Relevant bibliographies by topics / Softening

Contents

  1. Journal articles
  2. Dissertations / Theses
  3. Books
  4. Book chapters
  5. Conference papers
  6. Reports

Academic literature on the topic 'Softening'

Author: Grafiati
Published: 4 June 2021
Last updated: 9 June 2025

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Journal articles on the topic "Softening"

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Diani, Julie, Yannick Merckel, Mathias Brieu, and Julien Caillard. "COMPARISON OF STRESS–SOFTENINGS IN CARBON-BLACK FILLED NATURAL RUBBER AND STYRENE–BUTADIENE RUBBER." Rubber Chemistry and Technology 86, no. 4 (December 1, 2013): 572–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.5254/rct.13.87964.

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ABSTRACT The authors compared the mechanical behavior and, more precisely, the Mullins and the cyclic (post-Mullins) softenings of two filled rubbers. A crystallizing natural rubber and a noncrystallizing styrene–butadiene rubber of similar compositions resulting in similar cross-link densities and filled with 40 phr of N347 carbon-black fillers were tested in cyclic uniaxial tension at room temperature and at 85 °C. Crystallization in filled rubbers is known to increase stress at high stretch, stretch at break, cycle hysteresis, and fatigue lifetime and to reduce crack propagation. In this study, it is shown that crystallization also seems to enhance the Mullins softening (softening at the first cycle) and to favor the apparent cyclic softening. Results reveal that natural rubber shows an amplitude dependence on the cyclic softening, whereas the styrene–butadiene rubber does not. Finally, results demonstrate that studying filled rubber softening cannot help predict lifetime.
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KING, P. E. "Water Softening." Journal of the Society of Dyers and Colourists 34, no. 12 (October 22, 2008): 240–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1478-4408.1918.tb00992.x.

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CHAMBERS, E. V. "Water Softening." Journal of the Society of Dyers and Colourists 34, no. 12 (October 22, 2008): 243–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1478-4408.1918.tb00993.x.

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Smith, E. "The elastically equivalent softening zone size for an elastic-softening material: I. Power law softening behaviour." Mechanics of Materials 17, no. 4 (April 1994): 363–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0167-6636(94)90026-4.

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WU, YANG, JIANGANG ZHU, QIAN QI, and LINA CUI. "RESEARCH PROGRESS OF SOLID WOOD BENDING SOFTENING TECHNOLOGY. REVIEW." WOOD RESEARCH 67(6) 2022 67, no. 6 (December 13, 2022): 1056–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.37763/wr.1336-4561/67.6.10561073.

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The softening process of wood bending has a very important influence on theperformance, forming shape, and yield of bentwood. The paper reviewed the typical softening processes in solid wood bending by analyzing the various softening mechanism and softening processes. Themain influencing factors of the softening technology on the bending properties were summarized based on the comparative analysisof the related research progress of wood softening. In view of the lack of systematic analyses of the cost and environmental factors associated with the softening process, this paper goes in detail analyzing themajor softening technologies with comprehensive comparisonof the economic and environmental advantages and disadvantages.The paper also draws light on thedevelopment trends of softening technology that can be implemented in wood industry which can hence improve the added value of wood. Under the background of green development, the authors believe that the softening technology should not only benefit theeconomic efficiency but also meet the social needs of low-carbon and environment-friendly.
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Ingle, Morris, and J. C. Morris. "Predicting Firmness Changes of ‘Rome’ Apples in Refrigerated Storage." Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science 114, no. 1 (January 1989): 90–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.21273/jashs.114.1.90.

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Abstract The softening rates of ‘Rome’ apples (Malus domestica Borkh.) from 10 West Virginia orchards stored at two temperatures were compared in 1974, 1976, and 1978. The rate of softening at 20°C declined with time after harvest, and delaying harvest reduced the rate of softening at 20° but had little effect on softening at 0°. Site had little effect on rate of softening. In two of the three years, the rate of softening at 0° was found to be correlated with firmness at harvest and softening at 20°. Regression analysis provided formulas that can be used to predict softening rate in refrigerated air storage at 0° from firmness data at harvest.
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Schreyer, Howard L., and Z. Chen. "One-Dimensional Softening With Localization." Journal of Applied Mechanics 53, no. 4 (December 1, 1986): 791–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/1.3171860.

