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Journal articles on the topic 'Silicon pixel detectors'

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Author: Grafiati

Published: 14 March 2023

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1

ERDMANN, W. "THE CMS PIXEL DETECTOR." International Journal of Modern Physics A 25, no. 07 (March 20, 2010): 1315–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0217751x10049098.

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The inner tracking detectors at the LHC operate in a region of unprecedented particle rates. Thousands of hits must be detected, time-stamped and stored in every 25 ns bunch crossing interval. The silicon pixel detector for the CMS experiment has been designed to meet the requirements of position resolution, rate capability and radiation tolerance with a minimal amount of material. Its unique ability to provide three-dimensional high precision space points plays an important role in the tracking system of the CMS detector.

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2

Koziol, A. "Scalable control systems for vertex detector utilizing single photon counting readout." Journal of Instrumentation 17, no. 05 (May 1, 2022): C05028. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/17/05/c05028.

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Abstract I present the design of two vertex detector systems for proton particle trajectory tracking based on multiple layers of single photon counting hybrid pixel area detectors. The detector used in both systems is UFXC, which is a matrix of 128 × 256 pixels with silicon sensor. The first system enables proton transition registration with the speed of up to 50 kfps. The second system is a portable device with large detection area.

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3

Gorelov, I., G. Gorfine, M. Hoeferkamp, V. Mata-Bruni, G. Santistevan, S. C. Seidel, A. Ciocio, et al. "Electrical characteristics of silicon pixel detectors." Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 489, no. 1-3 (August 2002): 202–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0168-9002(02)00557-0.

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4

Mathieson, K., M. S. Passmore, P. Seller, M. L. Prydderch, V. O’Shea, R. L. Bates, K. M. Smith, and M. Rahman. "Charge sharing in silicon pixel detectors." Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 487, no. 1-2 (July 2002): 113–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0168-9002(02)00954-3.

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5

Delpierre, P., W. Beusch, L. Bosisio, C. Boutonnet, M. Campbell, E. Chesi, J. C. Clemens, et al. "Development of silicon micropattern (pixel) detectors." Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 315, no. 1-3 (May 1992): 133–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0168-9002(92)90693-x.

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6

Heijne, E. H. M., F. Antinori, H. Beker, G. Batignani, W. Beusch, V. Bonvicini, L. Bosisio, et al. "Development of silicon micropattern pixel detectors." Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 348, no. 2-3 (September 1994): 399–408. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0168-9002(94)90768-4.

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7

Wyllie, K., G. Aglieri Rinella, M. Campbell, M. Castro Carballo, T. Gys, S. Jolly, M. Moritz, C. Newby, D. Piedigrossi, and L. Somerville. "Silicon detectors and electronics for pixel hybrid photon detectors." Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 530, no. 1-2 (September 2004): 82–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nima.2004.05.052.

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8

Fröjdh, E., J. P. Abrahams, M. Andrä, R. Barten, A. Bergamaschi, M. Brückner, S. Chiriotti, et al. "Electron detection with CdTe and GaAs sensors using the charge integrating hybrid pixel detector JUNGFRAU." Journal of Instrumentation 17, no. 01 (January 1, 2022): C01020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/17/01/c01020.

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Abstract Speed, dynamic range, and radiation hardness make hybrid pixel detectors suitable image detectors for diffraction experiments. At synchrotrons and X-ray free electron lasers they are ubiquitous. However, for electron microscopy their spatial resolution is limited by multiple scattering in the sensor layer. In this paper we examine the use of two high Z sensor materials: CdTe and GaAs, as a way to mitigate this problem. The sensors were bonded to a JUNGFRAU readout chip which is a charge integrating hybrid pixel detector developed for use at X-ray free electron lasers. Using in-pixel gain switching, it can detect single particles down to 2 keV while maintaining a dynamic range of 120 MeV/pixel/frame. The characteristics of JUNGFRAU, besides being a capable detector, make it a good tool for sensor characterization since we can measure dark current and energy deposition per pixel. The high Z material shows better spatial resolution than silicon at 200 and 300 keV, however, their practical use with integrating detectors is still limited by material defects.

