Journal articles: 'Shellfish toxins'

1

Bouchouar, Etran, Samantha Bruzzese, Chelsea Pyles, and Kate Stechyshyn. "Shellfish toxins a public health concern for Canadians." Environmental Health Review 57, no. 01 (March 1, 2014): 16–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.5864/d2014-013.

Full text

Abstract:

Harmful algal blooms (HABs) are increasing worldwide as a result of climate change and global marine traffic. HABs contain high concentrations of algal toxins. Toxin contaminated shellfish cannot be detected by taste, sight, or smell; the toxins are heat-stable and therefore are not destroyed by cooking. Human consumption of toxin-contaminated shellfish leads to illness. Treatment of shellfish poisoning is limited to symptom management. The burden of shellfish poisoning in humans is often underestimated, and the effects of chronic exposure are unknown. Currently there are regulatory practices for shellfish monitoring in Canada and the United States. Yet there is poor communication of HAB risks to the public.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

2

Reis Costa, Pedro, Ana Braga, and Andrew Turner. "Accumulation and Elimination Dynamics of the Hydroxybenzoate Saxitoxin Analogues in Mussels Mytilus galloprovincialis Exposed to the Toxic Marine Dinoflagellate Gymnodinium catenatum." Toxins 10, no. 11 (October 26, 2018): 428. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins10110428.

Full text

Abstract:

Paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) is a severe food-borne illness, caused by the ingestion of seafood containing paralytic shellfish toxins (PST), which are naturally produced by marine dinoflagellates and accumulate in shellfish during algae blooms. Novel PST, designated as hydroxybenzoate analogues (also known as GC toxins), was relatively recently discovered in Gymnodinium catenatum strains worldwide. However, to date, there have been no studies examining their accumulation in shellfish. In this study, mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) were exposed to G. catenatum for five days and then exposed to a non-toxic diet for 24 h, to investigate the toxin’s accumulation/elimination dynamics. As determined by UHPLC-HILIC-MS/MS, the hydroxybenzoate analogues, GC1 to GC6, comprised 41% of the algae toxin profile and only 9% in mussels. Elimination of GC toxins after 24 h was not evident. This study highlights that a relevant fraction of PST in mussels are not routinely analysed in monitoring programs and that there is a need to better understand the toxicological potential of the hydroxybenzoate analogues, in order to properly address the risk of G. catenatum blooms.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

3

Goya, Alejandra B., Danial Baqer, Ryan P. Alexander, Patrycja Stubbs, Karl Dean, Adam M. Lewis, Lewis Coates, Benjamin H. Maskrey, and Andrew D. Turner. "Marine Biotoxins in Whole and Processed Scallops from the Argentine Sea." Marine Drugs 20, no. 10 (October 10, 2022): 634. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/md20100634.

Full text

Abstract:

Harmful algal blooms are an increasing worldwide threat to the seafood industry and human health as a consequence of the natural production of biotoxins that can accumulate in shellfish. In the Argentine Sea, this has been identified as an issue for the offshore fisheries of Patagonian scallops (Zygochlamys patagonica), leading to potentially harmful effects on consumers. Here we assess spatial and temporal patterns in marine biotoxin concentrations in Patagonian scallops harvested in Argentinian waters between 2012–2017, based on analyses for paralytic shellfish toxins, lipophilic toxins, and amnesic shellfish toxins. There was no evidence for concentrations of lipophilic or amnesic toxins above regulatory acceptance thresholds, with trace concentrations of pectenotoxin 2, azaspiracid 2 and okadaic acid group toxins confirmed. Conversely, paralytic shellfish toxins were quantified in some scallops. Gonyautoxins 1 and 2 dominated the unusual toxin profiles (91%) in terms of saxitoxin equivalents with maximum concentrations reaching 3985 µg STX eq/kg and with changes in profiles linked in part to seasonal changes. Total toxin concentrations were compared between samples of the adductor muscle and whole tissue, with results showing the absence of toxins in the adductor muscle confirming toxin accumulation in the digestive tracts of the scallops and the absence of a human health threat following the processing of scallop adductor meat. These findings highlight that paralytic shellfish toxins with an unusual toxin profile can occur in relatively high concentrations in whole Patagonian scallops in specific regions and during particular time periods, also showing that the processing of scallops on board factory ships to obtain frozen adductor muscle is an effective management process that minimizes the risk of poisonings from final products destined for human consumption.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

4

JAMES, K. J., B. CAREY, J. O'HALLORAN, F. N. A. M. van PELT, and Z. ŠKRABÁKOVÁ. "Shellfish toxicity: human health implications of marine algal toxins." Epidemiology and Infection 138, no. 7 (April 23, 2010): 927–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0950268810000853.

Full text

Abstract:

SUMMARYFive major human toxic syndromes caused by the consumption of shellfish contaminated by algal toxins are presented. The increased risks to humans of shellfish toxicity from the prevalence of harmful algal blooms (HABs) may be a consequence of large-scale ecological changes from anthropogenic activities, especially increased eutrophication, marine transport and aquaculture, and global climate change. Improvements in toxin detection methods and increased toxin surveillance programmes are positive developments in limiting human exposure to shellfish toxins.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

5

Sato, Shigeru, Yoshinobu Takata, Sunaho Kondo, Akiko Kotoda, Naoto Hongo, and Masaaki Kodama. "Quantitative ELISA Kit for Paralytic Shellfish Toxins Coupled with Sample Pretreatment." Journal of AOAC INTERNATIONAL 97, no. 2 (March 1, 2014): 339–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.5740/jaoacint.sgesato.

Full text

Abstract:

Abstract A new ELISA kit to quantitate the level of paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) toxins in crude shellfish extracts was developed. A conjugate for preparing antigen and a novel antibody used in the ELISA wasprepared based on the unique reactions between C11-O-sulfate toxins such as gonyautoxins 2 and 3 (GTX2,3) and various thiol compounds, followed by coupling to keyhole limpet hemocyanin. The compounds necessary for competitive ELISA, labeled toxin and an artificial standard toxin to replace saxitoxin in the analysis, were also produced by the same techniques. Theresulting ELISA recognized all the toxin components tested; however, carbamoyl-N-sulfate derivatives such as B and C toxins and N1-OH toxins such as neoSTX and GTX1,4 showed low affinity to the antibody. The difference in the reactivity of the antibody observed among the toxin components prevents accurate quantification of the toxin amounts in shellfish extracts. To address this problem, the former toxin components were transformed to corresponding carbamate toxins by mild HCl treatment according to a conventional method. The reduction of N1-OH of the latter toxins to N1-H was performed by our original method using hemin as a catalyst. We report here the new ELISA kitcoupled with the pretreatment process to transform the toxin components favorable for the quantitative analysis of PSP toxins.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

6

Rourke, Wade A., Andrew Justason, Jennifer L. Martin, and Cory J. Murphy. "Shellfish Toxin Uptake and Depuration in Multiple Atlantic Canadian Molluscan Species: Application to Selection of Sentinel Species in Monitoring Programs." Toxins 13, no. 2 (February 22, 2021): 168. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins13020168.

Full text

Abstract:

Shellfish toxin monitoring programs often use mussels as the sentinel species to represent risk in other bivalve shellfish species. Studies have examined accumulation and depuration rates in various species, but little information is available to compare multiple species from the same harvest area. A 2-year research project was performed to validate the use of mussels as the sentinel species to represent other relevant eastern Canadian shellfish species (clams, scallops, and oysters). Samples were collected simultaneously from Deadmans Harbour, NB, and were tested for paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) and amnesic shellfish toxin (AST). Phytoplankton was also monitored at this site. Scallops accumulated PSTs and AST sooner, at higher concentrations, and retained toxins longer than mussels. Data from monitoring program samples in Mahone Bay, NS, are presented as a real-world validation of findings. Simultaneous sampling of mussels and scallops showed significant differences between shellfish toxin results in these species. These data suggest more consideration should be given to situations where multiple species are present, especially scallops.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

7

Mackintosh, Fiona H., Susan Gallacher, Aileen M. Shanks, and Elizabeth A. Smith. "Assessment of MIST Alert™, a Commercial Qualitative Assay for Detection of Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning Toxins in Bivalve Molluscs." Journal of AOAC INTERNATIONAL 85, no. 3 (May 1, 2002): 632–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jaoac/85.3.632.