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The relationship between material softening and structural softening is investigated through the use of a model problem in one dimension. If the size of the softening zone is large the structural softening response is stable under displacement-prescribed loading. For a small size, the softening response is unstable and the loading regime is sensitive to imperfections in stiffness. A nonlocal constitutive equation in which the limit stress is a function of strain and strain gradient is introduced to provide an approach for simulating softening with localization. Implications for the numerical modeling of softening phenomena are given.
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Meffe, Gary K. "Softening the Boundaries." Conservation Biology 12, no. 2 (April 26, 1998): 259–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.1998.012002259.x.

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Shein, Esther. "Softening up robots." Communications of the ACM 63, no. 12 (November 17, 2020): 12–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/3427942.

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Arnold, Diane. "Softening the blow." Practice Nursing 25, no. 5 (May 2014): 216. http://dx.doi.org/10.12968/pnur.2014.25.5.216.

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Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Softening"

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Oh, Myongsook Susan. "Softening coal pyrolysis." Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1985. http://hdl.handle.net/1721.1/15245.

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Thesis (Sc. D.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Chemical Engineering, 1985.<br>MICROFICHE COPY AVAILABLE IN ARCHIVES AND SCIENCE.<br>Bibliography: leaves 275-284.<br>by Myongsook Susan Oh.<br>Sc.D.
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Vineberg, Daryl Geoffrey. "A study of lead softening /." Thesis, McGill University, 2003. http://digitool.Library.McGill.CA:80/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object_id=80149.

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Softening represents one of the stages in the pyrometallurgical refining of lead, in which oxygen is top-blown into a bath of impure bullion through a group of lances in order to preferentially oxidize arsenic, antimony and tin dissolved in the melt. The oxides of these species float to the melt surface, where they are removed as dross.<br>It has been observed at Teck Cominco Lead Operations in Trail, BC that there is an "ignition temperature" in the range of 600°C, below which the softening reactions are reported to occur very slowly, if at all. Currently, disproportionately large efforts are made to initiate and sustain the softening process. This research was motivated by Teck Cominco's wish to have a clearer understanding of the ignition temperature phenomena, and a more robust and reliable process control.<br>Experimental trials were performed using a homemade thermogravimetric analyzer with a data acquisition system. The unit was constructed in such a way as to allow for simultaneous video recording of the sample surface, for future examination and reference.
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Chugg, Kevin John. "The mechanisms of fabric softening." Thesis, University of Cambridge, 1990. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.385381.

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Firoozi, Sadegh. "Thermodynamics and mechanisms of lead softening." Thesis, McGill University, 2005. http://digitool.Library.McGill.CA:80/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object_id=100362.

