Journal articles: 'Smouldering combustion'

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Irfan Pratantyo, Gatot Prayogo, Agus Sunjarianto Pamitran, and Yulianto Sulistyo Nugroho. "Thermal Imaging Study on The Effect of Permeability on Smouldering Behaviour of a Tropical Peat." Journal of Advanced Research in Fluid Mechanics and Thermal Sciences 89, no. 1 (December 5, 2021): 154–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.37934/arfmts.89.1.154159.

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Smouldering is a slow-burning, low-temperature, flameless combustion, and frequently happens in peatland fires. The smouldering spread occurs because of the parameter achievement in oxygen supply, generated heat, and heat released to the environment. The condition of porous and fibrous peat soils makes oxygen supply easily happens. The difficulty of getting to the location of the burning peatland is one of the problems to extinguish the fire. This study aims to observe with thermal imaging study the effect of peat permeability on smouldering behaviour of a tropical peat sample. Mechanical compaction was applied to reduce permeability and pore value in the central of the peat soil. Then, peat soil is ignited to create the smouldering propagation through the compacted peat area. The combustion process that occurs on the surface is observed by a visual camera and an Infrared FLIR Thermal Camera. The initial results showed a reduction in the smouldering spread rate on the compacted soil region as compared to the undisturbed peat smouldering region. Nevertheless, smouldering combustion of peat still occurred in all regions of the reactor, once the smouldering front could penetrate the compacted region.

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Xifré-Salvadó, Miquel Àngel, Núria Prat-Guitart, Marcos Francos, Xavier Úbeda, and Marc Castellnou. "Smouldering Combustion Dynamics of a Soil from a Pinus halepensis Mill. Forest. A Case Study of the Rocallaura Fires in Northeastern Spain." Applied Sciences 10, no. 10 (May 16, 2020): 3449. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app10103449.

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This study analyses the smouldering combustion on soils that took place during the wildfires that occurred in Rocallaura (Northeastern Spain). The smouldering combustion after the first event, 23 June, was the potential source of flaming fire re-ignition of the second event, 19 July 2016. Re-ignitions are an important challenge for the firefighting system. Budget and efforts are spent on controlling these re-ignitions that can ultimately cause the collapse of the response system if the re-ignitions happen during periods of simultaneous fire events. Our objective is to contribute to better understand the dynamics of the smouldering combustion of organic soils associated with these wildfires and the impact on the Pinus halepensis Mill. forest ecosystem. Transects were established in adjacent control and post-fire zones. Laboratory analyses were conducted to determine some physical and chemical properties of both the duff and mineral soil. Using these variables, we estimate thresholds of duff ignition probability, percentage of duff consumption and smouldering combustion spread rates. Overall, we provide a set of tools for evaluating re-ignitions in forest ecosystems. We conclude that the concept of fire persistence should be a new variable for consideration in present and future analysis of fire regimes and demonstrates the significance of introducing smouldering combustion and re-ignition within the strategic framework of the wildfire hazard and integrating these phenomena into forest planning and management.

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Pastor, E., I. Oliveras, E. Urquiaga-Flores, J. A. Quintano-Loayza, M. I. Manta, and E. Planas. "A new method for performing smouldering combustion field experiments in peatlands and rich-organic soils." International Journal of Wildland Fire 26, no. 12 (2017): 1040. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wf17033.

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Smouldering ground fires have severe environmental implications. Their main effects are the release of large amounts of carbon to the atmosphere with loses of organic soil and its biota. Quantitative data on the behaviour of smouldering wildfires are very scarce and are needed to understand its ecological effects, to validate fuel consumption and smouldering propagation models and to develop danger-rating systems. We present, for the first time, a methodology for conducting smouldering experiments in field conditions. This method provides key data to investigate smouldering combustion dynamics, acquire fire behaviour metrics and obtain indicators for ecological effects of smouldering fires. It is to be applied in all types of undisturbed soils. The experimental protocol is based on a non-electric ignition source and the monitoring system relies on combining both point and surface specific temperature measurements. The methodology has been developed and applied by means of large series of replicate experiments in highly organic soils at the forest–grassland treeline of the Peruvian Andes. The soil tested exhibited weak ignition conditions. However, transition to oxidation phase was observed, with smouldering combustion during 9 h at 15-cm depth and residence times at temperatures above dehydration of ~22 h.

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Reardon, James, Roger Hungerford, and Kevin Ryan. "Factors affecting sustained smouldering in organic soils from pocosin and pond pine woodland wetlands." International Journal of Wildland Fire 16, no. 1 (2007): 107. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wf06005.

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The smouldering combustion of peat and muck soil plays an important role in the creation and maintenance of wetland communities. This experimental study was conducted to improve our understanding of how moisture and mineral content constrain smouldering in organic soil. Laboratory burning was conducted with root mat and muck soil samples from pocosin and pond pine woodland wetlands common on the North Carolina coastal plain. The results of laboratory and prescribed burning were compared. Laboratory results showed that moisture and mineral content influenced sustained smouldering in root mat soils. Predictions based on logistic regression analysis show that root mat soils with an average mineral content of 4.5% had an estimated 50% probability of sustained smouldering at a moisture content of 93%, whereas at moisture contents above 145% the estimated probability was less than 10%. The odds that root mat soil will sustain smouldering decrease by 19.3% for each 5% increase in moisture content. Root mat soils with an average mineral content of 5.5% and a moisture content of 93% had an estimated 61% probability of sustained smouldering. The odds that root mat soil will sustain smouldering combustion increased by 155.9% with each 1% increase in mineral content. Root mat and muck soils differ in physical and chemical characteristics expected to influence smouldering behaviour. The formation of muck soil has led to increases in density, smaller soil particle size, changes in water holding characteristics and increases in waxes, resins and bituminous compounds. Muck soil smouldered at higher moisture contents than root mat soil. Muck soil at a moisture content of 201% had an estimated 50% probability of sustained smouldering, whereas at moisture contents above 260% the estimated probability was less than 10%. The odds that muck soil will sustain smouldering combustion decrease by 17.2% with each 5% increase in moisture content. Ground fire in the prescribed burns stopped its vertical spread in organic soils at moisture contents consistent with logistic regression predictions developed from our laboratory results.