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9

Barbero, M., A. Bozek, T. Browder, F. Fang, M. Hazumi, A. Igarashi, S. Iwaida, et al. "Development of a Super B-Factory Monolithic Active Pixel Detector — the Continuous Acquisition Pixel Prototypes." International Journal of Modern Physics A 20, no. 16 (June 30, 2005): 3808–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0217751x05027680.

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The innermost layer of the Belle silicon vertex detector operates 1.5 cm away from the collision point of the highest luminosity collider in the world. Occupancy in this innermost layer is already 10% and expected to continue increasing with the planned significant luminosity increases. A pair of prototype detectors has been developed to address this problem, based upon the same CMOS camera technology now widely deployed in low-cost consumer devices such as cellular telephones. Problems unique to operating in a high luminosity B-factory environment are discussed. Results from a number of tests are presented, demonstrating the viability of this detector technology.

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10

Liu, Manwen, Tao Zhou, and Zheng Li. "Electrical Properties of Ultra-Fast 3D-Trench Electrode Silicon Detector." Micromachines 11, no. 7 (July 10, 2020): 674. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/mi11070674.

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In our previous work on ultra-fast silicon detectors, extremely small carrier drift times of 50–100 picoseconds were predicted for electrode spacing of 5–10 μm. Expanding on these previous works, we systematically study the electrical characteristics of the ultra-fast, 3D-trench electrode silicon detector cell with p-type bulk silicon, such as electric potential distribution, electric field distribution, hole concentration distribution, and leakage current to analyze the full detector depletion voltage and other detector properties. To verify the prediction of ultra-fast response times, we simulate the instant induced current curves before and after irradiation with different minimum ionizing particle (MIP) hitting positions. High position resolution pixel detectors can be fabricated by constructing an array of these extremely small detector cells.

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11

Rakhmatullina, A., V. Zherebchevsky, N. Maltsev, D. Nesterov, D. Pichugina, and N. Prokofiev. "New Calorimetry Based on Silicon Pixel Detectors." Physics of Particles and Nuclei 53, no. 2 (April 2022): 342–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1134/s1063779622020708.

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12

Kwan, S. "The BTeV silicon pixel and microstrip detectors." Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 511, no. 1-2 (September 2003): 48–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0168-9002(03)01749-2.

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13

Pindo, M. "Simulating charge collection in silicon pixel detectors." Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 395, no. 3 (August 1997): 360–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0168-9002(97)00613-x.

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14

Manzari, V., F. Antinori, A. Badalà, R. Barbera, H. Beker, I. J. Bloodworth, M. Botje, et al. "Silicon pixel detectors for tracking in NA57." Nuclear Physics A 661, no. 1-4 (December 1999): 716–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0375-9474(99)85125-2.

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15

Heijne, Erik H. M., and Pierre Jarron. "Development of silicon pixel detectors: An introduction." Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 275, no. 3 (March 1989): 467–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0168-9002(89)90730-4.

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16

Marczewski, J., M. Caccia, K. Domanski, P. Grabiec, M. Grodner, B. Jaroszewicz, T. Klatka, et al. "Monolithic silicon pixel detectors in SOI technology." Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 549, no. 1-3 (September 2005): 112–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nima.2005.04.035.

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17

Lari, T. "Radiation hardness studies of silicon pixel detectors." Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 560, no. 1 (May 2006): 93–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nima.2005.11.227.

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18

Glessgen, Franz, Malte Backhaus, Florencia Canelli, Yannick Manuel Dieter, Jochen Christian Dingfelder, Tomasz Hemperek, Fabian Huegging, et al. "Characterization of passive CMOS sensors with RD53A pixel modules." Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2374, no. 1 (November 1, 2022): 012174. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/2374/1/012174.

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Both the current upgrades to accelerator-based HEP detectors (e.g. ATLAS, CMS) and also future projects (e.g. CEPC, FCC) feature large-area silicon-based tracking detectors. We are investigating the feasibility of using CMOS foundries to fabricate silicon radiation detectors, both for pixels and for large-area strip sensors. A successful proof of concept would open the market potential of CMOS foundries to the HEP community, which would be most beneficial in terms of availability, throughput and cost. In addition, the availability of multi-layer routing of signals will provide the freedom to optimize the sensor geometry and the performance, with biasing structures implemented in poly-silicon layers and MIM-capacitors allowing for AC coupling. A prototyping production of strip test structures and RD53A compatible pixel sensors was recently completed at LFoundry in a 150nm CMOS process. This presentation will focus on the characterization of pixel modules, studying the performance in terms of charge collection, position resolution and hit efficiency with measurements performed in the laboratory and with beam tests. We will report on the investigation of RD53A modules with 25x100 μm2 cell geometry.