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Visualization and quantitative oxidation kinetic experiments on 100 g samples of Pb-As at 600°C; thermal analysis and phase-equilibrium measurements of Pb-PbO-As2O3 samples under argon over the temperature range of 420°C to 875°C; computational thermodynamic solution modeling; and phase diagram and equilibrium calculations using FACTSage(TM) were performed to elaborate the poorly documented thermodynamics of the slags in the lead softening stage in the pyrometallurgical refining of lead. In the softening stage, the minor element impurities: arsenic, antimony and tin are removed from lead bullion by oxidation and are transferred to a skimmable oxide slag phase.<br>It was found that optimizing an ionic molten oxide solution model that was conceptualized to contain Pb2+ and O2- with AsO3-4 and AsO3-3 ions, or with SbO3-4 and SbO3-3 ions in the respective PbO rich regions of the Pb-As-O and the Pb-Sb-O systems, was able to accurately reproduce the measured and published thermodynamic data. It was also found that the subsystems in the PbO-As2O 3-As2O5 and PbO-Sb2O3-Sb 2O5 systems showed small deviation from the ideal ionic solution model and small magnitude excess Gibbs energy parameters were sufficient to fit the predicted liquidus curves to the experimental measurements.<br>Arsenic in the +3 and +5 oxidation states was measured in the PbO rich region of the Pb-As-O liquid solution in the temperature range of 420°C to 875°C. The variability in the ratio of trivalent arsenic to the total arsenic content, as well as the complex variation of arsenic distribution between metal and oxide phases found strong interaction between the lead, arsenic and oxygen atoms at the 3PbO to 1AS2O3 molar ratio thus suggesting a short range ordering corresponding to the formation of AsO3-3 groupings, and indicating that the Pb3(AsO3) 2(l) species was likely to be present in the PbO rich region of the Pb-As-O system and contributing to an understanding of the Pb-As-O liquid oxide structure. Also, two new compounds (Pb3(AsO3) 2(s), Pb2AsO4(s)) were identified in the Pb-PbO-As 2O3 quenched samples via wavelength-dispersive spectrometry using the electron microprobe. The present work has application in commercial oxygen partial lead softening (OPLS), as uniquely practiced at Teck Cominco Ltd., British Columbia. There, pure oxygen gas is injected into the bath of impure bullion through a number of submerged lances in order to oxidize only part of the arsenic, antimony and tin into a slag phase. For such an operating practice, it was concluded from the visualization and quantitative oxidation experiments that the formation of solid oxides as the product of oxidation produced a physical barrier to the progress of oxidation and resulted in the commercially observed, highly-problematic, process initiation issues. When the product was liquid, there was much less of a barrier to rapid oxygen mass transfer to the minor element impurities and the softening reactions were easy to initiate. Such a change in the physical state of the products of oxidation was correlated to the optimized ternary Pb-As-O and Pb-Sb-O phase diagrams.<br>A current point of interest in partial lead softening is to increase the arsenic content of the slag phase. Arsenic distribution between lead bullion and slag calculated by the optimized solution model of the Pb-As-O system suggests that this can be achieved in a counter-current contacting of the slag and bullion.
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Zheng, Xiao-Qin Materials Science &amp Engineering Faculty of Science UNSW. "Packing of particles during softening and melting process." Awarded by:University of New South Wales. School of Materials Science & Engineering, 2007. http://handle.unsw.edu.au/1959.4/31517.

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Softening deformation of iron ore in the form of sinter, pellet, and lump ore in the cohesive zone of an ironmaking blast furnace is an important phenomenon that has a significant effect on gas permeability and consequently blast furnace production efficiency. The macroscopic softening deformation behavior of the bed and the microscopic deformation behavior of the individual particles in the packed bed are investigated in this study using wax balls to simulate the fused layer behavior of the cohesive zone. The effects of softening temperature, load pressure, and bed composition (mono - single melting particles, including pure or blend particles vs binary ??? two different melting point particles) on softening deformation are examined. The principal findings of this study are: 1. At low softening temperatures, an increase in load pressure increases the deformation rate almost linearly. 2. At higher softening temperatures, an increase in load pressure dramatically increases the deformation rate, and after a certain time there is no more significant change in deformation rate. 3. The bed deformation rate of a mono bed is much greater than that of a binary one. 4. In a binary system, the softening deformation rate increases almost proportionally with the increase in the amount of lower melting point wax balls. 5. In a mono system with blend particles, the content of the lower melting point material has a more significant effect on overall bed deformation than the higher melting point one. 6. The macro softening deformation of the bed behaves the theory of creep deformation. 7. A mathematical model for predicting bed porosity change due to softening deformation based on creep deformation theory has been developed. 8. Increase in load pressure also reduces the peak contact face number of the distribution curves, and this is more prominent with higher porosity values. 9. The contribution of contact face number to bed porosity reduction is more pronounced in a mono system than in a binary system. 10. The porosity reduction in a binary bed is more due to the contact face area increase, presumably of the lower melting point particles. 11. The mono system has a single peak contact face number distribution pattern while the binary system exhibits a bimodal distribution pattern once the higher melting point material starts to deform. 12. In a binary system, an increase in deformation condition severity tends to reduce the contact face number of the higher melting point material without having to increase the contact face number of the lower melting point material accordingly to achieve a given porosity.
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Aguinaldo, Jorge T. "Precipitative Softening and Ultrafiltration Treatment of Beverage Water." Scholar Commons, 2006. http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd/3895.