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Ordou, Niloofar, and Igor E. Agranovski. "Contribution of Fine Particles to Air Emission at Different Phases of Biomass Burning." Atmosphere 10, no. 5 (May 16, 2019): 278. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/atmos10050278.

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Particle size distribution in biomass smoke was observed for different burning phases, including flaming and smouldering, during the combustion of nine common Australian vegetation representatives. Smoke particles generated during the smouldering phase of combustions were found to be coarser as compared to flaming aerosols for all hard species. In contrast, for leafy species, this trend was inversed. In addition, the combustion process was investigated over the entire duration of burning by acquiring data with one second time resolution for all nine species. Particles were separately characterised in two categories: fine particles with dominating diffusion properties measurable with diffusion-based instruments (Dp < 200 nm), and coarse particles with dominating inertia (Dp > 200 nm). It was found that fine particles contribute to more than 90 percent of the total fresh smoke particles for all investigated species.

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Seng, T. H., S. Suratman, M. R. Abas, and N. M. Tahir. "Emission of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Smoke Particulates at Three Different Combustion Stages from Burning of Rhizophora apiculate, Melaleuca leucadendron and Hevea brasiliensis Wood." Asian Journal of Chemistry 33, no. 4 (March 20, 2021): 892–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.14233/ajchem.2021.23125.

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The purpose of this study was to characterize and determine the concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) emitted in smoke particulates from burning of Rhizophora apiculata, Melaleuca leucadendron and Hevea Brasilensis at the smouldering, flaming and charring stages. Smoke particulates were sampled using a total suspended particulate Hi-volume sampler (HVS) at a rate of 1.13 m3/min and PAHs were extracted with a mixture of dichloromethane-methanol (3:1 v/v) using ultrasonic agitation. Fractionation of PAHs was carried out on an alumina-silica column and analysis by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The results showed that most of the samples exhibited the highest total identified PAHs in the smouldering stage with formation of PAHs with three rings or more increasing from the smouldering to flaming stages and reducing as combustion entered the charring stage. Naphthalene, phenanthrene and pyrene were the dominant PAHs detected in the wood smoke particulates, depending on combustion stage. Overall the emission and formation of PAHs are strongly dependent on combustion stage as well as other factors such as wood morphology, species, moisture content and combustion temperature.

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Garg, Priya, Thomas Roche, Matthew Eden, Jacqueline Matz, Jessica M. Oakes, Chiara Bellini, and Michael J. Gollner. "Effect of moisture content and fuel type on emissions from vegetation using a steady state combustion apparatus." International Journal of Wildland Fire 31, no. 1 (October 5, 2021): 14–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wf20118.

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Emission measurements are available in the literature for a wide variety of field burns and laboratory experiments, although previous studies do not always isolate the effect of individual features such as fuel moisture content (FMC). This study explores the effect of FMC on gaseous and particulate emissions from flaming and smouldering combustion of four different wildland fuels found across the United States. A custom linear tube-heater apparatus was built to steadily produce emissions in different combustion modes over a wide range of FMC. Results showed that when compared with flaming combustion, smouldering combustion showed increased emissions of CO, particulate matter and unburned hydrocarbons, corroborating trends in the literature. CO and particulate matter emissions in the flaming mode were also significantly correlated with FMC, which had little influence on emissions for smouldering mode combustion, when taking into account the dry mass of fuel burned. These variations occurred for some vegetative fuel species but not others, indicating that the type of fuel plays an important role. This may be due to the chemical makeup of moist and recently live fuels, which is discussed and compared with previous measurements in the literature.

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Sofan, P., G. A. Chulafak, A. I. Pambudi, and F. Yulianto. "Assessment of space-based tropical smouldering peatlands: mixed pixel analysis." IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1109, no. 1 (November 1, 2022): 012054. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1109/1/012054.

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Abstract Detection of tropical smouldering peatlands from space remains a challenge in a mixed pixel issue. This study aims to discriminate the mixed pixel containing smouldering fire resulting from Tropical Peatland Combustion Algorithm (ToPeCAl) applied to Landsat-8. The assessment of the smouldering pixel was conducted by applying a modification of the contextual test to select the smouldering pixel and then proceed it to linear spectral mixture analysis. The smouldering and burnt areas used for endmembers were determined from field observation. Our study areas span from South to West Kalimantan’s peatlands covering six path-rows of Landsat-8 in the fire seasons of 2018-2019. There were 53,224 candidate smouldering pixels from ToPeCAl which 80% of them passed the contextual test. Based on mixed pixel analysis, most of the selected smouldering pixels consisted of more than 0.79 of smouldering fraction. This was confirmed by the smoke features on the ground from the high spatial PlanetScope images acquired on the same day with Landsat-8. The actual false alarms pixel may consist of 0.74 of smouldering fraction and more than 0.20 of the burnt area or vegetated area fraction with no smoke features on the ground. Further research on smoke mapping or aerosol properties over burning peatland could enhance the performance of smouldering pixel detection.

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HERBERT, D. M., C. E. KERR, and J. ADLER. "DIFFUSION-CONTROLLED SMOULDERING COMBUSTION WITH MATERIAL SHRINKAGE." Quarterly Journal of Mechanics and Applied Mathematics 47, no. 1 (1994): 43–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/qjmam/47.1.43.

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Alexopoulos, S., and D. D. Drysdale. "The transition from smouldering to flaming combustion." Fire and Materials 13, no. 1 (March 1988): 37–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810130106.

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Huang, Xinyan, and Guillermo Rein. "Computational study of critical moisture and depth of burn in peat fires." International Journal of Wildland Fire 24, no. 6 (2015): 798. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wf14178.