Full text

Abstract:

Abstract A recently developed commercial rapid test kit (MIST Alert™) was assessed for determination of the presence of paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) toxins in shellfish. Several commercially important shellfish species obtained from the UK shellfish toxin monitoring program, containing a range of total PSP toxicities as determined by the mouse bioassay (MBA), were tested. The kit detected toxin in all samples containing the European Community tolerance level of 80 μg saxitoxin (STX) equivalents/100 g shellfish flesh as determined by the MBA. With one exception, the kit detected toxin in all samples that contained >40 μg STX equivalents/100 g according to the MBA. Among samples in which the MBA did not detect toxin, the kit disagreed in 25% of the tests, although further analysis by liquid chromatography (LC) and MBA of some samples confirmed the presence of toxins. These results suggest that MIST Alert may be suitable as an initial screen for PSP toxins as part of routine monitoring programs, thereby greatly reducing the number of MBAs. Trials were also performed by nonscientific personnel to evaluate the ease of use and interpretation of results obtained by MIST Alert. The results indicated that the kits could be readily used and accurately interpreted by individuals with no technical or scientific background.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

8

Yasumoto, T., M. Murata, Y. Oshima, M. Sano, G. K. Matsumoto, and J. Clardy. "Diarrhetic shellfish toxins." Tetrahedron 41, no. 6 (January 1985): 1019–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0040-4020(01)96469-5.

Full text

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

9

Pradhan, Biswajita, Hansol Kim, Sofia Abassi, and Jang-Seu Ki. "Toxic Effects and Tumor Promotion Activity of Marine Phytoplankton Toxins: A Review." Toxins 14, no. 6 (June 8, 2022): 397. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins14060397.

Full text

Abstract:

Phytoplankton are photosynthetic microorganisms in aquatic environments that produce many bioactive substances. However, some of them are toxic to aquatic organisms via filter-feeding and are even poisonous to humans through the food chain. Human poisoning from these substances and their serious long-term consequences have resulted in several health threats, including cancer, skin disorders, and other diseases, which have been frequently documented. Seafood poisoning disorders triggered by phytoplankton toxins include paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP), neurotoxic shellfish poisoning (NSP), amnesic shellfish poisoning (ASP), diarrheic shellfish poisoning (DSP), ciguatera fish poisoning (CFP), and azaspiracid shellfish poisoning (AZP). Accordingly, identifying harmful shellfish poisoning and toxin-producing species and their detrimental effects is urgently required. Although the harmful effects of these toxins are well documented, their possible modes of action are insufficiently understood in terms of clinical symptoms. In this review, we summarize the current state of knowledge regarding phytoplankton toxins and their detrimental consequences, including tumor-promoting activity. The structure, source, and clinical symptoms caused by these toxins, as well as their molecular mechanisms of action on voltage-gated ion channels, are briefly discussed. Moreover, the possible stress-associated reactive oxygen species (ROS)-related modes of action are summarized. Finally, we describe the toxic effects of phytoplankton toxins and discuss future research in the field of stress-associated ROS-related toxicity. Moreover, these toxins can also be used in different pharmacological prospects and can be established as a potent pharmacophore in the near future.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

10

Andres, John Kristoffer, Aletta T. Yñiguez, Jennifer Mary Maister, Andrew D. Turner, Dave Eldon B. Olano, Jenelyn Mendoza, Lilibeth Salvador-Reyes, and Rhodora V. Azanza. "Paralytic Shellfish Toxin Uptake, Assimilation, Depuration, and Transformation in the Southeast Asian Green-Lipped Mussel (Perna viridis)." Toxins 11, no. 8 (August 9, 2019): 468. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins11080468.

Full text

Abstract:

Bivalve molluscs represent an important food source within the Philippines, but the health of seafood consumers is compromised through the accumulation of harmful algal toxins in edible shellfish tissues. In order to assess the dynamics of toxin risk in shellfish, this study investigated the uptake, depuration, assimilation, and analogue changes of paralytic shellfish toxins in Perna viridis. Tank experiments were conducted where mussels were fed with the toxic dinoflagellate Alexandrium minutum. Water and shellfish were sampled over a six day period to determine toxin concentrations in the shellfish meat and water, as well as algal cell densities. The maximum summed toxin concentration determined was 367 µg STX eq./100 g shellfish tissue, more than six times higher than the regulatory action limit in the Philippines. Several uptake and depuration cycles were observed during the study, with the first observed within the first 24 h coinciding with high algal cell densities. Toxin burdens were assessed within different parts of the shellfish tissue, with the highest levels quantified in the mantle during the first 18 h period but shifting towards the gut thereafter. A comparison of toxin profile data evidenced the conversion of GTX1,4 in the source algae to the less potent GTX2,3 in the shellfish tissue. Overall, the study illustrated the temporal variability in Perna viridis toxin concentrations during a modelled algal bloom event, and the accumulation of toxin from the water even after toxic algae were removed.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

11

Garthwaite, Ian, Kathryn M. Ross, Christopher O. Miles, Lyn R. Briggs, Neale R. Towers, Teresa Borrell, and Phil Busby. "Integrated Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay Screening System for Amnesic, Neurotoxic, Diarrhetic, and Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning Toxins Found in New Zealand." Journal of AOAC INTERNATIONAL 84, no. 5 (September 1, 2001): 1643–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jaoac/84.5.1643.

Full text

Abstract:

Abstract Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) were developed for amnesic, neurotoxic, and diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (ASP, NSP, and DSP) toxins and for yessotoxin. These assays, along with a commercially available paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) ELISA, were used to test the feasibility of an ELISA-based screening system. It was concluded that such a system to identify suspect shellfish samples, for subsequent analysis by methods approved by international regulatory authorities, is feasible. The assays had sufficient sensitivity and can be used on simple shellfish extracts. Alcohol extraction gave good recovery of all toxin groups. The ease of ELISAs permits the ready expansion of the system to screen for other toxins, as new ELISAs become available.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

12

Usleber, Ewald, Richard Dietrich, Christine Bürk, Elisabeth Schneider, and Erwin Märtlbauer. "Immunoassay Methods for Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning Toxins." Journal of AOAC INTERNATIONAL 84, no. 5 (September 1, 2001): 1649–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jaoac/84.5.1649.

Full text

Abstract:

Abstract The current status of immunochemical techniques for analysis of paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) toxins is summarized. Important aspects regarding production of the biological reagents necessary for immunochemical methods, the characteristics of polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies against saxitoxin and neosaxitoxin, and the importance of test sensitivity and specificity are discussed. Applications of immunochemical techniques for PSP toxins include microtiter plate enzyme immunoasays and enzyme-linked immunofiltration assays for toxin detection, and immunoaffinity chromatography (IAC) for sample extract cleanup. A major advantage of enzyme immunoassay (EIA) is simplicity and rapidity of the test procedure, and higher sensitivity than other methods. However, quantitative agreement between EIA and mouse bioassay is dependent on antibody specificity and the toxin profile in the shellfish; thus, both over- and underestimation of total toxicity may occur. For screening purposes, however, EIAs offer major advantages over the mouse bioassay, which is criticized in Europe because of animal welfare. A major application of antibodies against PSP toxins is their use for extract cleanup by IAC, which gives highly purified extracts, thereby enhancing determination of PSP toxins by conventional physicochemical methods such as liquid chromatography. IAC can also be used to isolate PSP toxins for preparation of analytical standard solutions.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

13

Stabell, Ole B., Magne Yndestad, and Brit Heidenreich. "Paralytic shellfish toxins seem absent in extracts of diarrhetic shellfish toxins." Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 10, no. 3 (March 1991): 331–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/etc.5620100305.