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Lime softening, chlorination, clarification and filtration have been long recognized treatment processes for beverage water specifically the carbonated soft drink (CSD) because it provides consistent water quality required for bottling plants, however these processes are becoming uneconomical and causes more problems than the benefits they offer. These processes require very large foot print, occupy large plant volume, and generate large volume of sludge which causes disposal problems. Chlorination produces trihalomethanes (THMs) and other by-products which are detrimental to health and imparts tastes to the final products. Using the newly developed submerged spiral wound ultrafiltration membranes in conjunction with lime softening may replace the conventional lime softening, clarification and filtration processes. This research was conducted to demonstrate the feasibility of integrating immersed ultrafiltration (UF) membrane with lime softening. The objectives of this research was to achieve the water quality required by the CSD bottlers; determine the relationships of operating parameters such as pH and membrane flux with trans-membrane pressure (TMP), and membrane permeability; determine the optimum dosage of lime; evaluate the operating parameters as basis for the design and construction of the full scale plant; and predict the membrane cleaning intervals. A pilot unit consisting of lime reactor and UF system was designed and built for this research. The pilot unit was operated at various pH ranging from 7.3 to 11.2 and at membrane flux rates of 15, 30 and 45 gfd. The pilot unit was also operated at the CSD bottler’s operating conditions which is pH 9.8 at flux of 30 gfd. The pilot unit operated for a total of 1800 hours. The raw water source was from city water supply. The filtrate from the pilot unit achieved alkalinity reduction to 20 to 30 mg/L preferred by CSD bottlers, with lime dosage close to the calculated value. The filtrate turbidity during the test was consistently within 0.4 to 0.5 NTU. The TMP values obtained during the test ranges from 0.1 to 2.5 psi, while the permeability values ranges from 18.19 to 29.6 gfd/psi. The increase in flux results to corresponding increase in TMP, and increase in operating pH, increases the rate of TMP. Permeability decreases with increasing operating pH. The TOC reduction ranges from 2.6 % to 15.8% with increasing operating pH. No scaling of the UF membranes was observed during the test. Thirty days UF membrane cleaning interval was predicted. The results from this research can use as the basis of designing and operating a full scale Lime Softening UF Treatment Plant.
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Tano, Robert. "Localization modelling with inner softening band finite elements." Licentiate thesis, Luleå tekniska universitet, 1997. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:ltu:diva-26293.

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Woo, Zhong-Zheng. "Dynamic analysis for nonlinear materials including strain-softening." Diss., The University of Arizona, 1991. http://hdl.handle.net/10150/185388.

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The implementation of the δ₀₊ᵣ model in a finite element program is discussed. The idea of considering damage as a structural performance helps to avoid singularity. Strategies in drift correction is considered. The generalized time finite element method (GTFEM) is also discussed and implemented. It shows improved accuracy and stability with highly non-linear material properties.
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Sande, Gunnar. "Softening Behaviour of Selected Commercially Pure Aluminium Model Alloys." Thesis, Norges teknisk-naturvitenskapelige universitet, Institutt for materialteknologi, 2012. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:no:ntnu:diva-18897.