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Smouldering combustion is the slow, low-temperature, flameless burning of porous fuels and the most important phenomenon of wildfires in peatlands. Smouldering fires propagate both horizontally and vertically through organic layers of the ground and can reach deep into the soil. In this work, we develop a one-dimensional computational model of reactive porous media in the open-source code Gpyro. We investigate the vertical in-depth spread of smouldering fires into peat columns 20 cm deep with heterogeneous profiles of moisture content (MC), inert content (IC) and density. The model solves the species, momentum and energy conservation equations with five-step heterogeneous chemistry, to predict the transient profiles of temperature, species concentration, reaction rates and depth of burn from ignition to spread and to extinction. Modelling results reveal that smouldering combustion can spread over peat layers with very high MC (>250%) if the layer is thin and located below a thick, drier layer. It is shown that the critical moisture for extinction can be much higher than the previously reported critical MC for ignition (e.g. extinction MC up to 256% for low-IC peat, with critical ignition MC of 117%). The predicted critical MC values and depths of burn are compared with experimental measurements for field samples in the literature, showing good agreement. This study provides the physical understanding of the role of moisture in the ignition and extinction of smouldering peat fires, and explains for the first time the phenomenon of smouldering in very wet peat layers.

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Gianfelice, G., and P. Canu. "On the mechanism of single pellet smouldering combustion." Fuel 301 (October 2021): 121044. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2021.121044.

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Torero, José L., Jason I. Gerhard, Marcio F. Martins, Marco A. B. Zanoni, Tarek L. Rashwan, and Joshua K. Brown. "Processes defining smouldering combustion: Integrated review and synthesis." Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 81 (November 2020): 100869. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pecs.2020.100869.

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Dianti, Afiri, Nadhira Gilang Ratnasari, Pither Palamba, and Yulianto Nugroho. "Effect of Rewetting on Smouldering Combustion of a Tropical Peat." E3S Web of Conferences 67 (2018): 02042. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/20186702042.

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Probability of land and forest fire in Indonesia is quite high. Peat land is one of the highest contribute of the fire disaster. Indonesia is the country with the highest peat land in Southeast Asia, with more than 50 % of tropical peat species. Combustion of peat produced carbon emission with large quantities and affect to global warming. Characteristic of smoldering combustion of peat cause detection and extinction be difficult. Moreover, there are another impact such as high erosion potential, structural collapse and soil layer damage. Flameless on peat smoldering causes peat restoration institution build fire prevention method. Regulation of water table on peat land with rewetting method aims to maintain and restore the moisture of peat. The experiment aims to understand characteristic of smoldering combustion of rewetting peat. Sample used in the experiments was taken from Bagaiserwar village, Sarmi, Papua (01°55’14, 11”, E: 138°6’17, 35”). A set of thermocouples were used to explore horizontal spread rate at 80 mm intervals. Mass loss rate indicates derivation caused by evaporation on wet peat. Author discovered a fire risk is higher than natural combustion in experiments with rewetting peat. Spread rate of smoldering is high on rewetting peat with initial MC before rewetting is ≤ 10 %. Hydrophobic of peat cause retention of water on peat changes. This phenomenon causes evaporation process being faster and total combustion time occur rapidly, start from preheating until self extinction.

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Haslett, Sophie L., J. Chris Thomas, William T. Morgan, Rory Hadden, Dantong Liu, James D. Allan, Paul I. Williams, Sekou Keita, Cathy Liousse, and Hugh Coe. "Highly controlled, reproducible measurements of aerosol emissions from combustion of a common African biofuel source." Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 18, no. 1 (January 12, 2018): 385–403. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-18-385-2018.

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Abstract. Particulate emissions from biomass burning can both alter the atmosphere's radiative balance and cause significant harm to human health. However, due to the large effect on emissions caused by even small alterations to the way in which a fuel burns, it is difficult to study particulate production of biomass combustion mechanistically and in a repeatable manner. In order to address this gap, in this study, small wood samples sourced from Côte D'Ivoire in West Africa were burned in a highly controlled laboratory environment. The shape and mass of samples, available airflow and surrounding thermal environment were carefully regulated. Organic aerosol and refractory black carbon emissions were measured in real time using an Aerosol Mass Spectrometer and a Single Particle Soot Photometer, respectively. This methodology produced remarkably repeatable results, allowing aerosol emissions to be mapped directly onto different phases of combustion. Emissions from pyrolysis were visible as a distinct phase before flaming was established. After flaming combustion was initiated, a black-carbon-dominant flame was observed during which very little organic aerosol was produced, followed by a period that was dominated by organic-carbon-producing smouldering combustion, despite the presence of residual flaming. During pyrolysis and smouldering, the two phases producing organic aerosol, distinct mass spectral signatures that correspond to previously reported variations in biofuel emissions measured in the atmosphere are found. Organic aerosol emission factors averaged over an entire combustion event were found to be representative of the time spent in the pyrolysis and smouldering phases, rather than reflecting a coupling between emissions and the mass loss of the sample. Further exploration of aerosol yields from similarly carefully controlled fires and a careful comparison with data from macroscopic fires and real-world emissions will help to deliver greater constraints on the variability of particulate emissions in atmospheric systems.

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Prat-Guitart, Nuria, Guillermo Rein, Rory M. Hadden, Claire M. Belcher, and Jon M. Yearsley. "Propagation probability and spread rates of self-sustained smouldering fires under controlled moisture content and bulk density conditions." International Journal of Wildland Fire 25, no. 4 (2016): 456. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wf15103.

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The consumption of large areas of peat during wildfires is due to self-sustained smouldering fronts that can remain active for weeks. We studied the effect of peat moisture content and bulk density on the horizontal propagation of smouldering fire in laboratory-scale experiments. We used milled peat with moisture contents between 25 and 250% (mass of water per mass of dry peat) and bulk densities between 50 and 150 kg m–3. An infrared camera monitored ignition, spread and extinction of each smouldering combustion front. Peats with a bulk density below 75 kg m–3 and a moisture content below 150% self-sustained smouldering propagation for more than 12 cm. Peat with a bulk density of 150 kg m–3 could self-sustain smouldering propagation up to a critical moisture content of 115%. A linear model estimated that increasing both moisture content and bulk density significantly reduced the median fire spread rate (which ranged between 1 and 5 cm h–1). Moisture content had a stronger effect size on the spread rate than bulk density. However, the effect of bulk density on spread rate depends upon the moisture content, with the largest effect of bulk density at low moisture contents.