Full text

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

14

O'Neill, Alison, and Andrew D. Turner. "Performance Characteristics of AOAC Method 2005.06 for the Determination of Paralytic Shellfish Toxins in Manila Clams, European Otter Clams, Grooved Carpet Shell Clams, Surf Clams, and Processed King Scallops." Journal of AOAC INTERNATIONAL 98, no. 3 (May 1, 2015): 628–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.5740/jaoacint.14-162.

Full text

Abstract:

Abstract An approach was developed for the verification of method performance of the AOAC 2005.06 LC-fluorescence detector (FLD) method for determination of paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) toxins in bivalve shellfish. This was developed following advice published by the Analytical Laboratory Accreditation Criteria Committee and applied to shellfish species that had not been previously subjected to a full single-laboratory validation scheme. The refined approach was developed following the need to assess performance in a number of shellfish species infrequently monitored through the UK statutory monitoring program, while reducing the impact and cost of the studies, most notably in terms of the use of valuable reference standards. The species assessed were manila clams (Ruditapes philippinarum), European otter clams (Lutraria lutraria), grooved carpet shell clams (R. decussatus), surf clams (Spisula solida), and king scallops (Pecten maximus) presented as adductor only or adductor plus roe. The method was assessed for sensitivity in terms of LOD and LOQ, toxin recovery, and method precision in each species. It incorporated the PSP toxins deemed toxic and/or prevalent in UK samples and commercially available as certified reference standards. The toxins studied included GTX1-5, dcSTX, STX, C1&2, and NEO. The toxins dcGTX2&3 were included for surf clams due to the prevalence of these toxins in this species as a result of toxin decarbamoylation. Method performance targets were met for each of the characteristics investigated. Consequently, the method was deemed fit for purpose for the screening and quantification of these clam and scallop species for PSP toxins by AOAC Method 2005.06 LC-FLD.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

15

Eangoor, Padmanabhan, Amruta Sanjay Indapurkar, Mani Deepika Vakkalanka, and Jennifer Sporty Knaack. "Multiplexed ELISA screening assay for nine paralytic shellfish toxins in human plasma." Analyst 144, no. 15 (2019): 4702–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c9an00494g.

Full text

Abstract:

Paralytic shellfish poisoning is a lethal syndrome that can develop in humans who consume shellfish contaminated with paralytic shellfish toxins. This rapid screening assay can be used to quickly diagnose exposure to paralytic shellfish toxins.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

16

Kilcoyne, Jane, Stephen Burrell, Cíara Nulty, Rafael Salas, Elliott J. Wright, Isabelle Rajotte, and Christopher O. Miles. "Improved Isolation Procedures for Okadaic Acid Group Toxins from Shellfish (Mytilus edulis) and Microalgae (Prorocentrum lima)." Marine Drugs 18, no. 12 (December 16, 2020): 647. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/md18120647.

Full text

Abstract:

Okadaic acid (OA) group toxins may accumulate in shellfish and can result in diarrhetic shellfish poisoning when consumed by humans, and are therefore regulated. Purified toxins are required for the production of certified reference materials used to accurately quantitate toxin levels in shellfish and water samples, and for other research purposes. An improved procedure was developed for the isolation of dinophysistoxin 2 (DTX2) from shellfish (M. edulis), reducing the number of purification steps from eight to five, thereby increasing recoveries to ~68%, compared to ~40% in a previously reported method, and a purity of >95%. Cell densities and toxin production were monitored in cultures of Prorocentrum lima, that produced OA, DTX1, and their esters, over ~1.5 years with maximum cell densities of ~70,000 cells mL−1 observed. Toxin accumulation progressively increased over the study period, to ~0.7 and 2.1 mg L−1 of OA and DTX1 (including their esters), respectively, providing information on appropriate harvesting times. A procedure for the purification of OA and DTX1 from the harvested biomass was developed employing four purification steps, with recoveries of ~76% and purities of >95% being achieved. Purities were confirmed by LC-HRMS, LC-UV, and NMR spectroscopy. Additional stability observations led to a better understanding of the chemistry of these toxins.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

17

Lawrence, James F., and Cathie Ménard. "Liquid Chromatographic Determination of Paralytic Shellfish Poisons in Shellfish After Prechromatographic Oxidation." Journal of AOAC INTERNATIONAL 74, no. 6 (November 1, 1991): 1006–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jaoac/74.6.1006.

Full text

Abstract:

Abstract A liquid chromatographic method for quantitating paralytic shellfish poison toxins in shellfish has been developed in which the toxins are converted to fluorescent purines by prechromatographic oxidation under mildly basic conditions with hydrogen peroxide or periodate. The addition of ammonium formate to the periodate oxidation reaction greatly improved the yield of fluorescent derivatives for neosaxitoxin, gonyautoxin-1, B-2, and C-3 compared to the same reaction without ammonium formate. As little as 3-6 ng of each of the nonhydroxylated toxins and 7-12 ng of the hydroxylated compounds per gram of shellfish could be detected. Reversed-phase chromatography using ammonium formate in the mobile phase improved the chromatography of neosaxitoxin and B-2 compared to results obtained earlier. Because the oxidation products of neosaxitoxin and B-2 could not be separated, parent compounds were separated before oxidation by using an SPE-COOH ion exchange cartridge. The repeatability coefficient of variation for the oxidation reactions ranged from 3 to 8% for the peroxide reaction, and from 4 to 11 % for the periodate reaction, depending upon the individual toxin determined and its concentration in the extract (0.04-0.55 μg/g). The method was compared to the mouse bioassay and the postcolumn oxidation method. In most cases, results were comparable.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

18

Turrell, Elizabeth, Lesley Stobo, Jean-Pierre Lacaze, Sergey Piletsky, and Elena Piletska. "Optimization of Hydrophilic Interaction Liquid Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry and Development of Solid-Phase Extraction for the Determination of Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning Toxins." Journal of AOAC INTERNATIONAL 91, no. 6 (November 1, 2008): 1372–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jaoac/91.6.1372.

Full text

Abstract:

Abstract The combination of hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography (HILIC) and liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (LC/MS) for the determination of paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) toxins has been proposed for use in routine monitoring of shellfish. In this study, methods for the detection of multiple PSP toxins [saxitoxin (STX), neosaxitoxin (NEO), decarbamoyl saxitoxin (dcSTX), decarbamoyl neosaxitoxin (dcNEO), gonyautoxins 15 (GTX1, GTX2, GTX3, GTX4, GTX5), decarbamoyl gonyautoxins (dcGTX2 and dcGTX3), and the N-sulfocarbamoyl C toxins (C1 and C2)] were optimized using single (MS) and triple quadrupole (MS/MS) instruments. Chromatographic separation of the toxins was achieved by using a TSK-gel Amide-80 analytical column, although superior chromatography was observed through application of a ZIC-HILIC column. Preparative procedures used to clean up shellfish extracts and concentrate PSP toxins prior to analysis were investigated. The capacity of computationally designed polymeric (CDP) materials and HILIC solid-phase extraction (SPE) cartridges to retain highly polar PSP toxins was explored. Three CDP materials and 2 HILIC cartridges were assessed for the extraction of PSP toxins from aqueous solution. Screening of the CDPs showed that all tested polymers adsorbed PSP toxins. A variety of elution procedures were examined, with dilute 0.01 acetic acid providing optimum recovery from a CDP based on 2-(trifluoromethyl)acrylic acid as the monomer. ZIC-HILIC SPE cartridges were superior to the PolyLC equivalent, with recoveries ranging from 70 to 112 (ZIC-HILIC) and 0 to 90 (PolyLC) depending on the PSP toxin. It is proposed that optimized SPE and HILIC-MS methods can be applied for the quantitative determination of PSP toxins in shellfish.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

19

Martín, R., T. García, B. Sanz, and P. E. Hernández. "Biotoxinas marinas: intoxicaciones por el consumo de moluscos bivalvos/Seafood toxins: poisoning by bivalve consumption." Food Science and Technology International 2, no. 1 (February 1996): 13–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/108201329600200102.