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19

Hall, G. "Silicon pixel detectors for X-ray diffraction studies at synchrotron sources." Quarterly Reviews of Biophysics 28, no. 1 (February 1995): 1–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0033583500003127.

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Customized silicon diode detectors are widely used for elementary particle detection for their good spatial resolution. Silicon detectors are also excellent X-ray detectors in the energy range of interest for applications in synchrotron radiation experiments and, with small elements laid out in a two-dimensional array, may provide high performance imaging devices for future diffraction experiments.

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20

Ahdida, C., A. Akmete, R. Albanese, J. Alt, A. Alexandrov, A. Anokhina, S. Aoki, et al. "Track reconstruction and matching between emulsion and silicon pixel detectors for the SHiP-charm experiment." Journal of Instrumentation 17, no. 03 (March 1, 2022): P03013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/17/03/p03013.

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Abstract In July 2018 an optimization run for the proposed charm cross section measurement for SHiP was performed at the CERN SPS. A heavy, moving target instrumented with nuclear emulsion films followed by a silicon pixel tracker was installed in front of the Goliath magnet at the H4 proton beam-line. Behind the magnet, scintillating-fibre, drift-tube and RPC detectors were placed. The purpose of this run was to validate the measurement's feasibility, to develop the required analysis tools and fine-tune the detector layout. In this paper, we present the track reconstruction in the pixel tracker and the track matching with the moving emulsion detector. The pixel detector performed as expected and it is shown that, after proper alignment, a vertex matching rate of 87% is achieved.

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21

Liu, Manwen, Xinqing Li, Wenzheng Cheng, Zheng Li, and Zhihua Li. "Radiation Hardness Property of Ultra-Fast 3D-Trench Electrode Silicon Detector on N-Type Substrate." Micromachines 12, no. 11 (November 14, 2021): 1400. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/mi12111400.

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The radiation fluence of high luminosity LHC (HL-LHC) is predicted up to 1 × 1016 1 MeV neq/cm2 in the ATLAS and CMS experiments for the pixel detectors at the innermost layers. The increased radiation leads to the degradation of the detector properties, such as increased leakage current and full depletion voltage, and reduced signals and charge collection efficiency, which means it is necessary to develop the radiation hard semiconductor devices for very high luminosity colliders. In our previous study about ultra-fast 3D-trench electrode silicon detectors, through induced transient current simulation with different minimum ionizing particle (MIP) hitting positions, the ultra-fast response times ranging from 30 ps to 140 ps were verified. In this work, the full depletion voltage, breakdown voltage, leakage current, capacitance, weighting field and MIP induced transient current (signal) of the detector after radiation at different fluences will be simulated and calculated with professional software, namely the finite-element Technology Computer-Aided Design (TCAD) software frameworks. From analysis of the simulation results, one can predict the performance of the detector in heavy radiation environment. The fabrication of pixel detectors will be carried out in CMOS process platform of IMECAS based on ultra-pure high resistivity (up to 104 ohm·cm) silicon material.

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22

Brient, J. C., R. Rusack, and F. Sefkow. "Silicon Calorimeters." Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science 68, no. 1 (October 19, 2018): 271–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-nucl-101917-021053.

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We review the development of silicon-based calorimeters from the very first applications of small calorimeters used in collider experiments to the large-scale systems that are being designed today. We discuss silicon-based electromagnetic calorimeters for future e− e+ colliders and for the upgrade of the CMS experiment's endcap calorimeter to be used in the high-luminosity phase of the LHC. We present the intrinsic advantages of silicon as an active detector material and highlight the enabling technologies that have made calorimeters with very high channel densities feasible. We end by discussing the outlook for further extensions to the silicon calorimeter concept, such as calorimeters with fine-pitched pixel detectors.

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23

Gonzalez-Sevilla, S. "The new monolithic ASIC of the preshower detector for di-photon measurements in the FASER experiment at CERN." Journal of Instrumentation 18, no. 02 (February 1, 2023): C02002. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/18/02/c02002.