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Ijioma, Ekeoma Rowland, Adrian Muntean, and Toshiyuki Ogawa. "Pattern formation in reverse smouldering combustion: a homogenisation approach." Combustion Theory and Modelling 17, no. 2 (April 2013): 185–223. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13647830.2012.734860.

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Cancellieri, Dominique, Valérie Leroy-Cancellieri, Eric Leoni, Albert Simeoni, Аlexander Ya Kuzin, Аlexander I. Filkov, and Guillermo Rein. "Kinetic investigation on the smouldering combustion of boreal peat." Fuel 93 (March 2012): 479–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2011.09.052.

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Yermán, L., D. Cormier, I. Fabris, J. Carrascal, J. L. Torero, J. I. Gerhard, and Y. L. Cheng. "Potential Bio-oil Production from Smouldering Combustion of Faeces." Waste and Biomass Valorization 8, no. 2 (June 8, 2016): 329–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12649-016-9586-1.

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Strand, Tara, Brian Gullett, Shawn Urbanski, Susan O'Neill, Brian Potter, Johanna Aurell, Amara Holder, Narasimhan Larkin, Mark Moore, and Miriam Rorig. "Grassland and forest understorey biomass emissions from prescribed fires in the south-eastern United States – RxCADRE 2012." International Journal of Wildland Fire 25, no. 1 (2016): 102. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wf14166.

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Smoke measurements were made during grass and forest understorey prescribed fires as part of a comprehensive programme to understand fire and smoke behaviour. Instruments deployed on the ground, airplane and tethered aerostat platforms characterised the smoke plumes through measurements of carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), methane (CH4) and particulate matter (PM), and measurements of optical properties. Distinctions were observed in aerial and ground-based measurements, with aerial measurements exhibiting smaller particle size distributions and PM emission factors, likely due to particle settling. Black carbon emission factors were similar for both burns and were highest during the initial flaming phase. On average, the particles from the forest fire were less light absorbing than those from the grass fires due to the longer duration of smouldering combustion in the forest biomass. CO and CH4 emission factors were over twice as high for the forest burn than for the grass burn, corresponding with a lower modified combustion efficiency and greater smouldering combustion. This dataset reveals the evolution of smoke emissions from two different commonly burned fuel types and demonstrates the complexity of emission factors.

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Garlough, Emily C., and Christopher R. Keyes. "Influences of moisture content, mineral content and bulk density on smouldering combustion of ponderosa pine duff mounds." International Journal of Wildland Fire 20, no. 4 (2011): 589. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wf10048.

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When applying prescribed fire to long-unburned but fire-adapted ecosystems, fuels managers require better decision-support models to determine appropriate conditions for achieving desired effects. Prolonged combustion in duff accumulations at the base of large conifers may lead to fine root mortality, cambial injury, enhanced susceptibility to bark beetle attack, and possibly tree death. A laboratory experiment was conducted to investigate how moisture content, mineral content, and bulk density affect smouldering combustion in ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa C. Lawson) duff mound fuels of the south-eastern Klamath Mountains, California, USA. Samples were divided between upper and lower duff for a total of 100 burn tests. Moisture content was adjusted to observe the transition through the ignition and spread limit. Bulk density, mineral content and percentage consumption were recorded for each burn. The moisture content threshold for smouldering combustion was 57 and 102% respectively for upper and lower duff. Percentage consumption was inversely related to moisture content for both layers of duff, and partially dependent on mineral content for lower duff. Bulk density was a non-significant factor in either ignition or percentage combustion for the conditions examined here. Results from this study identify important attributes of duff that control the burning process in order to inform prescribed burning decisions.

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Karpovič, Zbignev, Ritoldas Šukys, and Rimvydas Gudelis. "TOXICITY RESEARCH OF SMOULDERING AND FLAMING PINE TIMBER TREATED WITH FIRE RETARDANT SOLUTIONS." Journal of Civil Engineering and Management 18, no. 4 (September 11, 2012): 600–608. http://dx.doi.org/10.3846/13923730.2012.709195.

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The emission of toxic gaseous combustion products from timber constructions influences on the time required for evacuation of people from a building during a fire. In order to prolong the time interval until inflammation of timber constructions, fire retardant solutions are used. It is relevant and very important to determine how the emission of toxic gaseous combustion products from pine timber non-treated and treated with fire retardant solutions used in Lithuania differs during thermal destruction. Measuring carbon monoxide (CO) emissions, the paper focuses on toxicity analysis determined by nonstandard and standard research methods of smouldering and flaming pine timber, both non-treated and treated with fire retardant solutions. The description comprises specimens used in research and their preparation, nonstandard and standard research equipment and methods determining toxicity of smouldering and flaming pine timber, both non-treated and treated with fire retardant solutions. The article presents the analysis of experimental results processed by statistical methods.

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Deane, P. J., S. L. Wilkinson, G. J. Verkaik, P. A. Moore, D. Schroeder, and J. M. Waddington. "Peat surface compression reduces smouldering fire potential as a novel fuel treatment for boreal peatlands." Canadian Journal of Forest Research 52, no. 3 (March 2022): 396–405. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/cjfr-2021-0183.

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The wildfire regime in Canada’s boreal region is changing; extended fire seasons are characterized by more frequent large fires (≥200 ha) burning greater areas of land, whilst climate-mediated drying is increasing the vulnerability of peatlands to deep burning. Proactive management strategies, such as fuel modification treatments, are necessary to reduce fire danger at the wildland–human interface (WHI). Novel approaches to fuel management are especially needed in peatlands where deep smouldering combustion is a challenge to suppression efforts and releases harmful emissions. Here, we integrate surface compression within conventional stand treatments to examine the potential for reducing smouldering of near-surface moss and peat. A linear model (adj. R2 = 0.62, p = 2.2e−16) revealed that ground cover (F[2,101] = 60.97, p < 0.001) and compression (F[1,101] = 56.46, p < 0.001) had the greatest effects on smouldering potential, while stand treatment did not have a significant effect (F[3,101] = 0.44, p = 0.727). On average, compressed Sphagnum and feather moss plots showed 57.1% and 58.7% lower smouldering potential, respectively, when compared to uncompressed analogs. While practical evaluation is warranted to better understand the evolving effectiveness of this strategy, these findings demonstrate that a compression treatment can be successfully incorporated within both managed and unmanaged peatlands to reduce fire danger at the WHI.