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A characterization of the softening behaviour of four different commercially pure aluminium alloys has been carried out. The work is related to the MOREAL project (Modelling towards value-added recycling friendly aluminium alloys), where the main goal is to quantify the effect of the elements in recyclable aluminium alloys on microstructure and mechanical properties during thermo-mechanical processing. Typical elements are iron (Fe), silicon (Si) and manganese (Mn), and the alloys studied in this work contain Fe and Si with different amount and ratio: alloy A1 with 0.15 wt% Fe and 0.05 wt% Si; alloy A2 with 0.15 wt% Fe and 0.15 wt% Si; alloy B1 with 0.5 wt% Fe and 0.05 wt% Si and alloy B2 with 0.5 wt% Fe and 0.15 wt% Si.The as-cast material of all four alloys were homogenized at 600 &#176;C for 24 hours followed by a cooling sequence to 450 &#176;C, implying a total dwell time of 160 hours. The alloys were then cold rolled to a strain of 2.6 and isothermally annealed at temperatures from 275 &#176;C to 375 &#176;C, and the physical and mechanical properties were followed with electrical conductivity and hardness measurements. The microstructure and texture has been investigated with electron backscattering diffraction (EBSD) in scanning electron microscope (SEM), optical light microscopy and orientation distribution functions (ODF) from X-ray diffraction. Alloy A1 and A2 where fully recrystallzed after 10 000 seconds when isothermally annealed at 300 &#176;C. Alloy B1 and B2 are slightly faster to reach the fully recrystallized state than alloy A1 and A2. The decrease in mechanical properties during softening was nearly linear on a logarithmic time scale, especially for alloy B1 and B2, with the onset of recrystallization difficult to seperate from the recovery. Electrical conductivity measurements showed that there was minimal concurrent precipitation. Images of the microstructure of the samples annealed at 275 &#176;C show a long recovery phase followed by recrystallization. Particle stimulated nucleation (PSN) sites seems to be an important nucleation mechanism as it is found that the initial grain size have little effect on the softening kinetics, indicating that nucleation on old grain boundaries is of little importance. The recrystallization texture is weak with the typical Cube orientation slightly rotated around the normal direction. The recrystallized grain size was found to be smaller in alloy B1 and B2 (16-20 &amp;#956;m) than in alloy A1 and A2 (21-27 &amp;#956;m), most likely due to more PSN sites in these alloys. The grain growth that followed after recrystallization was found to be slightly larger for alloy A1 and A2 than alloy B1 and B2, most likely due to the effect from solute drag.
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Gumusoglu, M. Cetin. "Analysis of underground excavations in strain softening rock masses." Thesis, Imperial College London, 1987. http://hdl.handle.net/10044/1/38339.

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Books on the topic "Softening"

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Hermanson, Ronald E. Home water softening. [Pullman]: Cooperative Extension Service, Washington State University, 1991.

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Lawler, Desmond F. Integrated water treatment: Softening and ultrafiltration. Denver, CO: AWWA Research Foundation, 2003.

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Butkus, Sue Nicholson. Sodium content of your drinking water. Pullman: Cooperative Extension College of Agriculture & Home Economics, Washington State University, 1989.

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Li, Ke, and Charlie He. Comparing conventional and pelletized lime softening concentrate chemical stabilization. Denver, CO: Water Research Foundation, 2011.

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Apostolopoulos, George. Axial crushing behaviour of chains made of softening elements. Manchester: UMIST, 1994.

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Baker, Rob. Applications for reuse of lime sludge from water softening. Ames, Iowa: Dept. of Civil, Construction, and Environmental Engineering, Iowa State University, 2005.

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Radovskiy, Boris, and Bagdat Teltayev. Viscoelastic Properties of Asphalts Based on Penetration and Softening Point. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-67214-4.

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Clixby, G. High temperature reduction, softening and meltdown studies of burden materials. Luxembourg: Commission of the European Communities, 1987.

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D, Shannon Larry, and AWWA Research Foundation, eds. Beneficial reuse of lime softening residuals for flue gas desulfurization. Denver, CO: AWWA Research Foundation, 1997.

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1936-, Lehr Jay H., and McEachern Rod J. 1958-, eds. Water softening with potassium chloride: Process, health, and environmental benefits. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2009.

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Book chapters on the topic "Softening"

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Gooch, Jan W. "Softening Point." In Encyclopedic Dictionary of Polymers, 675. New York, NY: Springer New York, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-6247-8_10845.

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Gooch, Jan W. "Softening Range." In Encyclopedic Dictionary of Polymers, 675. New York, NY: Springer New York, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-6247-8_10846.

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Gooch, Jan W. "Softening Temperature." In Encyclopedic Dictionary of Polymers, 675. New York, NY: Springer New York, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-6247-8_10847.

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Byon, Andrew Sangpil. "Softening strategies." In Modern Korean Grammar Workbook, 301–3. New York : Routledge-Taylor & Francis Group, [2017] | Series: Routledge Modern Grammars: Routledge, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315178158-73.

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Verma, Subhash. "Water Softening." In Math Problems in Water and Wastewater, 296–313. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 2024. http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9781003468745-24.

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Spellman, Frank R. "Water Softening." In Mathematics Manual for Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators: Water Treatment Operations, 141–58. 3rd ed. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9781003354307-8.

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Verma, Subhash. "Water Softening." In Water and Wastewater Engineering Technology, 191–204. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9781003347941-14.