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Abstract The ForwArd Search ExpeRiment (FASER) is an experiment searching for new light and weakly-interacting particles at CERN’s Large Hadron Collider. FASER is composed of different sub-detectors, including silicon microstrip detectors, scintillator counters and an electromagnetic calorimeter. In this paper, a new preshower detector for the FASER experiment is presented. The new detector, based on monolithic pixel ASICs, will provide excellent spatial and time resolutions and a large charge dynamic range. First results from a prototype chip produced by IHP in 130 nm SiGe BiCMOS technology are shown.

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24

Mireshghi, A., G. Cho, J. S. Drewery, W. S. Hong, T. Jing, H. Lee, S. N. Kaplan, and V. Perez-Mendez. "High efficiency neutron sensitive amorphous silicon pixel detectors." IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science 41, no. 4 (1994): 915–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/23.322831.

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25

Bolla, G. "Irradiation studies of silicon pixel detectors for CMS." Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 501, no. 1 (March 21, 2003): 160–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0168-9002(02)02026-0.

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26

Kramberger, G., and D. Contarato. "Simulation of signal in irradiated silicon pixel detectors." Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 511, no. 1-2 (September 2003): 82–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0168-9002(03)01756-x.

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27

Cabruja, Enric, Marc Bigas, Miguel Ullan, Giulio Pellegrini, and Manuel Lozano. "Special bump bonding technique for silicon pixel detectors." Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 576, no. 1 (June 2007): 150–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nima.2007.01.143.

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28

Cappellini, C., A. Bulgheroni, M. Caccia, V. Chmill, M. Jastrzab, F. Risigo, and P. Scopelliti. "Imaging of biological samples with silicon pixel detectors." Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 591, no. 1 (June 2008): 34–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nima.2008.03.021.

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29

Nomerotski, A., S. Adigun-Boaye, M. Brouard, E. Campbell, A. Clark, J. Crooks, J. J. John, et al. "Pixel imaging mass spectrometry with fast silicon detectors." Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 633 (May 2011): S243—S246. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nima.2010.06.178.

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30

Krzyzanowska, A. "Measurements of charge sharing in a hybrid pixel photon counting CdTe detector." Journal of Instrumentation 16, no. 12 (December 1, 2021): C12027. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/16/12/c12027.

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Abstract Hybrid pixel radiation detectors working in a single-photon counting mode have gained increasing attention due to their noiseless imaging and high dynamic range. Due to the fact that sensors of different materials can be attached to the readout circuit, they allow operation with a wide range of photon energies. The performance of the single photon counting detectors is limited by pile-up. To allow a detector to work under high flux conditions, the pixel size is reduced, which minimizes detector dead time. However, with smaller pixel sizes the charge sharing effect, a phenomenon that deteriorates both detection efficiency and spatial resolution is more profound. The influence of charge sharing on the detector performance can be quantified using parameterization of the s-curve obtained in the spectral response measurements. The article presents the measurements of the response function of a hybrid pixelated photon counting detector for certain primary energy, which corresponds to the probability of detecting a photon as a function of its energy deposition. The measurements were carried out using an X-ray tube by performing a threshold scan during illumination with X-ray photons of a 1.5 mm and 0.75 mm thick CdTe detector with 100 µm pixel pitch. The charge size cloud depends on the sensor material, the bias voltage, and the sensor thickness. Therefore, the experimental data from a sensor biased with different bias voltages are compared to the theoretical results based on a cascaded model of a single-photon counting segmented silicon detector. The study of the charge sharing influence on the spatial resolution of the CdTe detector will serve for a further study of the possible implementations of the algorithms achieving subpixel resolution, in which the charge sharing becomes the desired effect since the charge division in the pixels is used to interpolate the photon interaction position.

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31

Cai, Xinyi, Zheng Li, Xinqing Li, Zewen Tan, Manwen Liu, and Hongfei Wang. "Design and Simulated Electrical Properties of a Proposed Implanted-Epi Silicon 3D-Spherical Electrode Detector." Micromachines 14, no. 3 (February 26, 2023): 551. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/mi14030551.