Full text

Abstract:

Seafood toxins are becoming increasingly important as etiologic agents of foodborne diseases around the world. This is partly because of greater awareness of the potential problems of the paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP), neurotoxic shellfish poisoning (NSP), diarrheic shellfish poisoning (DSP) and more recently, a new type of seafood toxicity, called amnesic shellfish poisoning (ASP). This review describes the molluskan shellfish and biotoxins implicated, the development of standardized methods for detecting and quantifying these toxins, the importance of the economic loss resulting from their presence and the establishment of regular chemical monitoring for marine toxins.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

20

Campos, Alexandre, Marisa Freitas, André M. de Almeida, José Carlos Martins, Dany Domínguez-Pérez, Hugo Osório, Vitor Vasconcelos, and Pedro Reis Costa. "OMICs Approaches in Diarrhetic Shellfish Toxins Research." Toxins 12, no. 8 (July 31, 2020): 493. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins12080493.

Full text

Abstract:

Diarrhetic shellfish toxins (DSTs) are among the most prevalent marine toxins in Europe’s and in other temperate coastal regions. These toxins are produced by several dinoflagellate species; however, the contamination of the marine trophic chain is often attributed to species of the genus Dinophysis. This group of toxins, constituted by okadaic acid (OA) and analogous molecules (dinophysistoxins, DTXs), are highly harmful to humans, causing severe poisoning symptoms caused by the ingestion of contaminated seafood. Knowledge on the mode of action and toxicology of OA and the chemical characterization and accumulation of DSTs in seafood species (bivalves, gastropods and crustaceans) has significantly contributed to understand the impacts of these toxins in humans. Considerable information is however missing, particularly at the molecular and metabolic levels involving toxin uptake, distribution, compartmentalization and biotransformation and the interaction of DSTs with aquatic organisms. Recent contributions to the knowledge of DSTs arise from transcriptomics and proteomics research. Indeed, OMICs constitute a research field dedicated to the systematic analysis on the organisms’ metabolisms. The methodologies used in OMICs are also highly effective to identify critical metabolic pathways affecting the physiology of the organisms. In this review, we analyze the main contributions provided so far by OMICs to DSTs research and discuss the prospects of OMICs with regard to the DSTs toxicology and the significance of these toxins to public health, food safety and aquaculture.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

21

Lorenzoni, Giuseppa, Anna Maria Bazzoni, Monica Cangini, Sonia Dall’Ara, Rita Melillo, Alessandro Graziano Mudadu, Simona Cau, et al. "A Year of Bio-Monitoring (2021): Presence of Algae of the Genus Alexandrium, Dinophysis, Prorocentrum and Non-Compliance for Paralytic Toxins and Lipophilic Toxins in Bivalve Mollusks Bred in Sardinia (W Mediterranean Sea)." Journal of Marine Science and Engineering 11, no. 1 (December 21, 2022): 11. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jmse11010011.

Full text

Abstract:

Bivalve mollusk production represents the principal aquaculture activity in Sardinia (40°03′ N, 9°05′ E). In 2021, 859 water samples and 1270 mollusk samples were analyzed. The species Alexandrium minutum caused the accumulation of Paralytic Shellfish Toxins (PST) in three samples of bivalve mollusks. Dinophysis acuminata complex caused the accumulation of lipophilic toxins (LTs) belonging to the okadaic acid group (OAs) in 18 samples of bivalve mollusks. The research of paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) in shellfish samples has been carried out with LC-FLD, as mentioned in the AOAC 2005 Official Method 2005.06. The determination of LTs was carried out by LC-MS/MS analysis. DTX2, belonging to the group of OA toxins, was detected for the first time in Sardinia, in mussels sampled in Tortolì. The presence of Dinophysis and Prorocentrum species was correlated with the accumulation of the OA toxin group in bivalve mollusks, showing a certain repeatability at certain times of the year in the areas included in the study. The results of the present study can help to plan and organize more effective bio-monitoring sampling strategies.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

22

Lawrence, James F., Barbara Niedzwiadek, Cathie Menard, Ronel Biré, Pedro A. Burdaspal, Alfiero Ceredi, Brad Davis, et al. "Quantitative Determination of Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning Toxins in Shellfish Using Prechromatographic Oxidation and Liquid Chromatography with Fluorescence Detection: Interlaboratory Study." Journal of AOAC INTERNATIONAL 87, no. 1 (January 1, 2004): 83–100. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jaoac/87.1.83.

Full text

Abstract:

Abstract An interlaboratory study was conducted for the determination of paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) toxins in shellfish. The method used liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection after prechromatographic oxidation of the toxins with hydrogen peroxide and periodate. The PSP toxins studied were saxitoxin (STX), neosaxitoxin (NEO), gonyautoxins 2 and 3 (GTX2,3 together), gonyautoxins 1 and 4 (GTX1,4 together), decarbamoyl saxitoxin (dcSTX), B-1 (GTX5), C-1 and C-2 (C1,2 together), and C-3 and C-4 (C3,4 together). B-2 (GTX6) toxin was also included, but for qualitative identification only. Samples of mussels, both blank and naturally contaminated, were mixed and homogenized to provide a variety of PSP toxin mixtures and concentration levels. The same procedure was followed with samples of clams, oysters, and scallops. Twenty-one samples in total were sent to 21 collaborators who agreed to participate in the study. Results were obtained from 18 laboratories representing 14 different countries.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

23

Lawrence, James F., Barbara Niedzwiadek, Cathie Menard, L. Rojas de Astudillo, R. Biré, P. A. Burdaspal, A. Ceredi, et al. "Quantitative Determination of Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning Toxins in Shellfish Using Prechromatographic Oxidation and Liquid Chromatography with Fluorescence Detection: Collaborative Study." Journal of AOAC INTERNATIONAL 88, no. 6 (September 1, 2005): 1714–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jaoac/88.6.1714.

Full text

Abstract:

Abstract A collaborative study was conducted for the determination of paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) toxins in shellfish. The method used liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection after prechromatographic oxidation of the toxins with hydrogen peroxide and periodate. The PSP toxins studied were saxitoxin (STX), neosaxitoxin (NEO), gonyautoxins 2 and 3 (GTX2,3; together), gonyautoxins 1 and 4 (GTX1,4; together), decarbamoyl saxitoxin (dcSTX), B-1 (GTX5), C-1 and C-2 (C1,2; together), and C-3 and C-4 (C3,4; together). B-2 (GTX6) toxin was also included, but for qualitative identification only. Mussels, both blank and naturally contaminated, were mixed and homogenized to provide a variety of PSP toxin mixtures and concentration levels. The same procedure was followed with clams, oysters, and scallops. Twenty-one test samples in total were sent to 21 collaborators who agreed to participate in the study. Results were obtained from 18 laboratories representing 14 different countries. It is recommended that the method be adopted First Action by AOAC INTERNATIONAL.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

24

Xu, Rui, Xiyan Zhao, Guangxi Zhao, and Yang Yang. "Detection of diarrheal shellfish toxins." Reviews in Analytical Chemistry 41, no. 1 (January 1, 2022): 314–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/revac-2022-0053.

Full text

Abstract:

Abstract Seafood poisoning outbreaks are often caused by biotoxins generated by harmful algal blooms. Shellfish toxins, mainly derived from phytoplankton, cause diarrhea and poisoning in humans who consume contaminated seafood. Many studies suggest that diarrheal shellfish toxins cause functional changes in various cells. In order to protect shellfish products, it is becoming increasingly important to remove these contaminants from the ocean. Public attention plays a crucial role in reducing the risk of acute intoxication caused by contaminated seafood. Monitoring algal toxins is the best way to ensure that seafood is safe and clean. In order to attain these objectives, a variety of technologies were developed and constructed for the purpose of detecting and decontaminating algal toxins in aquatic environments. A review of the current literature regarding the detection and detoxification of diarrheal shellfish toxins is presented in this article.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

25

Díaz, Patricio A., Gonzalo Álvarez, Gemita Pizarro, Juan Blanco, and Beatriz Reguera. "Lipophilic Toxins in Chile: History, Producers and Impacts." Marine Drugs 20, no. 2 (February 4, 2022): 122. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/md20020122.

