Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Sexual behaviour'

Internet pornography may be an important influence upon sexual scripts, yet research into the cognitive, behavioural and interpersonal outcomes of its use is inconsistent and limited, particularly in adults, and until recently has been focused primarily upon potential harms. In the current research, three online surveys were conducted with Australian adult pornography consumers, and comparison groups of non-users. A systematic review highlighting the lack of research examining the link between pornography use and sexual risk behaviour in adults was the impetus for study one (N=620). The results indicated that current internet pornography use was associated with higher sexual sensation seeking, and higher sexual compulsivity in females only, but it was not linked with any other indicators of sexual risk behaviour, including number of sexual partners, STI history, condom attitudes, intention to use a condom or unsafe casual sex. In study two (N=1016), a model of how internet pornography may act as a form of sexual inspiration was tested. Partial support was demonstrated, as consumption was associated with more positive attitudes, greater engagement in a range of sexual activities, and higher sexual boredom. No evidence for a link with body or genital image was demonstrated. Finally, use of internet pornography in individuals within relationships was investigated in study three (N= 812). Daily or greater use of internet pornography was associated with poorer intimacy in males only. Sexual communication satisfaction was higher for females, but lower for males. Regardless of gender, sexual communication satisfaction was greater when internet pornography was viewed with a partner. The findings were discussed in terms of the research implications and theoretical perspectives; common antecedents, gender differences and feminist approaches were considered. Possible clinical implications and avenues for future research were then explored.

the motivation of this study is to assess the high risk behaviors that contribute to the spread of HIV and AIDS among the youth. The most influential high risk behaviours that contribute to the spread of HIV and AIDS are unprotected sexual intercourse and having more than one sexual partner.The population for this study includes all full time first year students who registered for the first time in 2006 that attended the orientation week. A stratified, sequential random sample was drawn from the students attending the orientation.

This thesis presents two studies where natural and sexual selection have interacted to evolve sexual behaviours. The thesis uses mathematical modelling to understand how these forces have caused each behaviour to evolve. This is useful because the results allow for reflection on the potential role of sexual selection in adaptation of these species to a changing environment. The first study is of early male arrival to spring breeding grounds in migratory avian species, this is termed protandry. The study explores the main hypotheses for avian protandry and then tests the susceptibility of each hypothesis to changing environment. The second study is of convenience polyandry in species where there is conflict over mating rate. Females have multiple strategies to avoid harassive males but strategies vary in cost and success rate; she must balance her strategy use to minimise her fitness depreciation. The study identifies the main factors that cause convenience polyandry to evolve and paves the way for future studies to investigate if sexual selection over resistance strategy provides these species a future advantage in adaptation to a changing environment.

Few data are currently available regarding the extent to which older people (defined here as those aged >50 years): i) are sexually active; ii) engage in `risky' sexual behaviours; and iii) contract sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). It was the primary aim of research described in this thesis to address these specific knowledge deficits and to ascertain whether the exclusion of this age group as a research focus within this subject field can be reasonably justified. The dearth of previous research undertaken in this area necessitated that a secondary goal be addressed, namely the development of methodologies appropriate to the collection from older people of data concerning such issues. Using a combination of self-administered questionnaire studies and secondary data analyses, undertaken both in health care settings and within the community at large, the programme of research clearly indicates that: 1. Older people represent a consistent minority of patients attending specialised genitourinary (GUM) clinics. Members of this group are further regularly diagnosed with STDs. Moreover, older clinic attenders exhibit distinctive socio-demographic and clinical characteristics relative both to younger clinic attenders and to the general population of the same age group. 2. The majority of older GUM clinic attenders are first time attenders and have not been diagnosed with an STD before 3. In the community at large the majority of older adults are sexually active, of whom a small minority (approximately 7%) engage in behaviours that place them at risk of contracting STDs. 4. Most older people, recruited from both health care and non-health care settings, feel that they have received very little information about STDs and HIV, and many indicated that they would like to receive more information on these topics.

This thesis aims to explore the measurement of and the correlation between risky sexual behaviour and chlamydia and gonorrhoea infection in the UK in three chapters. The first of these explores methods of calculating rates of Chlamydia and gonorrhoea infection at UK genitourinary medicine (GUM) clinics. Data from KC60 returns from clinics in the Northwest, Southwest and East Midlands of England are used to provide a numerator for the rates and three methods are tested to derive the denominator: Thiessen polygons, 15 mile boundaries, and 30 minute drive times. The study finds that the rates calculated are relatively insensitive to the method chosen and thus the simplest approach, the Thiessen polygons, is recommended. The analysis also highlights substantial regional differences in GUM service accessibility. The second chapter uses latent class analysis to derive a measure of risky sexual behaviour with respect to chlamydia and gonorrhoea infection. Data from the National Survey of Sexual Attitudes and Lifestyles II, a nationally representative survey of sexual behaviour in Britain, has been analysed in order to identify patterns of behaviours associated with increased disease risk A 3-class solution is obtained, with individuals classified on the basis of the number of partners they have had in the last 12 months. iii The third chapter examines the relationship between the rates of chlamydia and gonorrhoea infection and the measure of risky sexual behaviour. Small area estimates of risky behaviour are obtained for all wards in England using synthetic regression methods. These are then aggregated in line with the Thiessen polygons in order to explore the correlation with the rates of chlamydia and gonorrhoea infection. There is a positive correlation for both infections, but far stronger for gonorrhoea than chlamydia (r=0.70 and r=0.41 respectively), suggesting that although risky behaviour may explain some of the observed variation, further research is need to explore other possible explanations.