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Deane, Patrick Jeffrey, Sophie Louise Wilkinson, Paul Adrian Moore, and James Michael Waddington. "Seismic Lines in Treed Boreal Peatlands as Analogs for Wildfire Fuel Modification Treatments." Fire 3, no. 2 (June 6, 2020): 21. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/fire3020021.

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Across the Boreal, there is an expansive wildland–society interface (WSI), where communities, infrastructure, and industry border natural ecosystems, exposing them to the impacts of natural disturbances, such as wildfire. Treed peatlands have previously received little attention with regard to wildfire management; however, their role in fire spread, and the contribution of peat smouldering to dangerous air pollution, have recently been highlighted. To help develop effective wildfire management techniques in treed peatlands, we use seismic line disturbance as an analog for peatland fuel modification treatments. To delineate below-ground hydrocarbon resources using seismic waves, seismic lines are created by removing above-ground (canopy) fuels using heavy machinery, forming linear disturbances through some treed peatlands. We found significant differences in moisture content and peat bulk density with depth between seismic line and undisturbed plots, where smouldering combustion potential was lower in seismic lines. Sphagnum mosses dominated seismic lines and canopy fuel load was reduced for up to 55 years compared to undisturbed peatlands. Sphagnum mosses had significantly lower smouldering potential than feather mosses (that dominate mature, undisturbed peatlands) in a laboratory drying experiment, suggesting that fuel modification treatments following a strategy based on seismic line analogs would be effective at reducing smouldering potential at the WSI, especially under increasing fire weather.

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Ray, S. K., D. C. Panigrahi, and G. Udayabhanu. "Effect of Moisture on Smouldering Combustion Characteristics of Indian Coals." Journal of Sustainable Energy Engineering 1, no. -1 (January 1, 2013): 1–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.7569/jsee.2012.629512.

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Ray, S. K., D. C. Panigrahi, and G. Udayabhanu. "Effect of Moisture on Smouldering Combustion Characteristics of Indian Coals." Journal of Sustainable Energy Engineering 1, no. 2 (April 1, 2013): 169–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.7569/jsee.2013.629512.

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Jones, J. C., T. P. T. Goh, and M. J. Dijanosic. "Smouldering and Flaming Combustion in Packed Beds of Casuarina Needles." Journal of Fire Sciences 12, no. 5 (September 1994): 442–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/073490419401200503.

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Zanoni, Marco A. B., José L. Torero, and Jason I. Gerhard. "Delineating and explaining the limits of self-sustained smouldering combustion." Combustion and Flame 201 (March 2019): 78–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.combustflame.2018.12.004.

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Hu, Yuqi, Eirik Christensen, Francesco Restuccia, and Guillermo Rein. "Transient gas and particle emissions from smouldering combustion of peat." Proceedings of the Combustion Institute 37, no. 3 (2019): 4035–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.proci.2018.06.008.

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Sofan, Parwati, David Bruce, Eriita Jones, and Jackie Marsden. "Detection and Validation of Tropical Peatland Flaming and Smouldering Using Landsat-8 SWIR and TIRS Bands." Remote Sensing 11, no. 4 (February 24, 2019): 465. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs11040465.

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A Tropical Peatland Combustion Algorithm (ToPeCAl) was first established from Landsat-8 images acquired in 2015, which were used to detect peatland combustion in flaming and smouldering stages. Detection of smouldering combustion from space remains a challenge due to its low temperature and generally small spatial extent. The ToPeCAl consists of the Shortwave Infrared Combustion Index based on reflectance (SICIρ), and Top of Atmosphere (TOA) reflectance in Shortwave Infrared band-7 (SWIR-2), TOA brightness temperature of Thermal Infrared band-10 (TIR-1), and TOA reflectance of band-1, the Landsat-8 aerosol band. The implementation of ToPeCAl was then validated using terrestrial and aerial images (helicopter and drone) collected during fieldwork in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia in the 2018 fire season, on the same day as Landsat-8 overpasses. The overall accuracy of ToPeCAl was found to be 82% with omission errors in a small area (less than 30 m × 30 m) from mixtures of smouldering and vegetation pixels, and commission errors (with minimum area of 30 m x 30 m) on high reflective building rooftops in urban areas. These errors were further reduced by masking and removing urban areas prior to analysis using landuse Geographic Information System (GIS) data; improving the overall mapping accuracy to 93%. For comparison, the day and night-time VIIRS (375 m) active fire product (VNP14IMG) was utilised, obtaining a lower probability of fire detection of 71% compared to ground truth, and 57–72% agreement in a buffer distance of 375 m to 1500 m when compared to the Landsat-8 ToPeCAl results. The night-time data of VNP14IMG was found to have a better correspondence with ToPeCAl results from Landsat 8 than day-time data. This finding could lead to a potential merger of ToPeCAl with VNP14IMG to fill the temporal gaps of peatland fire information when using Landsat. However, the VNP14IMG product exhibited overestimation compared with the results of ToPeCAl applied to Landsat-8.

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Johnston, D. C., M. R. Turetsky, B. W. Benscoter, and B. M. Wotton. "Fuel load, structure, and potential fire behaviour in black spruce bogs." Canadian Journal of Forest Research 45, no. 7 (July 2015): 888–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/cjfr-2014-0334.