Full text

Abstract:

A variety of microalgal species produce lipophilic toxins (LT) that are accumulated by filter-feeding bivalves. Their negative impacts on human health and shellfish exploitation are determined by toxic potential of the local strains and toxin biotransformations by exploited bivalve species. Chile has become, in a decade, the world’s major exporter of mussels (Mytilus chilensis) and scallops (Argopecten purpuratus) and has implemented toxin testing according to importing countries’ demands. Species of the Dinophysis acuminata complex and Protoceratium reticulatum are the most widespread and abundant LT producers in Chile. Dominant D. acuminata strains, notwithstanding, unlike most strains in Europe rich in okadaic acid (OA), produce only pectenotoxins, with no impact on human health. Dinophysis acuta, suspected to be the main cause of diarrhetic shellfish poisoning outbreaks, is found in the two southernmost regions of Chile, and has apparently shifted poleward. Mouse bioassay (MBA) is the official method to control shellfish safety for the national market. Positive results from mouse tests to mixtures of toxins and other compounds only toxic by intraperitoneal injection, including already deregulated toxins (PTXs), force unnecessary harvesting bans, and hinder progress in the identification of emerging toxins. Here, 50 years of LST events in Chile, and current knowledge of their sources, accumulation and effects, are reviewed. Improvements of monitoring practices are suggested, and strategies to face new challenges and answer the main questions are proposed.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

26

Raposo, Mariana I. C., Maria Teresa S. R. Gomes, Maria João Botelho, and Alisa Rudnitskaya. "Paralytic Shellfish Toxins (PST)-Transforming Enzymes: A Review." Toxins 12, no. 5 (May 22, 2020): 344. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins12050344.

Full text

Abstract:

Paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) are a group of toxins that cause paralytic shellfish poisoning through blockage of voltage-gated sodium channels. PSTs are produced by prokaryotic freshwater cyanobacteria and eukaryotic marine dinoflagellates. Proliferation of toxic algae species can lead to harmful algal blooms, during which seafood accumulate high levels of PSTs, posing a health threat to consumers. The existence of PST-transforming enzymes was first remarked due to the divergence of PST profiles and concentrations between contaminated bivalves and toxigenic organisms. Later, several enzymes involved in PST transformation, synthesis and elimination have been identified. The knowledge of PST-transforming enzymes is necessary for understanding the processes of toxin accumulation and depuration in mollusk bivalves. Furthermore, PST-transforming enzymes facilitate the obtainment of pure analogues of toxins as in natural sources they are present in a mixture. Pure compounds are of interest for the development of drug candidates and as analytical reference materials. PST-transforming enzymes can also be employed for the development of analytical tools for toxin detection. This review summarizes the PST-transforming enzymes identified so far in living organisms from bacteria to humans, with special emphasis on bivalves, cyanobacteria and dinoflagellates, and discusses enzymes’ biological functions and potential practical applications.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

27

Reis Costa. "Advances and Current Challenges in Marine Biotoxins Monitoring." Journal of Marine Science and Engineering 7, no. 9 (September 2, 2019): 302. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jmse7090302.

Full text

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

28

Goya, Alejandra B., Sophie Tarnovius, Robert G. Hatfield, Lewis Coates, Adam M. Lewis, and Andrew D. Turner. "Paralytic shellfish toxins and associated toxin profiles in bivalve mollusc shellfish from Argentina." Harmful Algae 99 (November 2020): 101910. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.hal.2020.101910.

Full text

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

29

Hayashi, Aiko, Juan José Dorantes-Aranda, John Bowman, and Gustaaf Hallegraeff. "Combined Cytotoxicity of the Phycotoxin Okadaic Acid and Mycotoxins on Intestinal and Neuroblastoma Human Cell Models." Toxins 10, no. 12 (December 8, 2018): 526. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins10120526.

Full text

Abstract:

Mycotoxins are emerging toxins in the marine environment, which can co-occur with algal toxins to exert synergistic or antagonistic effects for human seafood consumption. The current study assesses the cytotoxicity of the algal toxin okadaic acid, shellfish, and dust storm-associated mycotoxins alone or in combination on human intestinal (HT-29) and neuroblastoma (SH-SY5Y) cell lines. Based on calculated IC50 (inhibitory concentration 50%) values, mycotoxins and the algal toxin on their own exhibited increased cytotoxicity in the order of sydowinin A < sydowinin B << patulin < alamethicin < sydowinol << gliotoxin ≈ okadaic acid against the HT-29 cell line, and sydowinin B < sydowinin A << alamethicin ≈ sydowinol < patulin, << gliotoxin < okadaic acid against the SH-SY5Y cell line. Combinations of okadaic acid–sydowinin A, –alamethicin, –patulin, and –gliotoxin exhibited antagonistic effects at low-moderate cytotoxicity, but became synergistic at high cytotoxicity, while okadaic acid–sydowinol displayed an antagonistic relationship against HT-29 cells. Furthermore, only okadaic acid–sydowinin A showed synergism, while okadaic acid–sydowinol, –alamethicin, –patulin, and –gliotoxin combinations demonstrated antagonism against SH-SY5Y. While diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) from okadaic acid and analogues in many parts of the world is considered to be a comparatively minor seafood toxin syndrome, our human cell model studies suggest that synergisms with certain mycotoxins may aggravate human health impacts, depending on the concentrations. These findings highlight the issues of the shortcomings of current regulatory approaches, which do not regulate for mycotoxins in shellfish and treat seafood toxins as if they occur as single toxins.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

30

Corriere, Mauro, Lucía Soliño, and Pedro Reis Costa. "Effects of the Marine Biotoxins Okadaic Acid and Dinophysistoxins on Fish." Journal of Marine Science and Engineering 9, no. 3 (March 7, 2021): 293. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jmse9030293.

Full text

Abstract:

Natural high proliferations of toxin-producing microorganisms in marine and freshwater environments result in dreadful consequences at the socioeconomically and environmental level due to water and seafood contamination. Monitoring programs and scientific evidence point to harmful algal blooms (HABs) increasing in frequency and intensity as a result of global climate alterations. Among marine toxins, the okadaic acid (OA) and the related dinophysistoxins (DTX) are the most frequently reported in EU waters, mainly in shellfish species. These toxins are responsible for human syndrome diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP). Fish, like other marine species, are also exposed to HABs and their toxins. However, reduced attention has been given to exposure, accumulation, and effects on fish of DSP toxins, such as OA. The present review intends to summarize the current knowledge of the impact of DSP toxins and to identify the main issues needing further research. From data reviewed in this work, it is clear that exposure of fish to DSP toxins causes a range of negative effects, from behavioral and morphological alterations to death. However, there is still much to be investigated about the ecological and food safety risks related to contamination of fish with DSP toxins.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

31

Harley, John R., Kari Lanphier, Esther G. Kennedy, Tod A. Leighfield, Allison Bidlack, Matthew O. Gribble, and Christopher Whitehead. "The Southeast Alaska Tribal Ocean Research (SEATOR) Partnership: Addressing Data Gaps in Harmful Algal Bloom Monitoring and Shellfish Safety in Southeast Alaska." Toxins 12, no. 6 (June 19, 2020): 407. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins12060407.