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A new type of 3D electrode detector, named here as the Implanted-Epi Silicon 3D-Spherical Electrode Detector, is proposed in this work. Epitaxial and ion implantation processes can be used in this new detector, allowing bowl-shaped electrodes to penetrate the silicon completely. The distance between the bowl cathode and the central collection electrode is basically the same, thus the total depletion voltage of Implanted-Epi Silicon 3D-Spherical Electrode Detectors is no longer directively correlated with the thickness of the silicon wafer, but only related to the electrode spacing. In this work, we model the device physics of this new structure and use a simulation program to conduct a systematic 3D simulation of its electrical characteristics, including electric potential and electric field distributions, electron concentration profile, leakage current, and capacitance, and compare it to the traditional 3D detectors. The theoretical and simulation study found that the internal electric potential of the new detector was smooth and no potential saddle point was found. The electric field is also uniform, and there is no zero field and a low electric field area. Compared with the traditional silicon 3D electrode detectors, the full depletion voltage is greatly reduced and the charge collection efficiency is improved. As a large electrode spacing (up to 500 μm) can be realized in the Implanted-Epi Silicon 3D-Spherical Electrode Detector thanks to their advantage of a greatly reduced full depletion voltage, detectors with large pixel cells (and thus small dead volume) can be developed for applications in photon science (X-ray, among others).

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32

Bertuccio, Giuseppe, S. Caccia, Filippo Nava, Gaetano Foti, Donatella Puglisi, Claudio Lanzieri, S. Lavanga, Giuseppe Abbondanza, Danilo Crippa, and F. Preti. "Ultra Low Noise Epitaxial 4H-SiC X-Ray Detectors." Materials Science Forum 615-617 (March 2009): 845–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.615-617.845.

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The design and the experimental results of some prototypes of SiC X-ray detectors are presented. The devices have been manufactured on a 2’’ 4H-SiC wafer with 115 m thick undoped high purity epitaxial layer, which constitutes the detection’s active volume. Pad and pixel detectors based on Ni-Schottky junctions have been tested. The residual doping of the epi-layer was found to be extremely low, 3.7 x 1013 cm-3, allowing to achieve the highest detection efficiency and the lower specific capacitance of the detectors. At +22°C and in operating bias condition, the reverse current densities of the detector’s Schottky junctions have been measured to be between J=0.3 pA/cm2 and J=4 pA/cm2; these values are more than two orders of magnitude lower than those of state of the art silicon detectors. With such low leakage currents, the equivalent electronic noise of SiC pixel detectors is as low as 0.5 electrons r.m.s at room temperature, which represents a new state of the art in the scenario of semiconductor radiation detectors.

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33

Manolopoulos, S., R. Bates, G. Bushnell-Wye, M. Campbell, G. Derbyshire, R. Farrow, E. Heijne, V. O'Shea, C. Raine, and K. M. Smith. "X-ray powder diffraction with hybrid semiconductor pixel detectors." Journal of Synchrotron Radiation 6, no. 2 (March 1, 1999): 112–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/s0909049599001107.

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Semiconductor hybrid pixel detectors, originally developed for particle physics experiments, have been used for an X-ray diffraction experiment on a synchrotron radiation source. The spatial resolution of the intensity peaks in the diffraction patterns of silicon and potassium niobate powder samples was found to be better than that of a scintillator-based system, typically used at present. The two-dimensional position information of the pixel detector enabled multi-peak diffraction patterns to be acquired and clearly resolved without the need for an angle scan with a diffractometer. This trial experiment shows the potential of this technology for high-resolution high-rate diffraction systems.

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34

Mulliri, A., M. Arba, P. Bhattacharya, E. Casula, C. Cicalò, A. De Falco, M. Mager, et al. "Pixel chamber: a solid-state active-target for 3D imaging of charm and beauty." Journal of Instrumentation 16, no. 12 (December 1, 2021): C12029. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/16/12/c12029.

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Abstract The aim of the pixel chamber project is to develop the first “solid-state bubble chamber” for high precision measurement of charm and beauty. In this paper we will describe the idea for the first silicon active target conceived as an ultra-high granular stack of hundreds of very thin monolithic active pixel sensors (MAPS), which provides continuous, high-resolution 3D tracking of all of the particles produced in proton-silicon interactions occurring inside the detector volume, including open charm and beauty. We will also discuss the high-precision tracking and vertexing performances, showing that the vertex resolution can be up to one order of magnitude better than state-of-the-art detectors like the LHCb one.