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Boreal peatlands in Canada comprise a substantial store of soil organic carbon (peat), and this peat is vulnerable to extensive burning during periods of extended drying. Increased frequency of extreme weather events in boreal regions is expected with future climate change, and the conditions that would support sustained smouldering peat combustion within peatlands may be more common. Organic soils tend to burn by smouldering combustion, a very slow-moving process in fuels such as those found in peatlands. Thus the most extreme conditions for carbon loss to the atmosphere due to the burning of peat likely occur when widespread propagation of flaming combustion leads to widespread initiation of smouldering. To investigate the potential for large-scale, high-intensity fire spread across forested bogs, we examined the fuel conditions in forested bogs necessary to support active crown fire. We measured surface and canopy fine fuels (those available to contribute to the propagating energy flux of the main flaming front) across a postfire chronosequence of forested boreal bog from central Alberta, Canada. We found that fuel load of fine surface material remained relatively constant across the chronosequence and at levels large enough to support crown fire initiation. Black spruce (Picea mariana (Mill.) B.S.P.) regeneration begins to fill in the crown space with increasing time since disturbance and achieves crown bulk densities similar to black spruce upland forests. We estimated that after about 80 years, the black spruce canopy has developed enough available fuel to support active crown fire on between 10% to 40% of days in a typical fire season in central Alberta, Canada. Broad-scale propagation of high-intensity fire across a peatland when coincident with drought-induced lower moisture in deep peatland layers has the potential to lead to a substantial release of stored terrestrial carbon.

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Hu, Yuqi, Nieves Fernandez-Anez, Thomas E. L. Smith, and Guillermo Rein. "Review of emissions from smouldering peat fires and their contribution to regional haze episodes." International Journal of Wildland Fire 27, no. 5 (2018): 293. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wf17084.

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Smouldering peat fires, the largest fires on Earth in terms of fuel consumption, are reported in six continents and are responsible for regional haze episodes. Haze is the large-scale accumulation of smoke at low altitudes in the atmosphere. It decreases air quality, disrupts transportation and causes health emergencies. Research on peat emissions and haze is modest at best and many key aspects remain poorly understood. Here, we compile an up-to-date inter-study of peat fire emission factors (EFs) found in the literature both from laboratory and from field studies. Tropical peat fires yield larger EFs for the prominent organic compounds than boreal and temperate peat fires, possibly due to the higher fuel carbon content (56.0 vs 44.2%). In contrast, tropical peat fires present slightly lower EFs for particulate matter with diameter ≤2.5 μm (PM2.5) for unknown reasons but are probably related to combustion dynamics. An analysis of the modified combustion efficiency, a parameter widely used for determining the combustion regime of wildfires, shows it is partially misunderstood and highly sensitive to unknown field variables. This is the first review of the literature on smouldering peat emissions. Our integration of the existing literature allows the identification of existing gaps in knowledge and is expected to accelerate progress towards mitigation strategies.

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Wu, C. L., Christopher Y. H. Chao, G. N. Sze-To, M. P. Wan, and T. C. Chan. "Ultrafine Particle Emissions from Cigarette Smouldering, Incense Burning, Vacuum Cleaner Motor Operation and Cooking." Indoor and Built Environment 21, no. 6 (September 23, 2011): 782–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1420326x11421356.

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Combustion activities such as cigarette smouldering, incense burning and cooking are important sources of particulate matters (PM) in indoor environments. Vacuum cleaning contributes to the non-combustion-related sources of PMs. In this study, we investigated the rates at which ultrafine particles (UFPs) are emitted from cigarettes, incenses and vacuum cleaners in a small test chamber. UFP emission from cooking was obtained by conducting experiments in a residential kitchen. Particle number concentrations and size distributions from these sources were measured using a scanning mobility particle sizer (SMPS) and the UFP emission rates were then determined using a material balance approach. The mean UFP emission rates of cigarette smouldering and incense burning were found to be 3.36 ± 0.34 and 0.44 ± 0.33 × 1011 particles min−1 in terms of the number emission rate, or 22.78 ± 1.21 and 3.48 ± 2.98 × 1015 nm2 min−1 in terms of the surface area emission rate, respectively. Vacuum cleaner motor operation and cooking showed high variations in UFP emission, in the ranges 0.013–0.066 and 4.70–148.29 × 1011 particles min−1, respectively. A database of emission rates for UFP sources can be compiled, which will be useful in estimating the UFP concentration and subsequent human exposure.

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Ijioma, Ekeoma Rowland, Hirofumi Izuhara, Masayasu Mimura, and Toshiyuki Ogawa. "Computational Study of Nonadiabatic Wave Patterns in Smouldering Combustion under Microgravity." East Asian Journal on Applied Mathematics 5, no. 2 (May 2015): 138–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.4208/eajam.010914.250315a.

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AbstractWe numerically study a thermal-diffusive model for smouldering combustion under microgravity with convective heat losses. In accordance with previous experimental observations, it is well known that porous materials burning against a gaseous oxidiser under microgravity exhibit various finger-like char patterns due to the destabilising effect of oxidiser transport. There is a close resemblance between the pattern-forming dynamics observed in the experiments with the mechanism of thermal-diffusive instability, similar to that occurring in low Lewis number premixtures. At large values of the Lewis number, the finger-like pattern coalesces and propagates as a stable front reminiscent of the pattern behaviour at large Péclet numbers in diffusion-limited systems. The significance of the order of the chemical kinetics for the coexistence of both upstream and downstream smoulder waves is also considered.

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35

Evtyugina, Margarita, Ana Isabel Calvo, Teresa Nunes, Célia Alves, Ana Patrícia Fernandes, Luís Tarelho, Ana Vicente, and Casimiro Pio. "VOC emissions of smouldering combustion from Mediterranean wildfires in central Portugal." Atmospheric Environment 64 (January 2013): 339–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2012.10.001.

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36

Surawski, N. C., A. L. Sullivan, C. P. Meyer, S. H. Roxburgh, and P. J. Polglase. "Greenhouse gas emissions from laboratory-scale fires in wildland fuels depend on fire spread mode and phase of combustion." Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 15, no. 9 (May 13, 2015): 5259–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-15-5259-2015.