Full text

Abstract:

Many communities in Southeast Alaska harvest shellfish such as mussels and clams as an important part of a subsistence or traditional diet. Harmful algal blooms (HABs) of phytoplankton such as Alexandrium spp. produce toxins that can accumulate in shellfish tissues to concentrations that can pose a hazard for human health. Since 2013, several tribal governments and communities have pooled resources to form the Southeast Alaska Tribal Ocean Research (SEATOR) network, with the goal of minimizing risks to seafood harvest and enhancing food security. SEATOR monitors toxin concentrations in shellfish and collects and consolidates data on environmental variables that may be important predictors of toxin levels such as sea surface temperature and salinity. Data from SEATOR are publicly available and are encouraged to be used for the development and testing of predictive algorithms that could improve seafood risk assessment in Southeast Alaska. To date, more than 1700 shellfish samples have been analyzed for paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) in more than 20 locations, with potentially lethal concentrations observed in blue mussels (Mytilus trossulus) and butter clams (Saxidomus gigantea). Concentrations of PSTs exhibit seasonality in some species, and observations of Alexandrium are correlated to sea surface temperature and salinity; however, concentrations above the threshold of concern have been found in all months, and substantial variation in concentrations of PSTs remain unexplained.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

32

Gallacher, Susan, and Elizabeth A. Smith. "Bacteria and Paralytic Shellfish Toxins." Protist 150, no. 3 (October 1999): 245–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s1434-4610(99)70027-1.

Full text

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

33

Kodama, Masaaki, and Takehiko Ogata. "New insights into shellfish toxins." Marine Pollution Bulletin 19, no. 11 (November 1988): 559–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0025-326x(88)90018-5.

Full text

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

34

Dixon, Bernard. "Shellfish Toxins—the Growing Hazards." Microbe Magazine 9, no. 1 (January 1, 2014): 2–3. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/microbe.9.2.1.

Full text

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

35

Munday, Rex, and John Reeve. "Risk Assessment of Shellfish Toxins." Toxins 5, no. 11 (November 11, 2013): 2109–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins5112109.

Full text

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

36

Madigan, Thomas L., Ken G. Lee, David J. Padula, Paul McNabb, and Andrew M. Pointon. "Diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) toxins in South Australian shellfish." Harmful Algae 5, no. 2 (March 2006): 119–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.hal.2004.12.005.

Full text

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

37

McNabb, Paul, Andrew I. Selwood, Patrick T. Holland, J. Aasen, T. Aune, G. Eaglesham, P. Hess, et al. "Multiresidue Method for Determination of Algal Toxins in Shellfish: Single-Laboratory Validation and Interlaboratory Study." Journal of AOAC INTERNATIONAL 88, no. 3 (May 1, 2005): 761–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jaoac/88.3.761.

Full text

Abstract:

Abstract A method that uses liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC/MS/MS) has been developed for the highly sensitive and specific determination of amnesic shellfish poisoning toxins, diarrhetic shellfish poisoning toxins, and other lipophilic algal toxins and metabolites in shellfish. The method was subjected to a full single-laboratory validation and a limited interlaboratory study. Tissue homogenates are blended with methanol-water (9 + 1), and the centrifuged extract is cleaned up with a hexane wash. LC/MS/MS (triple quadrupole) is used for quantitative analysis with reversed-phase gradient elution (acidic buffer), electrospray ionization (positive and negative ion switching), and multiple-reaction monitoring. Ester forms of dinophysis toxins are detected as the parent toxins after hydrolysis of the methanolic extract. The method is quantitative for 6 key toxins when reference standards are available: azaspiracid-1 (AZA1), domoic acid (DA), gymnodimine (GYM), okadaic acid (OA), pectenotoxin-2 (PTX2), and yessotoxin (YTX). Relative response factors are used to estimate the concentrations of other toxins: azaspiracid-2 and -3 (AZA2 and AZA3), dinophysis toxin-1 and -2 (DTX1 and DTX2), other pectenotoxins (PTX1, PTX6, and PTX11), pectenotoxin secoacid metabolites (PTX2-SA and PTX11-SA) and their 7-epimers, spirolides, and homoYTX and YTX metabolites (45-OHYTX and carboxyYTX). Validation data have been gathered for Greenshell mussel, Pacific oyster, cockle, and scallop roe via fortification and natural contamination. For the 6 key toxins at fortification levels of 0.05–0.20 mg/kg, recoveries were 71–99% and single laboratory reproducibilities, relative standard deviations (RSDs), were 10–24%. Limits of detection were <0.02 mg/kg. Extractability data were also obtained for several toxins by using successive extractions of naturally contaminated mussel samples. A preliminary interlaboratory study was conducted with a set of toxin standards and 4 mussel extracts. The data sets from 8 laboratories for the 6 key toxins plus DTX1 and DTX2 gave within-laboratories repeatability (RSDr) of 8–12%, except for PTX-2. Between-laboratories reproducibility (RSDR) values were compared with the Horwitz criterion and ranged from good to adequate for 7 key toxins (HorRat values of 0.8–2.0).

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

38

Truman, Penelope, and Robin J. Lake. "Comparison of Mouse Bioassay and Sodium Channel Cytotoxicity Assay for Detecting Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning Toxins in Shellfish Extracts." Journal of AOAC INTERNATIONAL 79, no. 5 (September 1, 1996): 1130–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jaoac/79.5.1130.

Full text

Abstract:

Abstract A neuroblastoma cell culture assay was used to analyze shellfish extracts for presence of paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins (saxitoxins). Results were compared with mouse bioassays performed as part of a screening program for shellfish toxins in New Zealand. Twenty-nine samples gave negative results in both assays. Fifty-seven samples gave positive results in at least one assay. The correlation between the assays for saxitoxin equivalent levels in shellfish was 0.867. In spiking studies on shellfish extracts, the neuroblastoma assay showed a good response to added saxitoxin. Although these results support use of the neuroblastoma assay as a screening procedure for shellfish toxicity, results close to regulatory limits should be confirmed by mouse bioassay.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

39

Chiou, Ling Jan, Tai Sheng Yeh, and Jiing Chuan Chen. "LC-MS/MS method for the detection of multiple classes of shellfish toxins." Czech Journal of Food Sciences 37, No. 3 (July 3, 2019): 173–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.17221/125/2018-cjfs.

Full text

Abstract:

Marine shellfish toxins are seafood safety problems of global concern. Herein the analysis of six shellfish toxins, regulated by European Union, with one single run by LC-MS/MS with acidic mobile phase was developed. After 80% methanol extraction of the shellfish toxins, the crude extract was subjected to HLB SPE cleanup before LC-MS/MS analysis. The method was validated according to Commission Decision 2002/657/EC. For azaspiracid-1 (AZA1), domoic acid (DA), dinophysistoxin-1 (DTX1), okadaic acid (OA), pectenotoxin-2 (PTX2), and yessotoxin (YTX) toxins the recovery rate was 99.4, 92.7, 114.1, 90.2, 115.2 and 87.8%, respectively. The intra-day relative standard deviation (RSD) was less than 5% for all of the shellfish toxins except DA. The inter-day RSD was less than 5% for AZA1, DTX1, PTX2, YTX, 7.85% for DA, and 14.63% for OA. The decision limit (CC<sub>α</sub>) and detection capability (CC<sub>β</sub>) for AZA1 were 13.6 and 14.8 ppb; for DA they were 1883 and 2051 ppb; DTX1 12.3 and 13.4 ppb; OA 8.0 and 8.7 ppb; PTX2 12.1 and 13.2 ppb; YTX 36.9 and 40.1 ppb.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

40

Oshima, Yasukatsu. "Postcolumn Derivatization Liquid Chromatographic Method for Paralytic Shellfish Toxins." Journal of AOAC INTERNATIONAL 78, no. 2 (March 1, 1995): 528–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jaoac/78.2.528.

Full text

Abstract:

Abstract More than 20 analogues of saxitoxin occur naturally. An accurate analytical method applicable to all saxitoxins is required because of the recent findings that decarbamoyl toxins and C (N-sulfocarbamoyl- 11-hydroxysulfate) toxins are metabolites of marine animals or major products of some dinoflagellate species. Almost all the toxins could be determined by ion-interaction chromatography on a silica-based reversed-phase (C8) column with postcolumn periodate oxidation and fluorescence detection. Toxin groups of different net charges were separately determined by isocratic elution using different mobile phases. For determination of the saxitoxin group (net charge, 2+) and the gonyautoxin group (net charge, 1+), use of 1-heptanesulfonate as counterion, with or without acetonitrile in the mobile phase, resulted in resolution of decarbamoyl toxins from their carbamate analogues. C toxins having both M-sulfocarbamoyl and 11-hydroxysulfate moieties on the same molecule were completely resolved using the tetrabutylammonium ion. High sensitivity with detection limits ranging from 20 to 110 fmol were achieved as a result of reduced band broadening and optimized reaction conditions. For applications to biological matrixes, a cleanup procedure using a C18 solid-phase extraction cartridge was effective in preventing false peaks. When applied to low-toxicity shellfish, the liquid chromatographic method gave higher values than the standard mouse bioassay, because of underestimation by the bioassay.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

41

Kim, Young-Sang, Hyun-Joo An, Jaeseong Kim, and You-Jin Jeon. "Current Situation of Palytoxins and Cyclic Imines in Asia-Pacific Countries: Causative Phytoplankton Species and Seafood Poisoning." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 8 (April 18, 2022): 4921. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19084921.

