Books on the topic 'Skeletal change'

This essay explores the documentary and skeletal evidence for understanding the relationship between gender and population change in the Middle Ages by focusing on mortality, fertility, and migration. Although cemeteries and historical records both show high sex ratios that imply female supermortality, the explanations offered for this imbalance indicate little consensus, not least because of gender biases in the extant records and in the methods employed to exploit them. Studies of fertility throw a helpful light on gender and population change, even though lack of direct data has forced demographers to develop innovative, if often controversial, ways to understand how fertility worked, through such measures as female age at marriage, proportions of women married, and household size. New techniques such as mitochondrial DNA and isotope analysis show that women migrated over greater distances than did men, while documentary evidence for migration over short distances reveals that women did not always move for the same reasons as men.

Palaeopathology is the study of disease in the past. Various different types of data can be used, including literature, paintings, and sculpture. In addition, for the rheumatic diseases, skeletal remains offer a particularly rich source of information for the palaeopathologist. This chapter only discusses the skeletal palaeopathology of osteoarthritis (OA). OA leaves characteristic imprints on the skeleton, such as osteophytes and bony sclerosis, which survive death, burial, and the recovery of skeletons. This has allowed researchers to compare the prevalence and distribution of OA within and between joints in skeletal collections obtained from different ancient populations in various countries. The data have shown that while OA has been common in all human populations studied, the nature, prevalence, and intra-articular distribution of the disease in different joints have probably changed over time. A high prevalence of elbow OA has been observed in many collections of human skeletons, suggesting that this joint may be more prone to the disease than generally thought, but that it might remain asymptomatic in the majority of people affected. In addition, skeletal palaeopathologists have found an association between osteophyte formation and enthesophytes, suggesting that some people may have a predisposition to osteoarticular changes characterized by new bone formation. OA has also been described and studied in different primate and other animal skeletons, providing further fascinating insights into the condition.

This chapter is concerned with those disorders in which the primary pathological process affects skeletal muscle, for which in everyday clinical practice the term myopathy is convenient shorthand. However, it must be stressed that diseases of the motor nerves and neuromuscular junction can produce an identical clinical picture to several of the myopathies, and this will be emphasized many times throughout the chapter when considering differential diagnosis. Indeed sometimes, despite one’s best efforts, one is left uncertain as to whether the primary disease process is in the nerves or muscles—it may be that in some conditions the disease process directly affects both nerves and muscles. The intimate relationship, both structural and functional, between nerves and the muscles they innervate means that disease of one may have a profound effect on the other—the most striking example is the change that occurs to skeletal muscle fibre-type distribution in denervation.

Imaging techniques play a key role in the assessment of patients with the idiopathic inflammatory myopathies (IIM). Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) can reveal muscle inflammation similarly to muscle scintigraphy and 18F-Fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography, but is also able to visualize findings of chronic muscle damage such as muscle atrophy or fat replacement. Ultrasonography has a more limited role because it can only depict the superficial muscle layers. Imaging findings are not specific to IIM, but in the appropriate clinical context they support the diagnosis. MRI is also useful to target biopsy to affected muscles, thus increasing biopsy yield. In addition, because different myopathies present with different patterns of muscle involvement, imaging studies can provide differential diagnostic clues. Finally, imaging studies—especially MRI—can be used to monitor the effects of treatment by serially evaluating changes in muscle inflammation and damage.

This chapter firstly introduces the broad theoretical background within which the research carried out in this book is situated. The theoretical aim of this book is to develop a theory of the syntax of events, which is based on the constructivist approach, in particular Borer’s (2005a,b, 2013) Exo-Skeletal (XS) model—part of the broader framework of generative grammar. The empirical scope of this book includes Chinese and English resultatives, applicative constructions, non-canonical object constructions and motion event constructions in Chinese, and the satellite/verb-framed typology. Both synchronic variation and diachronic change are studied. The organization of this book is also outlined.