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35

Makek, Mihael, Damir Bosnar, and Luka Pavelić. "Scintillator Pixel Detectors for Measurement of Compton Scattering." Condensed Matter 4, no. 1 (February 15, 2019): 24. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/condmat4010024.

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The Compton scattering of gamma rays is commonly detected using two detector layers, the first for detection of the recoil electron and the second for the scattered gamma. We have assembled detector modules consisting of scintillation pixels, which are able to detect and reconstruct the Compton scattering of gammas with only one readout layer. This substantially reduces the number of electronic channels and opens the possibility to construct cost-efficient Compton scattering detectors for various applications such as medical imaging, environment monitoring, or fundamental research. A module consists of a 4 × 4 matrix of lutetium fine silicate scintillators and is read out by a matching silicon photomultiplier array. Two modules have been tested with a 22 Na source in coincidence mode, and the performance in the detection of 511 keV gamma Compton scattering has been evaluated. The results show that Compton events can be clearly distinguished with a mean energy resolution of 12.2% ± 0.7% in a module and a coincidence time resolution of 0 . 56 ± 0 . 02 ns between the two modules.

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36

Iacobucci, G., L. Paolozzi, P. Valerio, T. Moretti, F. Cadoux, R. Cardarelli, R. Cardella, et al. "Efficiency and time resolution of monolithic silicon pixel detectors in SiGe BiCMOS technology." Journal of Instrumentation 17, no. 02 (February 1, 2022): P02019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/17/02/p02019.

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Abstract A monolithic silicon pixel detector prototype has been produced in the SiGe BiCMOS SG13G2 130 nm node technology by IHP. The ASIC contains a matrix of hexagonal pixels with pitch of approximately 100 μm. Three analog pixels were calibrated in laboratory with radioactive sources and tested in a 180 GeV/c pion beamline at the CERN SPS. A detection efficiency of (99.9-0.2 +0.1)% was measured together with a time resolution of (36.4 ± 0.8) ps at the highest preamplifier bias current working point of 150 μA and at a sensor bias voltage of 160 V. The ASIC was also characterized at lower bias voltage and preamplifier current.

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37

Jofrehei, A., M. Backhaus, P. Baertschi, F. Canelli, F. Glessgen, W. Jin, B. Kilminster, et al. "Characterization of irradiated RD53A pixel modules with passive CMOS sensors." Journal of Instrumentation 17, no. 09 (September 1, 2022): C09004. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/17/09/c09004.

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Abstract We are investigating the feasibility of using CMOS foundries to fabricate silicon detectors, both for pixels and for large-area strip sensors. The availability of multi-layer routing will provide the freedom to optimize the sensor geometry and the performance, with biasing structures in poly-silicon layers and MIM-capacitors allowing for AC coupling. A prototyping production of strip test-structures and RD53A compatible pixel sensors was recently completed at LFoundry in a 150 nm CMOS process. This paper will focus on the characterization of irradiated and non-irradiated pixel modules, composed by a CMOS passive sensor interconnected to a RD53A chip. The sensors are designed with a pixel cell of 25 × 100 μm2 in case of DC coupled devices and 50 × 50 μm2 for the AC coupled ones. Their performance in terms of charge collection, position resolution, and hit efficiency was studied with measurements performed in the laboratory and with beam tests. The RD53A modules with LFoundry silicon sensors were irradiated to fluences up to 1.0 × 1 0 16 n eq c m 2 .

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Lange, J., M. Carulla Areste, E. Cavallaro, F. Förster, S. Grinstein, I. López Paz, M. Manna, et al. "3D silicon pixel detectors for the High-Luminosity LHC." Journal of Instrumentation 11, no. 11 (November 21, 2016): C11024. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/11/11/c11024.

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Faruqi, A. R. "Potential impact of silicon pixel detectors on structural biology." Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 607, no. 1 (August 2009): 7–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nima.2009.03.210.

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Seidel, Sally. "Silicon strip and pixel detectors for particle physics experiments." Physics Reports 828 (October 2019): 1–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.physrep.2019.09.003.