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Abstract. Free-burning experimental fires were conducted in a wind tunnel to explore the role of ignition type and thus fire spread mode on the resulting emissions profile from combustion of fine (< 6 mm in diameter) Eucalyptus litter fuels. Fires were burnt spreading with the wind (heading fire), perpendicular to the wind (flanking fire) and against the wind (backing fire). Greenhouse gas compounds (i.e. CO2, CH4 and N2O) and CO were quantified using off-axis integrated-cavity-output spectroscopy. Emissions factors calculated using a carbon mass balance technique (along with statistical testing) showed that most of the carbon was emitted as CO2, with heading fires emitting 17% more CO2 than flanking and 9.5% more CO2 than backing fires, and about twice as much CO as flanking and backing fires. Heading fires had less than half as much carbon remaining in combustion residues. Statistically significant differences in CH4 and N2O emissions factors were not found with respect to fire spread mode. Emissions factors calculated per unit of dry fuel consumed showed that combustion phase (i.e. flaming or smouldering) had a statistically significant impact, with CO and N2O emissions increasing during smouldering combustion and CO2 emissions decreasing. Findings on the equivalence of different emissions factor reporting methods are discussed along with the impact of our results for emissions accounting and potential sampling biases associated with our work. The primary implication of this study is that prescribed fire practices could be modified to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions from forests by judicial use of ignition methods to induce flanking and backing fires over heading fires.

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Zaichenko, A. Yu, D. N. Podlesniy, M. V. Salganskaya, M. V. Tsvetkov, E. A. Salgansky, and A. I. Malinouski. "Smouldering combustion of peat with various permeability at natural convection of oxidizer." Journal of Physics: Conference Series 1276 (August 2019): 012085. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1276/1/012085.

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38

Rashwan, Tarek L., Jason I. Gerhard, and Gavin P. Grant. "Application of self-sustaining smouldering combustion for the destruction of wastewater biosolids." Waste Management 50 (April 2016): 201–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2016.01.037.

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39

Steen-Hansen, Anne, Ragni Fjellgaard Mikalsen, and Ulla Eidissen Jensen. "Smouldering Combustion in Loose-Fill Wood Fibre Thermal Insulation: An Experimental Study." Fire Technology 54, no. 6 (July 16, 2018): 1585–608. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10694-018-0757-4.

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40

Yermán, L., Rory M. Hadden, J. Carrascal, Ivo Fabris, Daniel Cormier, José L. Torero, Jason I. Gerhard, Michal Krajcovic, Paolo Pironi, and Yu-Ling Cheng. "Smouldering combustion as a treatment technology for faeces: Exploring the parameter space." Fuel 147 (May 2015): 108–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2015.01.055.

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41

Surawski, N. C., A. L. Sullivan, C. P. Meyer, S. H. Roxburgh, and P. J. Polglase. "Greenhouse gas emissions from laboratory-scale fires in wildland fuels depend on fire spread mode and phase of combustion." Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics Discussions 14, no. 16 (September 8, 2014): 23125–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acpd-14-23125-2014.

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Abstract. Experimental fires were conducted in a combustion wind tunnel facility to explore the role of fire spread mode on the resulting emissions profile from combustion of fine (< 6 mm) Eucalyptus litter fuels. Fires were burnt spreading with the wind (heading fire), perpendicular to the wind (flanking fire) and against the wind (backing fire). Greenhouse gas compounds (i.e. CO2, CH4 and N2O) and CO were quantified using off-axis integrated-cavity-output spectroscopy (off-axis ICOS). A dilution system was employed with the off-axis ICOS technique to prevent spectral broadening of the CO emissions peak and to enable simultaneous quantification of N2O and CO. The forward rate of spread was 20 times faster and the Byram fireline intensity was 20 times higher for heading fires compared to flanking and backing fires. Emissions factors calculated using a carbon mass balance technique (along with statistical testing) showed that most of the carbon was emitted as CO2, with heading fires emitting 17% more CO2 than flanking and 9.5% more CO2 than backing fires, and about twice as much CO. Heading fires had less than half as much carbon remaining in combustion residues. Statistically significant differences in CH4 and N2O emissions factors were not found with respect to fire spread mode. Emissions factors calculated per unit of dry fuel consumed showed that combustion phase (i.e. flaming or smouldering) had a statistically significant impact, with CO and N2O emissions increasing during smouldering combustion and CO2 emissions factors decreasing. Findings on the equivalence of different emissions factor reporting methods are discussed along with the impact of our results for emissions accounting. The primary implication of this study is that prescribed fire practices might be modified to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions from forested landscapes by the preferential application of flanking and backing fires over heading fires. Future research could involve wind tunnel testing with more realistic fuel architectures and could also quantify particulate emissions with different fire spread modes.

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42

Liu, C., and D. Woodcock. "Observing the Peripheral Burning of Cigarettes by an Infrared Technique." Beiträge zur Tabakforschung International/Contributions to Tobacco Research 20, no. 4 (December 1, 2002): 257–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/cttr-2013-0739.

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AbstractA modern infrared camera was used to observe the peripheral burning of cigarettes during puffing and smouldering. The computer-controlled infrared system captured thermal images with recording rates up to 50 Hz at 8-bit (256-colour) resolution. The response time was less than 0.04 s at ca. 780 °C. The overall performance of the system was superior to most infrared systems used in previously reported investigations. The combined capacity allowed us to capture some faster, smaller high-temperature burning events on the periphery of a cigarette during puffing, which was first described by Egertion et al. in 1963 using an X-ray method. These transient burning events were caused by tobacco shreds near the coal surface experiencing the maximum air influx. The temperature of these transient burning events could be ca. 200 to 250 °C higher than the average peripheral temperature of the cigarette. The likelihood of these high-temperature burning events occurring during smouldering was significantly less. Some other details of the cigarette's combustion were also observed with improved simplicity and clarity.

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Wang, Zhenzhen, Naian Liu, Han Yuan, Haixiang Chen, Xiaodong Xie, Linhe Zhang, and Guillermo Rein. "Smouldering and its transition to flaming combustion of polyurethane foam: An experimental study." Fuel 309 (February 2022): 122249. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2021.122249.