This chapter surveys current perspectives on children and stages of childhood within Roman households and examines how archaeological evidence for household organization can change these perspectives. It discusses what can be gleaned from analyses of archaeological evidence for household space and household activities, and notably from assessing skeletal remains, material culture, and decoration. It discusses what this evidence can tell us about potential numbers of children in households, how they might have inhabited this space and played with their pets and their toys, and how this evidence might be used to deepen understandings of children and their sociospatial practices within household organization. It uses two case studies, from urban elite households in Pompeii and from provincial non-elite households, notably military households of ordinary soldiers.

Muscle is a dynamic, plastic, and malleable tissue that is highly sensitive to mechanical and metabolic signals. Muscle mass is regulated by protein homeostasis, with protein being continually turned over, reflecting a balance between synthesis and breakdown. This chapter discusses the effect of critical illness on skeletal muscle mass, protein homeostasis, and the intracellular signalling driving anabolism and catabolism. The focus will be on the unique challenges to which the skeletal muscle are exposed, such as inflammation, sepsis, sedation, and inadequate nutrition, which, in combination with the disuse signals of immobilization and bed rest, engender dramatic changes in muscle structure and function. The mechanisms regulating muscle loss during critical illness are being unravelled, but many questions remain unanswered. Detailed understanding of these mechanisms will help drive strategies to minimize or prevent intensive care-acquired muscle weakness and the long-term consequences experienced by ICU survivors.

Psoriatic arthritis is a chronic inflammatory joint disease that can affect both the peripheral and axial skeleton. The clinical presentation of psoriatic arthritis is very heterogeneous and different subforms have been described. Structural damage to the joint is a feared complication of psoriatic arthritis. The severity of joint inflammation and subsequent damage can range from mild to extreme. Over the last decade, insights into the molecular and cellular mechanisms that underlie the skeletal changes in psoriatic arthritis have gradually increased although translational validation of concepts using patient-derived materials still lags behind. Current treatment strategies directed against key mediators of inflammation appear to have good effects on joint destruction, but their short and long-term impact on new bone formation and ankylosis is still unclear. The identification of the role that key growth factors play in the latter process identifies new opportunities for therapeutic interventions.

The defence of extreme intentionalism is launched. The notion of an intention is introduced in some detail, as well as some skeletal presuppositions about the sort of imagining called for by fiction. Grice’s theory of the meaning of conversational utterance is introduced, with an outline of how it might be extended to fictional content, with certain important adjustments. On the view favoured by the author, the content of fiction is what a reader is reflexively intended by the author to imagine, rather than what she is intended to believe. Finally four common objections to extreme intentionalism are introduced, and the first of these is rejected: namely, that extreme intentionalism entails that individual speakers can arbitrarily change or elude the conventionally given, rule-bound meanings of sentences, so that miswriting is ruled out as impossible.

Patients with critical illness are at risk of profound weakness and skeletal muscle loss, and recovery is marked by prolonged physical functional impairment in many survivors. Muscle and nerve abnormalities found in critically ill patients include loss of muscle mass, muscle membrane inexcitability, polyneuropathy, mitochondrial dysfunction with bioenergetic failure, as well as changes in skeletal muscle structure. The most common histological abnormalities are atrophy of both type I and II fibres and thick filament loss; muscle necrosis is less common. While recent studies have illuminated the pathogenesis of critical illness myopathy, additional high-quality translational research is needed to identify targets for therapeutic intervention.

Sahul, comprising Australia, Tasmania, and New Guinea was colonized from Sunda, the enlarged southernmost extension of Eurasia, by anatomically modern Homo sapiens over 50,000 years ago. Pleistocene colonization of Sahul required watercraft to cross the perpetual island region of Wallacea, wherein populations adjusted to changing patterns of floral and faunal diversity. Once in Sahul, populations quickly adapted to the varying resources, developed regional differences in technology and culture, and likely contributed to megafaunal extinctions also influenced by environmental change. Ancient DNA and skeletal studies indicate that after colonization, Sahul was largely isolated from other populations. The earliest humans to inhabit Near Oceania, the islands northeast of New Guinea, arrived approximately 45,000 years ago. While the sophistication of their earliest navigational technology is debated, by 20,000 years ago these populations engaged in increasingly frequent voyaging, translocating New Guinea mainland fauna to the islands and moving valuable stone resources over hundreds of kilometers.