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Keil, M., K. Banicz, M. Floris, J. M. Heuser, C. Lourenço, H. Ohnishi, E. Radermacher, and G. Usai. "Radiation damage effects in the NA60 silicon pixel detectors." Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 552, no. 1-2 (October 2005): 239–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nima.2005.06.038.

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Romagnoli, G., D. Alvarez Feito, B. Brunel, A. Catinaccio, J. Degrange, A. Mapelli, M. Morel, J. Noel, and P. Petagna. "Silicon micro-fluidic cooling for NA62 GTK pixel detectors." Microelectronic Engineering 145 (September 2015): 133–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mee.2015.04.006.

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Perez-Mendez, V., S. N. Kaplan, G. Cho, I. Fujieda, S. Qureshi, W. Ward, and R. A. Street. "Hydrogenated amorphous silicon pixel detectors for minimum ionizing particles." Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 273, no. 1 (December 1988): 127–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0168-9002(88)90807-8.

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Mathes, Markus, M. Cristinziani, C. Da Via, M. Garcia-Sciveres, K. Einsweiler, J. Hasi, C. Kenney, et al. "Test Beam Characterization of 3-D Silicon Pixel Detectors." IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science 55, no. 6 (December 2008): 3731–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/tns.2008.2005630.

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Da Vià, C., M. Campbell, E. H. M. Heijne, and G. Stefanini. "Imaging of visible photons using hybrid silicon pixel detectors." Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 355, no. 2-3 (February 1995): 414–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0168-9002(94)01138-9.

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Zhang, Sinuo, David-Leon Pohl, Tomasz Hemperek, and Jochen Dingfelder. "Improving the spatial resolution of silicon pixel detectors through sub-pixel cross-coupling." Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 981 (November 2020): 164524. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nima.2020.164524.

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Bharthuar, S., M. Bezak, E. Brücken, A. Gädda, M. Golovleva, A. Karadzhinova-Ferrer, A. Karjalainen, et al. "Characterisation of gamma-irradiated MCz-silicon detectors with a high-K negative oxide as field insulator." Journal of Instrumentation 17, no. 12 (December 1, 2022): C12002. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/17/12/c12002.

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Abstract The high-luminosity operation of the Tracker in the Compact Muon Solenid (CMS) detector at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) experiment calls for the development of silicon-based sensors. This involves implementation of AC-coupling to micro-scale pixel sensor areas to provide enhanced isolation of radiation-induced leakage currents. The motivation of this study is the development of AC-pixel sensors with negative oxides (such as aluminium oxide — Al2O3 and hafnium oxide — HfO2) as field insulators that possess good dielectric strength and provide radiation hardness. Thin films of Al2O3 and HfO2 grown by atomic layer deposition (ALD) method were used as dielectrics for capacitive coupling. A comparison study based on dielectric material used in MOS capacitors indicate HfO2 as a better candidate since it provides higher sensitivity (where, the term sensitivity is defined as the ratio of the change in flat-band voltage to dose) to negative charge accumulation with gamma irradiation. Further, space charge sign inversion was observed for sensors processed on high resistivity p-type Magnetic Czochralski silicon (MCz-Si) substrates that were irradiated with gamma rays up to a dose of 1 MGy. The inter-pixel resistance values of heavily gamma irradiated AC-coupled pixel sensors suggest that high-K negative oxides as field insulators provide a good electrical isolation between the pixels.

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Chen, W., G. Giacomini, A. Kuczewski, J. Mead, A. K. Rumaiz, and D. P. Siddons. "Development of a large array of Silicon Drift Detectors for high-rate synchrotron fluorescence spectroscopy." Journal of Instrumentation 18, no. 01 (January 1, 2023): P01016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/18/01/p01016.

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Abstract An array of small-area Silicon Drift Detectors (SDD), named Hera, has been developed at Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL) in the past few years. Its primary application is high-rate spectroscopy at synchrotrons. Each SDD pixel is a 1 mm × 1 mm square to match the footprint of the original diode-based pixel detector called Maia, which was developed for the same application. The replacement of the diode with an SDD allows for better energy resolution at short shaping times and an increased stability of the detector. 32, 96, and 384-channel arrays were designed and fabricated and achieved a Full Width Half Maximum (FWHM) as low as 176 eV at 5.9 keV with peaking time of 1 μs at -13°C. The sensor design, simulation, fabrication, its readout system, and its spectroscopic performance are reported.