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Pelleg, Joshua. "Strengthening (Softening)." In Structural Integrity, 69–117. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-86118-6_5.

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Verma, Subhash, Varinder S. Kanwar, and Siby John. "Water Softening." In Environmental Engineering, 125–34. New York: CRC Press, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9781003231264-10.

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Zhang, Zhongping. "Cyclic Hardening/Softening." In Encyclopedia of Tribology, 687–91. Boston, MA: Springer US, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-92897-5_245.

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Conference papers on the topic "Softening"

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Gan, Chong-Xin, Youzhi Tu, Zezhong Jin, Man-Wai Mak, and Kong Aik Lee. "Grouped Knowledge Distillation with Adaptive Logit Softening for Speaker Recognition." In ICASSP 2025 - 2025 IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing (ICASSP), 1–5. IEEE, 2025. https://doi.org/10.1109/icassp49660.2025.10887814.

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Harrer, Thomas, Marcel Schäfer, and Rüdiger Brockmann. "Softening of hot formed steel." In ICALEO® 2015: 34th International Congress on Laser Materials Processing, Laser Microprocessing and Nanomanufacturing. Laser Institute of America, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.2351/1.5063178.

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Rajmeny, P. K., PK Jain, and Vakili Abouzar. "3D-Numerical simulation of a mine using cohesion-softening, friction-softening and hardening behavior." In Recent Advances in Rock Engineering (RARE 2016). Paris, France: Atlantis Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.2991/rare-16.2016.2.

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Akiyama, Mariko, Sebastian Gnapowski, Yoshitaka Shigematsu, and Hidenori Akiyama. "Softening of vegetables by pulsed power." In 2013 IEEE 40th International Conference on Plasma Sciences (ICOPS). IEEE, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/plasma.2013.6634811.

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"Cooling Water Lime Softening Plant Optimisation." In Nov. 16-17, 2020 Johannesburg (SA). Eminent Association of Pioneers, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.17758/eares10.eap1120219.

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Métivier, Jean-Philippe, Patrice Boizumault, and Samir Loudni. "Softening Gcc and Regular with preferences." In the 2009 ACM symposium. New York, New York, USA: ACM Press, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/1529282.1529593.

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Basak, Uttam Kumar, Alokmay Datta, and Dhananjay Bhattacharya. "Drug induced ‘softening’ in phospholipid monolayers." In NANOFORUM 2014. AIP Publishing LLC, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.4917948.

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Dinovitzer, A., D. Begg, M. Quintana, and R. Lazor. "Heat Affected Zone Softening Susceptibility Test." In 2020 13th International Pipeline Conference. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/ipc2020-9710.

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Abstract There have been a number of unexpected girth weld failures in pipelines, both in-service and during pre-service hydrostatic testing. Investigation of these incidents indicated that the line pipe met industry standard requirements, such as API 5L and the welding procedures had been qualified to API 1104 and construction welding/inspection had been completed according to industry standards. The investigation of these failures indicated that they were not related to hydrogen cracking or misalignment, however, line pipe chemical composition and tensile properties were identified as having contributed to these failures. Low carbon and low carbon equivalent (CE) higher strength line pipe materials produced with thermo-mechanical controlled processing (TMCP) practice is believed to have contributed to the failures. Higher heat input welding in these lean chemistry steels can result in heat affected zone (HAZ) softening that produces a lower strength zone adjacent to the girth weld, making it susceptible to tensile failure from axial loading. In the presence of thermal or geohazard loading, these softened or lower strength HAZ’s become a concern where there has been pipe settlement or in strain-based assessment. To understand the factors that influence the susceptibility to HAZ softening and identify those materials that can be considered at risk, a material testing procedure has been developed. This new testing procedure is a weld bead-in-plate test that was designed to maximize the potential for HAZ softening in an effort to identify those line pipe materials that may be susceptible to HAZ softening in construction or during in-service welding. This paper presents the results of experimental trials comparing the susceptibility of leaner chemistry materials to HAZ softening. The testing procedure is described along with opportunities to enhance the procedure to develop a standardized test for HAZ softening assessment. This test has the potential to be used to identify materials at risk to HAZ softening and may also be used to qualify line pipe to demonstrate its resistance to HAZ softening.
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9

Leung, Anthony, and Simon Guest. "Actuation-softening in kagome lattice structures." In 47th AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC Structures, Structural Dynamics, and Materials Conference
14th AIAA/ASME/AHS Adaptive Structures Conference
7th. Reston, Virigina: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2006. http://dx.doi.org/10.2514/6.2006-1888.