Across the Near East, major changes in the commemoration of death and the formation of identity amongst the living took place at the beginning of the Neolithic. However, these investigations have largely focused on a narrow geographic expanse, including the Levant and Egypt, where processes of death and dying have been extensively documented. Much less is known about death and burial in the Near East, outside of the Levant. In recent years, however, interest in the mortuary landscapes of Arabia has steadily grown, and the potential for using death to reconstruct the lifestyles of once-living communities are becoming more fully realized. Mortuary and Bioarchaeological Perspectives on Bronze Age Arabia brings together an international consortium of archaeologists and bioarchaeologists, who are at the forefront of mortuary archaeology work across Arabia, to examine continuity and change in death and remembrance. While mortuary archaeology and bioarchaeology contribute important perspectives to the interpretation of life and death in ancient Arabia, these subdisciplines are rarely brought together in this region. Indeed, only recently have skeletal remains been recognized as a rich source of scientific data complementing burial context. Such joint collaboration highlights the novel, interdisciplinary perspective proposed in this volume, resulting in a synthesis of new ideas and interpretations that will undoubtedly guide future archaeological endeavors in Arabia and beyond.

The physiological, metabolic, and anatomical properties of fast- and slow-twitch skeletal muscle fibers are detailed. How the proportions of different types of muscle fibers in a muscle are matched to the functions of that muscle is described. The important concept of the motor unit consisting of the motoneuron and all the muscle fibers it innervates is introduced. The roles of warm-up, orderly recruitment, and tetanus in determining muscle force are elaborated. Examples of muscle fiber recruitment and de-recruitment during natural movements before and after weight-lifting exercise are presented. The large effects of small changes in motoneuron discharge on resulting muscle tension are discussed in the context of exercise and disease. Differences between extraocular and other skeletal muscles in composition and innervation have clinical implications. Finally, students are introduced to electromyography, a minimally invasive clinical test that can be used to assess motor unit function and reveal fibrillations.

This book provides the first comprehensive look at how the latest advances in the sciences are transforming our understanding of ancient Roman history. The book explores novel types of evidence that enable us to reconstruct the realities of life in the Roman world. Chapters discuss climate change and its impact on Roman history, and then cover botanical and animal remains, which cast new light on agricultural and dietary practices. They exploit the rich record of human skeletal material—both bones and teeth—which forms a bio-archive that has preserved vital information about health, nutritional status, diet, disease, working conditions, and migration. There is an in-depth analysis of trends in human body height, a marker of general well-being. The book also assesses the contribution of genetics to our understanding of the past, demonstrating how ancient DNA is used to track infectious diseases, migration, and the spread of livestock and crops, while the DNA of modern populations helps us reconstruct ancient migrations, especially colonization. Opening a path toward a genuine biohistory of Rome and the wider ancient world, the book offers an accessible introduction to the scientific methods being used in this exciting new area of research, as well as an up-to-date survey of recent findings and a tantalizing glimpse of what the future holds.

Myositis, or the idiopathic inflammatory myopathies (IMM) are a group of rare autoimmune diseases of considerable health significance. Features include muscle weakness, raised skeletal muscle enzymes, and characteristic histopathological changes. IIM can be split into polymyositis (PM), dermatomyositis (DM), and inclusion body myositis (IBM). If diagnosed promptly PM and DM can be treated with immunosuppression, but IBM currently cannot be treated. Summarizing the current understanding of the epidemiology, genetic and environmental risk factors, and clinical features, this handbook gives practical strategies for laboratory investigations and treatment paradigms. Future strategies and ongoing trials are also discussed.

Identifications of animal remains from southern African Stone Age sites are complicated by the abundancy of taxa, skeletal differences, a wide variety of habitats, and the fragmented condition of most of the bone samples. Studies in osteomorphology and osteometry are essential. There are regional variations in species sizes combined with changes in bone sizes within and between taxa. Seasonality and animal migrations are demonstrated in the highlands of Lesotho and the semi-arid Karoo. Faunal studies of Sibudu and Bushman Rock Shelter show the contrast between two rock shelters that are geographically separated but overlap in occupation periods.