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Oancea, C., C. Bălan, J. Pivec, C. Granja, J. Jakubek, D. Chvatil, V. Olsansky, and V. Chiș. "Stray radiation produced in FLASH electron beams characterized by the MiniPIX Timepix3 Flex detector." Journal of Instrumentation 17, no. 01 (January 1, 2022): C01003. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/17/01/c01003.

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Abstract This work aims to characterize ultra-high dose rate pulses (UHDpulse) electron beams using the hybrid semiconductor pixel detector. The Timepix3 (TPX3) ASIC chip was used to measure the composition, spatial, time, and spectral characteristics of the secondary radiation fields from pulsed 15–23 MeV electron beams. The challenge is to develop a single compact detector that could extract spectrometric and dosimetric information on such high flux short-pulsed fields. For secondary beam measurements, PMMA plates of 1 and 8 cm thickness were placed in front of the electron beam, with a pulse duration of 3.5 µs. Timepix3 detectors with silicon sensors of 100 and 500 µm thickness were placed on a shifting stage allowing for data acquisition at various lateral positions to the beam axis. The use of the detector in FLEXI configuration enables suitable measurements in-situ and minimal self-shielding. Preliminary results highlight both the technique and the detector’s ability to measure individual UHDpulses of electron beams delivered in short pulses. In addition, the use of the two signal chains per-pixel enables the estimation of particle flux and the scattered dose rates (DRs) at various distances from the beam core, in mixed radiation fields.

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Andricek, Ladislav. "All-silicon multi-chip modules based on ultra-thin active pixel radiation sensors." Additional Conferences (Device Packaging, HiTEC, HiTEN, and CICMT) 2014, DPC (January 1, 2014): 000960–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.4071/2014dpc-tp31.

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The Semiconductor Laboratory of the Max Planck Society is designing and producing cutting edge radiation and particle sensors for experiments in basic science conducted by institutes of the German Max Planck Society and other international partners. One of the most challenging projects is the construction of so-called vertex detectors for experiments at high energy particle colliders like KEKB in Japan and the future International Linear Collider (ILC) as the next big international high energy physics project after the LHC at CERN, Geneva, Switzerland. Modern vertex detectors are pixelated position sensitive particle sensors based on highly specialized silicon technology similar to CMOS or CCD sensors for commercial optical applications. The goal is to measure the track of a secondary particle and extrapolate to the point of its origin. One of the main challenges for up-to-date vertex detectors is the requirement of low mass to minimize the effect of scattering of the traversing particle in the sensor material itself and the sensor support structures. We are developing ultra-low-mass sensors based on the DEPFET (DEpleted P-channel FET) pixel technology. DEPFETs are MOS transistors made on fully depleted detector grade silicon and combine the sensing and first signal amplification element in the same device. The thickness of the sensor is minimized and optimized for the best vertexing performance of the detector arrangement as whole. The detector is a cylindrical arrangement of sensor modules around the primary beam interaction point. The sensor module is a silicon based multi-chip module with the module substrate being the sensor wafer itself. There are three functional regions on the MCM: the 50 μm thin sensitive active pixel area with the DEPFETs in a two metal and two poly-silicon layer technology, the ‘end of stave’ with three metal layers (two Al and one Cu) where the read-out electronic is placed and the narrow frame in the same interconnect technology with the steering ASICs. Three types of ASICs are used: a mixed-signal ASICs as the analogue front-end and ADC, a digital data handling chip and a steering chip in HV-MOS technology for the row-wise addressing and clearing of the pixel matrix. There are 12 chips in total on the module, all bump-bonded to the substrate, about 3000 area array bumps in total. The finished module has 250 kPixels and is read out at a frame rate of 50 kHz via a wire-bonded flex cable. Our paper will describe the technology for the production of ultra-thin DEPFET sensors and the monolithically integrated support, testing challenges during production and their solutions as well as electrical, thermal, and mechanical properties of the assembled MCMs. An outlook will be given on how micro-channels for active cooling will be integrated in the current MCM concept.

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