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Feng, Chao, Jingchun Huang, Chenghao Yang, Chen Li, Xinyi Luo, Xiangpeng Gao, and Yu Qiao. "Smouldering combustion of sewage sludge: Volumetric scale-up, product characterization, and economic analysis." Fuel 305 (December 2021): 121485. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2021.121485.

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Zanoni, Marco A. B., José L. Torero, and Jason I. Gerhard. "Experimental and numerical investigation of weak, self-sustained conditions in engineered smouldering combustion." Combustion and Flame 222 (December 2020): 27–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.combustflame.2020.08.020.

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Leppänen, Perttu, and Mikko Malaska. "Experimental Study on the Smouldering Combustion of Mineral Wool Insulation in Chimney Penetrations." Fire Technology 55, no. 6 (April 1, 2019): 2171–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10694-019-00849-1.

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Fisher, Daniel, Martin J. Wooster, Weidong Xu, Gareth Thomas, and Puji Lestari. "Top-Down Estimation of Particulate Matter Emissions from Extreme Tropical Peatland Fires Using Geostationary Satellite Fire Radiative Power Observations." Sensors 20, no. 24 (December 10, 2020): 7075. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s20247075.

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Extreme fires in the peatlands of South East (SE) Asia are arguably the world’s greatest biomass burning events, resulting in some of the worst ambient air pollution ever recorded (PM10 > 3000 µg·m−3). The worst of these fires coincide with El Niño related droughts, and include huge areas of smouldering combustion that can persist for months. However, areas of flaming surface vegetation combustion atop peat are also seen, and we show that the largest of these latter fires appear to be the most radiant and intensely smoke-emitting areas of combustion present in such extreme fire episodes. Fire emissions inventories and early warning of the air quality impacts of landscape fire are increasingly based on the fire radiative power (FRP) approach to fire emissions estimation, including for these SE Asia peatland fires. “Top-down” methods estimate total particulate matter emissions directly from FRP observations using so-called “smoke emission coefficients” [Ce; g·MJ−1], but currently no discrimination is made between fire types during such calculations. We show that for a subset of some of the most thermally radiant peatland fires seen during the 2015 El Niño, the most appropriate Ce is around a factor of three lower than currently assumed (~16.8 ± 1.6 g·MJ−1 vs. 52.4 g·MJ−1). Analysis indicates that this difference stems from these highly radiant fires containing areas of substantial flaming combustion, which changes the amount of particulate matter emitted per unit of observable fire radiative heat release in comparison to more smouldering dominated events. We also show that even a single one of these most radiant fires is responsible for almost 10% of the overall particulate matter released during the 2015 fire event, highlighting the importance of this fire type to overall emission totals. Discriminating these different fires types in ways demonstrated herein should thus ultimately improve the accuracy of SE Asian fire emissions estimates derived using the FRP approach, and the air quality modelling which they support.

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Forbes, Lawrence K. "A two-dimensional model for large-scale bushfire spread." Journal of the Australian Mathematical Society. Series B. Applied Mathematics 39, no. 2 (October 1997): 171–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0334270000008791.

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AbstractA model for bushfire spread is proposed, in which radiative heat transfer, species consumption and flammable gas production are taken into account. It is shown that fire propagation in this model does not occur as a one-dimensional travelling wave, except for smouldering combustion of wet bushland. Numerical solutions for the evolution of a line fire are obtained using a diagonally implicit finite difference scheme, and the effects of firebreaks and uncleared combustible debris are studied. An energy theorem is presented for the case of a spreading two-dimensional fire, and numerical results are illustrated.

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Tu, Ran, Yi Zeng, Jun Fang, and Yong-Ming Zhang. "Influence of high altitude on the burning behaviour of typical combustibles and the related responses of smoke detectors in compartments." Royal Society Open Science 5, no. 4 (April 2018): 180188. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsos.180188.

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The effect of altitude on typical combustible burning and related smoke detector response signals was investigated by comparison experiments at altitudes of 40 m and 3650 m based on EN54 standard tests. Point-type light scattering photoelectric smoke detectors and ionization smoke detectors were used for four kinds of EN54 fire tests, including two kinds of smouldering fires with wood (test fire no. 2 in EN54 standard or TF2) and cotton (TF3), and two kinds of flaming fires with polyurethane (TF4) and n -heptane (TF5). First, the influence of altitude or ambient pressure on mass loss for smouldering combustion (TF2 or TF3) was insignificant, while a significant decrease in the mass burning rate was found for flaming tests (TF4 and TF5) as reported in our previous studies. Second, for photoelectric smoke detectors in flaming fire tests, the effect of altitude was similar to that of the burning rate, whereas for the ionization smoke detectors, the response signal at high altitudes was shown to be ‘enhanced’ by the detection principle of the ionization chamber, leading to an even larger value than at normal altitude for smouldering conditions. Third, to provide a reference for smoke detector design in high-altitude areas, the differences between signal speed in rising and peak values at two locations are discussed. Also, relationship between ion chamber signals and smoke optical densities are presented by utilization of an ionization smoke detector and smoke concentration meter. Moreover, a hierarchical diagram is illustrated to provide a better understanding of the effects of altitude on combustible burning behaviour and the mechanisms of detector response.

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Nörthemann, K., J. E. Bienge, J. Müller, and W. Moritz. "Early forest fire detection using low-energy hydrogen sensors." Journal of Sensors and Sensor Systems 2, no. 2 (November 1, 2013): 171–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/jsss-2-171-2013.

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Abstract. Most huge forest fires start in partial combustion. In the beginning of a smouldering fire, emission of hydrogen in low concentration occurs. Therefore, hydrogen can be used to detect forest fires before open flames are visible and high temperatures are generated. We have developed a hydrogen sensor comprising of a metal/solid electrolyte/insulator/semiconductor (MEIS) structure which allows an economical production. Due to the low energy consumption, an autarkic working unit in the forest was established. In this contribution, first experiments are shown demonstrating the possibility to detect forest fires at a very early stage using the hydrogen sensor.

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Journal articles on the topic 'Smouldering combustion'

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