Survivors of critical illnesses are often faced with persistent neuromuscular weakness that interferes with daily activities. Advancements in survival from critical illness have led to a rise in the number of patients afflicted with post-intensive care unit (ICU) incapacity. It is clear that the pathology leading to ICU-acquired weakness is present within 24 hours of the start of ICU care. Care-givers must consider interventions to limit or reverse these processes from the onset of critical illness. We suggest strategies both for avoiding harms and for actively promoting recovery of skeletal and respiratory muscles. Muscular silence contributes to, while muscular activity alleviates, myopathy. Thus, limiting sedation and neuromuscular blockade will facilitate spontaneous muscle activity, and allow for active participation in physical therapy. Protocols that aggressively assess for the potential for extubation shorten the duration of ventilation and thus decrease exposure to sedation. Mobility teams should safely guide patients in their progress from a passive range of motion through more active therapies despite ongoing critical illness. Early ICU mobility is not only safe, but reduces the incidence of delirium and duration of mechanical ventilation. Importantly, early ICU mobility increases the likelihood of a return to independent function among ICU survivors. A change in culture from one that practices deep sedation and protective support is suggested, to one that demonstrates an urgency to liberate patients from the confines and perils of critical illness.

The Iron Age of southern Africa covers the spread and occupation of Bantu-speaking farmers during the last 1,500 years. Archaeological research of these farmers was heavily influenced by the Central Cattle Pattern, a settlement model which, as one of its main concepts, argued that cattle were the most important domestic animal since the first farmers settled in southern Africa during the first millennium ad. Various arguments have been presented to support this view, including the presence of cattle dung, cattle herd sizes, informants and ethnography, and weights of livestock, as well as ageing and skeletal part data. These arguments have been challenged recently, and new interpretations offered. New interpretations unrestricted by the Central Cattle Pattern have focused on descent patterns of farmers. Changes in identification methodology and measures of changes of livestock over time have played a major role in these new interpretations.

Coffin-Lowry syndrome (CLS) is a relatively rare (1:50,000-100,000 incidence) sex-linked neurodevelopmental disorder that includes severe intellectual disability, dysmorphic features including facial and digital abnormalities, growth retardation, and skeletal changes. Most cases are sporadic with only 20% to 30% of cases having an additional family member. CLS is caused by variable loss of function mutations in the RPS6KA3 gene that maps to Xp22.2 and codes for the hRSK2 S6 kinase that phosphorylates the transcription factor CREB (cAMP response element binding protein) as well as other nuclear transcription factors. Phosphorylated CREB (pCREB) plays a major role in memory formation in fruit flies and mammals by activating specific genes through epigenetic histone acetylation.

Three common misconceptions regarding homeostasis are dispelled. First, the brain has the unique ability to mount an anticipatory defense against changes that could potentially push the body’s physiology out of homeostatic range. Such anticipation of needed adjustments is contrasted to the model of homeostasis as a servomechanism. Second, homeostasis depends on many neurons, not just those in the hypothalamus. Yet hypothalamic neurons play a special role in the integration of challenges and coordination of diverse effector reactions. Third, the idea that homeostasis is the purview of the autonomic nervous system is corrected. As exemplified by respiration and micturition, the brain employs skeletal muscle as well as autonomic targets in supporting visceral life. Finally, the allostatic perspective on the brain’s contribution to staying alive is contrasted with the standard homeostatic perspective and illustrated by examples.

Most calcium in the body is present in the skeleton, where it serves a structural role and also as a reservoir for use in other tissues. During pregnancy, calcium is accumulated in the fetal skeleton, mostly during the third trimester when bone growth is at its peak. Although this increases the demand on maternal bone stores, the calcium transfer to the fetus is balanced by increased intestinal calcium absorption in the mother, mediated by compensatory changes in vitamin D synthesis and endogenous hormone levels. Bone loss is minimized if calcium intake is maintained at 1,000#amp;#x2013;1,200 mg/day during pregnancy. This intake level builds up calcium stores in early pregnancy for increased fetal transfer in the third trimester. Additional dietary calcium is usually not required if pre-pregnancy intake is adequate, although pregnant adolescents and women carrying multiple fetuses may require supplementation.