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Akiyama, M., S. Gnapowski, Y. Shigematsu, and H. Akiyama. "Softening of vegetables by pulsed power." In 2013 IEEE Pulsed Power and Plasma Science Conference (PPPS 2013). IEEE, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/ppc.2013.6627556.

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Reports on the topic "Softening"

1

Dinovitzer, Aaron. PR-214-204505-R01 HAZ Softening Susceptibility Test Development. Chantilly, Virginia: Pipeline Research Council International, Inc. (PRCI), March 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.55274/r0012219.

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Based on the investigation of the recent pipe failures, it was clear that HAZ softening was one of the contributing factors. To understand the factors that influence the susceptibility to HAZ softening, a simple weld bead-on-plate testing procedure achieving a full penetration weld was developed in in this project. Test conditions are designed to maximize the effect in an effort to identify line pipe materials that may be more or less resistant to HAZ softening in construction or in-service welding. This work provides industry with a standardized test to rank the relative susceptibility of pipe materials to HAZ softening and may be used as an acceptance test, a means of characterizing line pipe materials or identifying materials requiring greater attention to detail in weld procedure development or application to preclude significant HAZ softening.
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Wang, Yong-Yi. PR-350-214511-R01 Impact of HAZ Softening on the Integrity of Type-B Sleeves and Branch Connections. Chantilly, Virginia: Pipeline Research Council International, Inc. (PRCI), November 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.55274/r0000046.

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The primary objective of this project is to investigate the occurrence of HAZ softening and its implications for the integrity of sleeve and branch assemblies. By conducting comprehensive tests and analyses, this research aims to provide insights into when HAZ softening may occur and how it could affect the assembly's structural integrity.
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3

Tzavaras, Athanasios E. Strain Softening in Viscoelasticity of the Rate Type. Fort Belvoir, VA: Defense Technical Information Center, March 1990. http://dx.doi.org/10.21236/ada219915.

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4

Wan, R. G., and Y. S. Yu. A softening elasto-viscoplastic model for potash mines. Natural Resources Canada/CMSS/Information Management, 1992. http://dx.doi.org/10.4095/328575.

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5

Pike, L. M., C. T. Liu, I. M. Anderson, and Y. A. Chang. Solute hardening and softening effects in B2 nickel aluminides. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), November 1998. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/676873.

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Martin, Christopher. Hydrolytic Softening of Ocean Water for Carbon Dioxide Removal. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), November 2023. https://doi.org/10.2172/2205150.

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7

Mohr. L52241 Strain-Based Design - Strain Concentration at Girth Welds. Chantilly, Virginia: Pipeline Research Council International, Inc. (PRCI), December 2006. http://dx.doi.org/10.55274/r0010386.

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Strain-based design is used for many situations for pipelines where the loadings from forces other than the internal pressure can be the largest generators of stress and strain in the pipe wall. Such loadings can be generated by soil subsidence, frost heave, thermal expansion and contraction, landslides, pipe reeling, pipe laying, and several other types of environmental loading. Designing based on strain for these cases has an advantage over designing based on stress because these loadings tend to apply a given displacement rather than a given force to the pipe. Standards are much better developed for stress-based design than for strain-based design. While several standards are available that have some coverage of strain-based design, there is a tendency to cover only limited types of loading, as in API RP 1111 for offshore pipe laying. This program aimed to improve guidelines for strain-based design of pipelines by studying cases with combinations of internal pressure and axial plastic strain in tension. Softened heat-affected zone (HAZ) regions have been observed to concentrate strain, particularly under internal pressure. HAZ softening has been observed for welds on X-70 and X-80 steels. Cases with little or no softening have also been observed for other welds in these same grades. This project extended these findings to X-100 steels, with cases of obvious softening and little or no softening observed. Higher heat inputs and larger weld volumes per pass associated with submerged arc welding (SAW) as compared to gas metal arc welding (GMAW) have been correlated with greater softening in each of these pipe grades.
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Carpita, Nicholas C., Ruth Ben-Arie, and Amnon Lers. Pectin Cross-Linking Dynamics and Wall Softening during Fruit Ripening. United States Department of Agriculture, July 2002. http://dx.doi.org/10.32747/2002.7585197.bard.