Full text

Abstract:

Among marine biotoxins, palytoxins (PlTXs) and cyclic imines (CIs), including spirolides, pinnatoxins, pteriatoxins, and gymnodimines, are not managed in many countries, such as the USA, European nations, and South Korea, because there are not enough poisoning cases or data for the limits on these biotoxins. In this article, we review unregulated marine biotoxins (e.g., PlTXs and CIs), their toxicity, causative phytoplankton species, and toxin extraction and detection protocols. Due to global warming, the habitat of the causative phytoplankton has expanded to the Asia-Pacific region. When ingested by humans, shellfish that accumulated toxins can cause various symptoms (muscle pain or diarrhea) and even death. There are no systematic reports on the occurrence of these toxins; however, it is important to continuously monitor causative phytoplankton and poisoning of accumulating shellfish by PlTXs and CI toxins because of the high risk of toxicity in human consumers.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

42

Park, Douglas L., Willard N. Adams, Stuart L. Graham, and Randolph C. Jackson. "Variability of Mouse Bioassay for Determination of Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning Toxins." Journal of AOAC INTERNATIONAL 69, no. 3 (May 1, 1986): 547–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jaoac/69.3.547.

Full text

Abstract:

Abstract Toxic shellfish extracts and paralytic shellfish poison (PSP) standard solutions, tested over a range of pH levels, storage conditions, and temperatures, were monitored for toxin concentration, using the mouse bioassay and thin layer chromatography (TLC). A comparison of PSP toxin concentrations in toxic shellfish extracts and PSP standard solutions when dilution was varied suggests that other factors in the shellfish extracts contribute to the toxicity in mice; the closest agreement was at the death time range of 5-8 min. The toxicities of PSP standard solutions at pH levels ranging from 2 to 6 and held at 4°C for various times were relatively constant; however, there was a gradual decrease in toxicity with pH 6 solutions. Also, standard solutions (pH 6) held at 4°C for 28 days showed a 50% decrease in toxicity when the pH was adjusted to 2. TLC analyses of PSP standard solutions and toxic shellfish extracts revealed multiple spots at the Rf ranges of saxitoxin/neosaxitoxin and gonyaulax toxins I-IV. PSP standard solutions usually had a single spot in the saxitoxin/neosaxitoxin area. No attempt was made to confirm the identity of these compounds. Previously tested toxic shellfish extracts with subsequent pH adjustment to 1.5 and additional heat treatment (100°C for 5 min) showed no appreciable difference in mouse toxicity. The use of antifoaming agents during the acid extraction step did not affect the final amounts of PSP obtained

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

43

Zhang, Song Shan, Jing Jin, Qing Peng Li, and Yi Ming Ha. "Application of Carboxymethyl Chitosan on Adsorbent Detoxification of Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning Toxins from Chlamys nobilis." Advanced Materials Research 1073-1076 (December 2014): 1798–803. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.1073-1076.1798.

Full text

Abstract:

This study investigates the effectiveness of adding carboxymethyl chitosan during steam cooking as an adsorbent for detoxifying paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins (PSP toxins) in the scallop Chlamys nobilis. Toxin analysis using a mouse bioassay test and hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry method (LC–MS) showed that most of the PSP toxins (>80%) were contained in the visceral compartment of the raw scallops. Overall, 82.2Mu/100g of PSP toxins were released from scallop tissues during steaming. The toxicity of the soup steamed with 0.1%, 0.3%, 0.6%, 1.0% and 1.5% carboxymethyl chitosan decreased the toxin content by 35.6%, 44%, 48.4%, 53.3% and 56.9% (p<0.005), respectively. The relative PSP toxin content in the raw adductor muscle was comparable to those after steaming or steaming with carboxymethyl chitosan (p > 0.05).The PSP toxin concentrations in the adductor muscles, gills + mantle and visceral compartments steamed with 0.1%, 0.3%, 0.6%, 1% and 1.5% carboxymethyl chitosan were not significantly different from those in the corresponding raw samples. The LC–MS analysis showed that the adsorbance of carboxymethyl chitosan for each of the PSP toxins was positive correlation with concentration, although the uptake efficiency of each toxin was different. The reduction in toxin content of all analyzed toxins reached 45.6%, 30.2%, 44.5%, 55.9% and 37.6% under the corresponding carboxymethyl chitosan concentrationsis.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

44

Varkitzi, Ioanna, Kalliopi Pagou, Christina Pyrgaki, and Ioannis Hatzianestis. "A Biomass Upscale System for the Marine Dinoflagellate Prorocentrum lima and the Production of Bioactive Lipophilic Toxins." International Journal of Applied Sciences and Biotechnology 5, no. 4 (December 24, 2017): 479–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/ijasbt.v5i4.18561.

Full text

Abstract:

Biotechnological applications of toxic marine dinoflagellates include seafood safety and biomedical, pharmaceutical and research purposes of their toxins among other bioproducts and bioactive compounds that they produce. The supply of sufficient quantities of phycotoxins for investigational uses remains in demand. Some of these toxins, available in small amounts, are quite expensive while their chemical synthesis is complex and costly. However, some quantities of these toxins could be produced with mass cultures of the appropriate dinoflagellates, which are however difficult to handle. Prorocentrum lima is a cosmopolitan marine dinoflagellate, which synthesizes toxins that cause a diarrheic syndrome to humans through the consumption of contaminated shellfish and fish (Diarrheic Shellfish Poisoning, DSP). The aim of this study was to design and develop a biomass upscale system for the production of the lipophilic toxins okadaic acid (OA) and dinophysistoxin 1 (DTX1) from the produced biomass of Prorocentrum lima. In our study, P. lima was grown in large scale semi-continuous cultures under controlled laboratory conditions. The maximum biomass produced was 20690 cells/mL. Maximum toxin production was 63.66 ng/mL for OA and 8.07 ng/mL for DTX1. Toxin quota in P. lima cells was 88.7% OA and 11.3% DTX1. The produced culture volume was 300 L and the total volume capacity of the upscale system could reach 500 L.Int. J. Appl. Sci. Biotechnol. Vol 5(4): 479-485

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

45

Swan, Sarah, Andrew Turner, Eileen Bresnan, Callum Whyte, Ruth Paterson, Sharon McNeill, Elaine Mitchell, and Keith Davidson. "Dinophysis acuta in Scottish Coastal Waters and Its Influence on Diarrhetic Shellfish Toxin Profiles." Toxins 10, no. 10 (September 28, 2018): 399. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins10100399.