The Gore Excluder stent graft was approved for use in the United States by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 2002. The Excluder is a modular, bifurcated endoprosthesis utilized in the treatment of abdominal aortic aneurysms. The Excluder endoprosthesis is constructed from an expanded polytetrafluoroethylene film and an incorporated “weldless” nickel–titanium stent skeleton for support. The device features no sutures, infrarenal fixation, and is made to be inserted through 12–18 Fr introducer sheaths. Since its approval by the FDA, the Excluder has undergone multiple changes, including profile reductions, the addition of an impermeable membrane (due to early graft material design associated with type IV endoleaks), and, most notably, a repositioning mechanism labeled the C3 Excluder. This chapter discusses multiple techniques of deployment of the Gore Excluder stent graft.

Polymyositis (PM), dermatomyositis (DM), and inclusion body myositis (IBM) form part of the idiopathic inflammatory myopathies (IIM), a heterogeneous group of rare autoimmune diseases characterized by an acquired proximal muscle weakness, raised muscle enzymes (including creatine kinase), inflammatory cell infiltrates in muscle biopsy tissue, electrophysiological abnormalities, and presence of circulating myositis-specific/myositis-associated autoantibodies. The underlying aetiology of IIM is poorly understood, but likely involves interactions between environmental and genetic risk factors. Myositis may also manifest in association with other connective tissue disorders. The predominant clinical presentation of IIM is skeletal muscle weakness, but many extramuscular features can also occur. Access to good neuropathological support is essential in securing an accurate IIM diagnosis and excluding non-inflammatory myopathies, although IBM is often difficult to distinguish from PM. Antibody testing can help define IIM clinical subtypes, including cancer-associated myositis, predict prognosis, and help in optimizing treatment decisions. MRI can be invaluable for differentiating disease activity from damage, and detecting treatment-induced interval changes. Therapeutic effectiveness of new and existing treatments (where the evidence base remains poor) depends on making a prompt diagnosis and initiating early and appropriately aggressive treatment to prevent establishment of muscle damage. This chapter attempts to summarize the salient features of IIM and update the reader about currently used diagnostics and treatment paradigms in this rare and understudied disease.