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Our study was designed to elucidate the chemical determinants of pectin cross-linking in developing fruits of apple and peach and to evaluate the role of breakage cross-linkages in swelling, softening, and cell separation during the ripening. Peaches cell walls soften and swell considerably during the ripening, whereas apples fruit cells maintain wall firmness but cells separate during late stages of ripening. We used a "double-reduction" technique to show that levels of non-methyl esters of polyuronic acid molecules were constant during the development and ripening and decreased only in overripe fruit. In peach, methyl and non-methyl esters increased during the development and decreased markedly during the ripening. Non-methyl ester linkages in both fruit decreased accompanied fruit softening. The identity of the second component of the linkage and its definitive role in the fruit softening remain elusive. In preliminary examination of isolated apples cell walls, we found that phenolic compounds accumulate early in wall development but decrease markedly during ripening. Quantitative texture analysis was used to correlate with changes to wall chemistry from the fresh-picked ripe stage to the stage during storage when the cell separation occurs. Cell wall composition is similar in all cultivars, with arabinose as the principal neutral sugar. Extensive de-branching of these highly branched arabinans pre-stages softening and cell-cell separation during over-ripening of apple. The longer 5-arabinans remain attached to the major pectic polymer rhamnogalacturonan I (RG I) backbone. The degree of RG I branching, as judged from the ratios of 2-Rha:2,4-Rha, also decreases, specially after an extensive arabinan de-branching. Loss of the 4-Rham linkages correlated strongly with the softening of the fruit. Loss of the monomer or polymer linked to the RG I produce directly or indirectly the softening of the fruit. This result will help to understand the fruit softening and to have better control of the textural changes in fruit during the ripening and especially during the storage. 'Wooliness', an undesirable mealy texture that is induced during chilling of some peach cultivars, greatly reduces the fruit storage possibilities. In order to examine the hypothesis that the basis for this disorder is related to abnormality in the cell wall softening process we have carried out a comparative analysis using the resistant cultivar, Sunsnow, and a sensitive one, Hermosa. We investigated the activity of several pectin- and glycan-modifying enzymes and the expression of their genes during ripening, chilling, and subsequent shelf-life. The changes in carbohydrate status and in methyl vs. non-methyl uronate ester levels in the walls of these cultivars were examined as well to provide a basis for comparison of the relevant gene expression that may impact appearance of the wooly character. The activities of the specific polygalacturonase (PGase) and a CMC-cellulase activities are significantly elevated in walls of peaches that have become wooly. Cellulase activities correlated well with increased level of the transcript, but differential expression of PGase did not correspond with the observed pattern of mRNA accumulation. When expression of ethylene biosynthesis related genes was followed no significant differences in ACC synthase gene expression was observed in the wooly fruit while the normal activation of the ACC oxidase was partially repressed in the Hermosa wooly fruits. Normal ripening-related loss of the uronic acid-rich polymers was stalled in the wooly Hermosa inconsistent with the observed elevation in a specific PGase activity but consistent with PG gene expression. In general, analysis of the level of total esterification, degree of methyl esterification and level of non-methyl esters did not reveal any major alterations between the different fruit varieties or between normal and abnormal ripening. Some decrease in the level of uronic acids methyl esterification was observed for both Hermosa and Sunsnow undergoing ripening following storage at low temperature but not in fruits ripening after harvest. Our results support a role for imbalanced cell wall degradation as a basis for the chilling disorder. While these results do not support a role for the imbalance between PG and pectin methyl esterase (PME) activities as the basis for the disorder they suggest a possible role for imbalance between cellulose and other cell wall polymer degradation during the softening process.
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Fuller, Timothy, Thomas Dewers, and Matthew Swan. Development and deployment of constitutive softening routines in Eulerian hydrocodes. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), March 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/1095954.

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10

Peters, Robert W. USE OF SONICATION FOR IN-WELL SOFTENING OF SEMIVOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), December 2000. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/828339.

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