Full text

Abstract:

Diarrhetic shellfish toxins produced by the dinoflagellate genus Dinophysis are a major problem for the shellfish industry worldwide. Separate species of the genus have been associated with the production of different analogues of the okadaic acid group of toxins. To evaluate the spatial and temporal variability of Dinophysis species and toxins in the important shellfish-harvesting region of the Scottish west coast, we analysed data collected from 1996 to 2017 in two contrasting locations: Loch Ewe and the Clyde Sea. Seasonal studies were also undertaken, in Loch Ewe in both 2001 and 2002, and in the Clyde in 2015. Dinophysis acuminata was present throughout the growing season during every year of the study, with blooms typically occurring between May and September at both locations. The appearance of D. acuta was interannually sporadic and, when present, was most abundant in the late summer and autumn. The Clyde field study in 2015 indicated the importance of a temperature front in the formation of a D. acuta bloom. A shift in toxin profiles of common mussels (Mytilus edulis) tested during regulatory monitoring was evident, with a proportional decrease in okadaic acid (OA) and dinophysistoxin-1 (DTX1) and an increase in dinophysistoxin-2 (DTX2) occurring when D. acuta became dominant. Routine enumeration of Dinophysis to species level could provide early warning of potential contamination of shellfish with DTX2 and thus determine the choice of the most suitable kit for effective end-product testing.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

46

Lawrence, James F., and Barbara Niedzwiadek. "Quantitative Determination of Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning Toxins in Shellfish by Using Prechromatographic Oxidation and Liquid Chromatography with Fluorescence Detection." Journal of AOAC INTERNATIONAL 84, no. 4 (July 1, 2001): 1099–108. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jaoac/84.4.1099.

Full text

Abstract:

Abstract The prechromatographic oxidation LC method developed by Lawrence [J. Assoc. Off. Anal. Chem. 74, 404–409(1991)] for the determination of paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) toxins has been tested for the quantitative determination of PSP toxins in shellfish. All aspects of the method were studied and modified as necessary to improve its performance for routine regulatory purposes. The chromatographic conditions were changed to shorten analysis time. The oxidation reaction was tested for repeatability and the influence of the s ample matrix on quantitation. An important part of the study was to quantitatively evaluate an ion exchange (-COOH) cleanup step using disposable solid-phase extraction cartridges that separated the PSP toxins into 3 distinct groups for quantitation, namely the C toxins, the GTX toxins, and the saxitoxin group. The cleanup step was very simple and used increasing concentrations of aqueous NaCl for elution of the toxins. The C toxins were not retained by the cartridges and thus were eluted unretained with water. The GTX toxins (GTX1 to GTX6 as well as dcGTX2 and dcGTX3) eluted from the cartridges with 0.05M NaCl while the saxitoxin group (saxitoxin, neosaxitoxin, and dcsaxitoxin) required 0.3M NaCl for elution. Each fraction was analyzed by LC after oxidation with periodate or peroxide. All of the compounds could be separated and quantitatively determined in spiked samples of mussels, clams, and oysters. The nonhydroxylated toxins could be quantitated at concentrations as low as about 0.02 μg/g (2 μg/100 g) of tissue while the hydroxylated toxins could be quantitated at concentrations as low as about 0.1 μg/g (10 μg/100 g). Average recoveries of the toxins through the complete cleanup procedure were 85%or greater for spiked extracts of oysters and clams and greater than 73%for mussels.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

47

McCarron, Pearse, Kelley L. Reeves, Sabrina D. Giddings, Daniel G. Beach, and Michael A. Quilliam. "Development of Certified Reference Materials for Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning Toxins, Part 2: Shellfish Matrix Materials." Journal of AOAC INTERNATIONAL 99, no. 5 (September 1, 2016): 1163–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.5740/jaoacint.16-0152.

Full text

Abstract:

Abstract Okadaic acid (OA) and its analogs, dinophysistoxins-1 (DTX1) and -2 (DTX2) are lipophilic biotoxins produced by marine algae that can accumulate in shellfish and cause the human illness known as diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP). Regulatory testing of shellfish is required to protect consumers and the seafood industry. Certified reference materials (CRMs) are essential for the development, validation, and quality control of analytical methods, and thus play an important role in toxin monitoring. This paper summarizes work on research and development of shellfish tissue reference materials for OA and DTXs. Preliminary work established the appropriate conditions for production of shellfish tissue CRMs for OA and DTXs. Source materials, including naturally incurred shellfish tissue and cultured algae, were screened for their DSP toxins. This preliminary work informed planning and production of a wet mussel (Mytilus edulis) tissue homogenate matrix CRM. The homogeneity and stability of the CRM were evaluated and found to be fit-for-purpose. Extraction and LC-tandem MS methods were developed to accurately certify the concentrations of OA, DTX1, and DTX2 using a combination of standard addition and matrix-matched calibration to compensate for matrix effects in electrospray ionization. The concentration of domoic acid was also certified. Uncertainties were assigned following standards and guidelines from the International Organization for Standardization. The presence of other toxins in the CRM was also assessed and information values are reported for OA and DTX acyl esters.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

48

Hatfield, Robert G., Rubi Punn, Myriam Algoet, and Andrew D. Turner. "A Rapid Method for the Analysis of Paralytic Shellfish Toxins Utilizing Standard Pressure HPLC: Refinement of AOAC 2005.06." Journal of AOAC INTERNATIONAL 99, no. 2 (March 1, 2016): 475–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.5740/jaoacint.15-0080.

Full text

Abstract:

Abstract Superficially porous column technologies have previously been shown to provide faster chromatographic analysis of toxin oxidation products when analyzing shellfish for paralytic shellfish toxins. While sub 3 μm fused core columns have facilitated enhanced method performance, including significantly lower analysis times and lower LOD, they were also found to last for only a few hundred injections before pressure increases rendered them unusable with standard HPLC. Recently 5 μm superficially porous columns have become commercially available. In this study, a 5 μm fused core column was used to develop a fast chromatographic method for the analysis of paralytic shellfish toxins, with performance characteristics and column lifetime being assessed. The 5 μm column was found to be able to perform approximately 3000 injections without significant increases in back pressure or reduction in performance. Data generated using the column were found to be equivalent to that determined using current HPLC column technologies for both screening and quantitation methods. Furthermore, an increase in sensitivity for all toxins tested under the routine monitoring program for British waters was observed and the overall run time of the analysis halved. Overall, the 5 μm fused core column provided a significant increase in sample throughput, a reduction in mobile phase consumption, and an increase in method sensitivity.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

49

Turrell, E. A., J. P. Lacaze, and L. Stobo. "Determination of paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) toxins in UK shellfish." Harmful Algae 6, no. 3 (April 2007): 438–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.hal.2006.12.002.

Full text

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

50

Yang, Li, Avi Singh, Shelley K. Lankford, James Stuart, Daniel Rice, Wen-Hsin Wu, and James M. Hungerford. "A Rapid Method for the Detection of Diarrhetic Shellfish Toxins and Azaspiracid Shellfish Toxins in Washington State Shellfish by Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry." Journal of AOAC INTERNATIONAL 103, no. 3 (April 19, 2020): 792–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jaoacint/qsaa009.

Full text

Abstract:

Abstract Background Diarrhetic shellfish toxins (DSTs) in domestic shellfish and azaspiracids (AZAs) in imported products are emerging seafood safety issues in the United States. In addition to causing gastrointestinal illnesses, some of these toxins are also carcinogenic and genotoxic. Efficient analytical strategies are needed for their monitoring in U.S. domestic and imported shellfish. Objective In the US, DSTs and AZAs are the only lipophilic shellfish toxins addressed in regulations. Streamlining of existing methods for several classes of lipophilic toxins, based on liquid chromatography coupled with triple quadrupole mass spectrometry, was pursued. Method The resulting simplified LC-MS/MS method is focused on the separation and detection of just the AZAs and total DSTs using a C18 Hypersil gold column. Filter vials are used to expedite and simplify sample handling. Results The method has a run time of 7.25 min. LOQs for the AZAs and DSTs in shellfish were 0.3–0.4 µg/kg. Recoveries (AZAs and total DSTs) for three spiking levels in three matrixes ranged from 68 to 129%. Trueness was established using certified reference materials. Method equivalence was established using shellfish provided blind by the Washington State Department of Health Public Health Laboratory (WA DOH PHL). Data obtained from these samples agreed well with data from another LC-MS/MS method used in harvest control by WA DOH PHL (R = 0.999; P < 0.0001). Conclusions The LC-MS/MS method described offers more rapid sample handling and has excellent sensitivity, linearity, and repeatability.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

Journal articles on the topic 'Shellfish toxins'

Create a spot-on reference in APA, MLA, Chicago, Harvard, and other styles