Bones are multifunctional passive organs of movement that supports soft tissue and directly attached muscles. They also protect internal organs and are a reserve of calcium, phosphorus and magnesium. Each bone is covered with periosteum, and the adjacent bone surfaces are covered by articular cartilage. Histologically, the bone is an organ composed of many different tissues. The main component is bone tissue (cortical and spongy) composed of a set of bone cells and intercellular substance (mineral and organic), it also contains fat, hematopoietic (bone marrow) and cartilaginous tissue. Bones are a tissue that even in adult life retains the ability to change shape and structure depending on changes in their mechanical and hormonal environment, as well as self-renewal and repair capabilities. This process is called bone turnover. The basic processes of bone turnover are: • bone modeling (incessantly changes in bone shape during individual growth) following resorption and tissue formation at various locations (e.g. bone marrow formation) to increase mass and skeletal morphology. This process occurs in the bones of growing individuals and stops after reaching puberty • bone remodeling (processes involve in maintaining bone tissue by resorbing and replacing old bone tissue with new tissue in the same place, e.g. repairing micro fractures). It is a process involving the removal and internal remodeling of existing bone and is responsible for maintaining tissue mass and architecture of mature bones. Bone turnover is regulated by two types of transformation: • osteoclastogenesis, i.e. formation of cells responsible for bone resorption • osteoblastogenesis, i.e. formation of cells responsible for bone formation (bone matrix synthesis and mineralization) Bone maturity can be defined as the completion of basic structural development and mineralization leading to maximum mass and optimal mechanical strength. The highest rate of increase in pig bone mass is observed in the first twelve weeks after birth. This period of growth is considered crucial for optimizing the growth of the skeleton of pigs, because the degree of bone mineralization in later life stages (adulthood) depends largely on the amount of bone minerals accumulated in the early stages of their growth. The development of the technique allows to determine the condition of the skeletal system (or individual bones) in living animals by methods used in human medicine, or after their slaughter. For in vivo determination of bone properties, Abstract 10 double energy X-ray absorptiometry or computed tomography scanning techniques are used. Both methods allow the quantification of mineral content and bone mineral density. The most important property from a practical point of view is the bone’s bending strength, which is directly determined by the maximum bending force. The most important factors affecting bone strength are: • age (growth period), • gender and the associated hormonal balance, • genotype and modification of genes responsible for bone growth • chemical composition of the body (protein and fat content, and the proportion between these components), • physical activity and related bone load, • nutritional factors: – protein intake influencing synthesis of organic matrix of bone, – content of minerals in the feed (CA, P, Zn, Ca/P, Mg, Mn, Na, Cl, K, Cu ratio) influencing synthesis of the inorganic matrix of bone, – mineral/protein ratio in the diet (Ca/protein, P/protein, Zn/protein) – feed energy concentration, – energy source (content of saturated fatty acids - SFA, content of polyun saturated fatty acids - PUFA, in particular ALA, EPA, DPA, DHA), – feed additives, in particular: enzymes (e.g. phytase releasing of minerals bounded in phytin complexes), probiotics and prebiotics (e.g. inulin improving the function of the digestive tract by increasing absorption of nutrients), – vitamin content that regulate metabolism and biochemical changes occurring in bone tissue (e.g. vitamin D3, B6, C and K). This study was based on the results of research experiments from available literature, and studies on growing pigs carried out at the Kielanowski Institute of Animal Physiology and Nutrition, Polish Academy of Sciences. The tests were performed in total on 300 pigs of Duroc, Pietrain, Puławska breeds, line 990 and hybrids (Great White × Duroc, Great White × Landrace), PIC pigs, slaughtered at different body weight during the growth period from 15 to 130 kg. Bones for biomechanical tests were collected after slaughter from each pig. Their length, mass and volume were determined. Based on these measurements, the specific weight (density, g/cm3) was calculated. Then each bone was cut in the middle of the shaft and the outer and inner diameters were measured both horizontally and vertically. Based on these measurements, the following indicators were calculated: • cortical thickness, • cortical surface, • cortical index. Abstract 11 Bone strength was tested by a three-point bending test. The obtained data enabled the determination of: • bending force (the magnitude of the maximum force at which disintegration and disruption of bone structure occurs), • strength (the amount of maximum force needed to break/crack of bone), • stiffness (quotient of the force acting on the bone and the amount of displacement occurring under the influence of this force). Investigation of changes in physical and biomechanical features of bones during growth was performed on pigs of the synthetic 990 line growing from 15 to 130 kg body weight. The animals were slaughtered successively at a body weight of 15, 30, 40, 50, 70, 90, 110 and 130 kg. After slaughter, the following bones were separated from the right half-carcass: humerus, 3rd and 4th metatarsal bone, femur, tibia and fibula as well as 3rd and 4th metatarsal bone. The features of bones were determined using methods described in the methodology. Describing bone growth with the Gompertz equation, it was found that the earliest slowdown of bone growth curve was observed for metacarpal and metatarsal bones. This means that these bones matured the most quickly. The established data also indicate that the rib is the slowest maturing bone. The femur, humerus, tibia and fibula were between the values of these features for the metatarsal, metacarpal and rib bones. The rate of increase in bone mass and length differed significantly