadamente, para diferentes classes texturais. Assim estabeleceu-se o delineamento inteiramente casualizado com 8 repetições para cada tratamento e aplicou-se os testes de Jarque-Bera para normalidade, F para a análise de variância e de Dunnett para comparação de médias. Afora isso, foram feitas análises de regressão e correlação entre o log neperiano do potencial mátrico e conteúdo de água no solo, o que possibilitou a obtenção de retas para então aplicar testes de coincidência a 5%. Verifica-se que é possível obter a CCAS com um volume mínimo de 50 cm3, sem a perda da sua representatividade, considerando amostras com estrutura indeformada e textura franco argiloarenosa e que amostras com estrutura deformada não podem substituir amostras com estrutura indeformada na parte mais úmida da curva (0 – 10 kPa), independente da textura e do volume da amostra; enquanto na parte mais seca da curva característica de água (33 – 1500 kPa) é possível, desde que se considere a textura e o volume da amostra.
Negro, Sérgio Ricardo Lima. "Correlação linear e espacial da produtividade da soja com atributos físicos da relação massa volume do solo." Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), 2017. http://hdl.handle.net/11449/152375.
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A variabilidade espacial dos atributos físicos do solo é importante indicador de manejo localizado nas áreas agrosilvopastoris. No ano agrícola de 2009/10 em Selvíria (MS), analisaram-se os componentes de produção da soja e atributos físicos da relação massa/volume de um Latossolo Vermelho Distroférrico em plantio direto, com objetivo de encontrar correlações lineares e espaciais entre eles. Foi instalada uma malha geoestatística para a coleta dos dados, totalizando 99 pontos amostrais numa área de 10 ha. Os atributos do solo, nas camadas de 0,00-0,10 e 0,10-0,20 m foram: a densidade do solo, DS (métodos do anel volumétrico e do torrão parafinado), densidade de partículas do solo, DP (métodos do balão volumétrico e do balão volumétrico modificado) e a porosidade total do solo, PT, utilizando os valores de DS e DP dos diferentes métodos de determinação, calculada pela fórmula PT= (1-DS/DP). Os componentes de produção da soja foram: número de vagens por planta (NVP), número de grãos por vagem (NGV), massa de cem grãos (MCG), massa de grãos por planta (MGP), população de plantas (POP), altura de plantas (ALT) e produtividade de grãos obtida (PGO). Alguns dos componentes de produção da soja e dos atributos físicos do solo revelaram dependência espacial, possibilitando mapear a área de produção. Assim, os alcances geoestatísticos recomendados para futuras pesquisas deverão estar entre 273 e 526,5 m. Espacialmente, foi possível estimar a PGO pela co-krigagem com a MGP; com a DS (método do anel volumétrico) de 0,00-0,10 m; com a PT, calculada pela relação entre a DS (método anel volumétrico)/DP (método do balão volumétrico) de 0,10-0,20 m; e com a PT, calculada pela DS (método do anel volumétrico)/DP (método do balão volumétrico modificado) de 0,00-0,10 m. A MGP pode ser estimada pela co-krigagem com a DS, quando determinada pelo método do anel volumétrico, na camada de 0,00-0,10 m. Portanto, foi possível estimar a variabilidade espacial da PGO e da MGP e mapear a área, a fim de propor estratégias de manejo visando aumentar a produtividade da soja.
The soil physical attributes spatial variability is an important indicator of localized management practices in the agrosilvopastoral areas. In the 2009/2010 agricultural year in Selvíria (MS), soybean yield components and physical attributes of the mass/volume ratio of a dystroferric Red Latosol (Typic Acrustox) under a no-tillage system were analyzed in order to find linear and spatial correlations between them. It was installed a geostatistical grid to collect the data, totalizing 99 sampling points in an area of 10 ha. The soil attributes in the 0.00-0.10 and 0.10-0.20 m layers were: soil bulk density, BD (volumetric ring and paraffin sealed clod methods), soil particle density, PD (volumetric flask and modified volumetric flask methods) and total soil porosity, TP, calculated by the resulting ratio between BD and PD, using the formula TP = (1-BD/PD). The components of soybean yield were: number of pods per plant, number of grains per pod, mass of 100 grains, grain mass per plant, plant population, plant height and soybean yield. Some of the determined soybean yield components and some of the physical soil attributes revealed spatial dependence, making it possible to map the yield area. Thus, the recommended geostatistical ranges for further researches thus shall be between 273 and 526.5 m. Spatially, it was possible to estimate the soybean yield by co-kriging it with the grain mass per plant; and with the soil bulk density (volumetric ring method) of 0.00-0.10 m; and with the total soil porosity, calculated by the ratio between soil bulk density (volumetric ring method)/soil particle density (volumetric flask method) of 0.10-0.20 m; and with the total soil porosity, calculated by the soil bulk density (volumetric ring method)/soil particle density (modified volumetric flask method) of 0.00-0.10 m. The grain mass per plant could be estimated by co-kriging it with the soil bulk density (volumetric ring method) of 0.00-0.10 m. Therefore, it was possible to estimate the spatial variability of soybean yield and of grain mass per plant in order to map the area to propose management strategies aiming to increase soybean yield.