between the examined bones, but in all cases it was lower (coefficient b <1) than the growth rate of the whole body of the animal. The fastest growth rate was estimated for the rib mass (coefficient b = 0.93). Among the long bones, the humerus (coefficient b = 0.81) was characterized by the fastest rate of weight gain, however femur the smallest (coefficient b = 0.71). The lowest rate of bone mass increase was observed in the foot bones, with the metacarpal bones having a slightly higher value of coefficient b than the metatarsal bones (0.67 vs 0.62). The third bone had a lower growth rate than the fourth bone, regardless of whether they were metatarsal or metacarpal. The value of the bending force increased as the animals grew. Regardless of the growth point tested, the highest values were observed for the humerus, tibia and femur, smaller for the metatarsal and metacarpal bone, and the lowest for the fibula and rib. The rate of change in the value of this indicator increased at a similar rate as the body weight changes of the animals in the case of the fibula and the fourth metacarpal bone (b value = 0.98), and more slowly in the case of the metatarsal bone, the third metacarpal bone, and the tibia bone (values of the b ratio 0.81–0.85), and the slowest femur, humerus and rib (value of b = 0.60–0.66). Bone stiffness increased as animals grew. Regardless of the growth point tested, the highest values were observed for the humerus, tibia and femur, smaller for the metatarsal and metacarpal bone, and the lowest for the fibula and rib. Abstract 12 The rate of change in the value of this indicator changed at a faster rate than the increase in weight of pigs in the case of metacarpal and metatarsal bones (coefficient b = 1.01–1.22), slightly slower in the case of fibula (coefficient b = 0.92), definitely slower in the case of the tibia (b = 0.73), ribs (b = 0.66), femur (b = 0.59) and humerus (b = 0.50). Bone strength increased as animals grew. Regardless of the growth point tested, bone strength was as follows femur > tibia > humerus > 4 metacarpal> 3 metacarpal> 3 metatarsal > 4 metatarsal > rib> fibula. The rate of increase in strength of all examined bones was greater than the rate of weight gain of pigs (value of the coefficient b = 2.04–3.26). As the animals grew, the bone density increased. However, the growth rate of this indicator for the majority of bones was slower than the rate of weight gain (the value of the coefficient b ranged from 0.37 – humerus to 0.84 – fibula). The exception was the rib, whose density increased at a similar pace increasing the body weight of animals (value of the coefficient b = 0.97). The study on the influence of the breed and the feeding intensity on bone characteristics (physical and biomechanical) was performed on pigs of the breeds Duroc, Pietrain, and synthetic 990 during a growth period of 15 to 70 kg body weight. Animals were fed ad libitum or dosed system. After slaughter at a body weight of 70 kg, three bones were taken from the right half-carcass: femur, three metatarsal, and three metacarpal and subjected to the determinations described in the methodology. The weight of bones of animals fed aa libitum was significantly lower than in pigs fed restrictively All bones of Duroc breed were significantly heavier and longer than Pietrain and 990 pig bones. The average values of bending force for the examined bones took the following order: III metatarsal bone (63.5 kg) <III metacarpal bone (77.9 kg) <femur (271.5 kg). The feeding system and breed of pigs had no significant effect on the value of this indicator. The average values of the bones strength took the following order: III metatarsal bone (92.6 kg) <III metacarpal (107.2 kg) <femur (353.1 kg). Feeding intensity and breed of animals had no significant effect on the value of this feature of the bones tested. The average bone density took the following order: femur (1.23 g/cm3) <III metatarsal bone (1.26 g/cm3) <III metacarpal bone (1.34 g / cm3). The density of bones of animals fed aa libitum was higher (P<0.01) than in animals fed with a dosing system. The density of examined bones within the breeds took the following order: Pietrain race> line 990> Duroc race. The differences between the “extreme” breeds were: 7.2% (III metatarsal bone), 8.3% (III metacarpal bone), 8.4% (femur). Abstract 13 The average bone stiffness took the following order: III metatarsal bone (35.1 kg/mm) <III metacarpus (41.5 kg/mm) <femur (60.5 kg/mm). This indicator did not differ between the groups of pigs fed at different intensity, except for the metacarpal bone, which was more stiffer in pigs fed aa libitum (P<0.05). The femur of animals fed ad libitum showed a tendency (P<0.09) to be more stiffer and a force of 4.5 kg required for its displacement by 1 mm. Breed differences in stiffness were found for the femur (P <0.05) and III metacarpal bone (P <0.05). For femur, the highest value of this indicator was found in Pietrain pigs (64.5 kg/mm), lower in pigs of 990 line (61.6 kg/mm) and the lowest in Duroc pigs (55.3 kg/mm). In turn, the 3rd metacarpal bone of Duroc and Pietrain pigs had similar stiffness (39.0 and 40.0 kg/mm respectively) and was smaller than that of line 990 pigs (45.4 kg/mm). The thickness of the cortical bone layer took the following order: III metatarsal bone (2.25 mm) <III metacarpal bone (2.41 mm) <femur (5.12 mm). The feeding system did not affect this indicator. Breed differences (P <0.05) for this trait were found only for the femur bone: Duroc (5.42 mm)> line 990 (5.13 mm)> Pietrain (4.81 mm). The cross sectional area of the examined bones was arranged in the following order: III metatarsal bone (84 mm2) <III metacarpal bone (90 mm2) <femur (286 mm2). The feeding system had no effect on the value of this bone trait, with the exception of the femur, which in animals fed the dosing system was 4.7% higher (P<0.05) than in pigs fed ad libitum. Breed differences (P<0.01) in the coross sectional area were found only in femur and III metatarsal bone. The value of this indicator was the highest in Duroc pigs, lower in 990 animals and the lowest in Pietrain pigs. The cortical index of individual bones was in the following order: III metatarsal bone (31.86) <III metacarpal bone (33.86) <femur (44.75). However, its value did not significantly depend on the intensity of feeding or the breed of pigs.

Long associated with its aggressive promotion of atheism, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union adopted a nuanced, flexible, and often contradictory approach toward Islam in the USSR’s largest Muslim region, Central Asia. “Soviet and Muslim” demonstrates how the Soviet state unwittingly set in motion a process of institutionalization during World War II that culminated in a permanent space for Islam in a society ruled by atheists. Central Asia was the sole Muslim region of the former Russian empire to lack a centralized Islamic organization, or muftiate. When the Soviet leader Stalin created such a body for the region as part of his religious reforms during World War II, he acknowledged that the Muslim faith could enjoy some legal protection under Communist rule. From a skeletal and disorganized body run by one family of Islamic scholars out of a modest house in Tashkent’s old city, this muftiate acquired great political importance in the eyes of Soviet policymakers, and equally significant symbolic significance for many Muslims. This book argues that Islam did not merely “survive” the decades from World War II until the Soviet collapse in 1991, but actively shaped the political and social context of Soviet Central Asia. Muslim figures, institutions, and practices evolved in response to the social and political reality of Communist rule. Through an analysis that spans all aspects of Islam under Soviet rule—from debates about religion inside the Communist Party, to the muftiate’s efforts to acquire control over mosques across Central Asia, changes in Islamic practices and dogma, and overseas propaganda targeting the Islamic World—Soviet and Muslim offers a radical new reading of Islam’s resilience and evolution under atheist rule.

The study of joint morphology can help us to understand the risk factors for osteoarthritis (OA), how it progresses, and aids in developing imaging biomarkers for study of the disease. OA results in gross structural changes in affected joints. Growth of osteophytes, deformation of joint components, and loss of joint space where cartilage has broken down are all characteristics of the disorder. Certain bone shapes as well as malalignment predispose people to future OA, or may be a marker for early OA. Geometrical measures, such as the alpha angle or Wiberg’s CE angle, used to be the primary tool for investigating morphology. In recent years, however, statistical shape modelling (SSM) has become increasingly popular. SSM can be used with any imaging modality and has been successfully applied to a number of musculoskeletal conditions. It uses sets of landmark points denoting the anatomy of one or more bones to generate new variables (modes) that describe and quantify the shape variation in a set of images via principal components analysis. With the aid of automated search algorithms for point placement, the use of SSMs is expanding and provides a valuable and versatile tool for exploration of bone and joint morphometry. Whilst the majority of research has focused on hip and knee OA, this chapter provides an overview of joint morphology through the whole skeleton and how it has helped our ability to understand and quantify the risk and progression of osteoarthritis.