This thesis investigates young people's understandings and experiences of 'good sex' and sexual pleasure, documenting the resources young people use to make sense of these meanings in the context of their everyday lives and relationships. The study uses a situated approach to explore the methodological possibilities for researching sexual pleasure with a diverse group of young people in one urban location and to examine the ways in which pleasure is embedded, mediated and gendered in young people's sexual cultures. The research is used to contribute to debates about the inclusion of pleasure in sexual health services for young people and make suggestions for future research/practice. Drawing on data from survey, focus group and interview methods the thesis documents the diversity of young people's understandings of 'good sex' and sexual pleasure, suggesting that young people have access to a range of competing discursive and affective frameworks for making distinctions between what counts as 'good' and 'bad' sex. Analyses suggest that sexual meanings and values are contested and contingent on young people's shifting sex and relationship experiences and social locations. Timeliness and reciprocity emerged as key contested areas, shaped by enduring gender arrangements and participants' evolving sexual biographies. The thesis provides a reflexive account of the practice of researching sexual pleasure with young people, reporting on each method to argue that the findings are situated, shaped by interactive and material context. The research documents the benefits of using critical feminist reflexivity to interrogate how researcher/practitioners can create safe spaces for engaging young people in work around sexual pleasure and concludes that possibilities for realising the 'pleasure project' in practice will depend on local, institutional and political context.

This thesis has explored the sexual offence crime investigation and risk management domains' from two interacting perspectives. It considered both the role and behaviour of the offender and the role and decision making of the investigator. The common theme was how can policing create a more balanced view of risk using evidenced based decisions. From a data set of 154 serial sexual offenders three questions were asked: what are the pathways of offending?' Do sexual offenders escalate? Do they specialise? Four pathways were derived as escalation, oscillation, maintenance and de-escalation; escalation was found in 13% of the offenders. The second part of the thesis then tested the decisions investigators made in a serial sexual offence scenario with an added stressor of time pressure. The results suggested that investigators did not make bad decision but omitted to make some important decisions. Furthermore, experience and intelligence acted as moderators of time pressure. The next part of the thesis considered a contemporary policing issue in terms of sexual offenders and resource decisions. What is the likelihood of an offender possessing indecent images of children (HOC) being a contact child sexual offender. The chapter compared a group of child sexual offenders who possessed HOC and a group of non-contact HOC possessing offenders. Contact and non-contact offenders could be discriminated by criminal convictions, access to children and the severity level of HOC possessed. More sadistic contact offenders possessed higher levels of HOC. The applications to policing knowledge bases were outlined. The findings were considered in terms of the contributions to psychological and criminological literature with two new models of decision making and sexual offending presented.

To date, only one national study has examined patterns of adult sexual knowledge, attitudes and behaviour in New Zealand in the hope of improving sexual and reproductive health outcomes for all New Zealanders. This study was performed nearly two decades ago. The aim of this study is to explore current patterns of sexual health and wellbeing among a sample of adults from the Christchurch metropolitan area. Seven hundred and sixty seven participants were selected from the General and Maori electoral registers and invited to participate in an Internet-based self-administered anonymous survey. Data was collected on sexual health, knowledge, attitudes and behaviour and compared to five previous national studies in adult sexual health and wellbeing. Twenty-five men and 17 women responded to the survey. Overall, sexual health and wellbeing behaviours reported in this study are higher than those found in the five comparative studies. However, it is not clear whether this finding is an accurate reflection of the current sexual and reproductive health status of the sample population or whether participation bias has overestimated the rate of behaviours in question. In conclusion, the results from this study provide sufficient motive to continue on researching a possible shift in patterns of adult sexual health and behaviour over the last two decades in New Zealand.

Previous research on Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD) has identified common physical and behavioural characteristics associated with children who were prenatally exposed to alcohol. The research suggests that many individuals with FASD have experienced involvement with the law, and engaged in inappropriate sexual behaviour. However, there would appear to be a scarcity of research that identifies the life histories of individuals with FASD who have engaged in inappropriate sexual behaviour. Identifying risk and protective factors towards positive outcomes for people with FASD has both individual and societal importance. In order to better understand individuals with FASD, this research paper explores the common characteristics of FASD which may lead to inappropriate sexual behaviour, such as deficits in social skills, self-regulation, and executive functioning. Another important characteristic that is explored in the research paper is how FASD can present as an invisible disability, and the risk associated with treatment of individuals who may not be identified as having organic brain damage, specifically in the criminal justice system. As the research on FASD is limited, this paper also explores the characteristics associated with the general population of people who have engaged in inappropriate sexual behaviour, and people with disabilities who have displayed challenging sexual behaviour. The comparison of populations of people engaging in inappropriate sexual behaviour highlights the importance of the responsivity of interventions. Despite the diagnostic label of “paraphilia” attributed to those who have been convicted of sexual crimes, each individual is a complex being. Responsivity indicates each individual must be holistically understood in order to design services that encourage individual change.

The introduction of human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccination has caused some parents to report concern that their daughters may change their sexual behaviour following vaccination. This concern consistently relates to vaccination acceptance, but had not been investigated in detail. Accordingly, five studies addressed the thesis objective: to explore parents’ concern about adolescent sexual behaviour following HPV vaccination in the context of the UK immunisation programme and to examine whether such concerns were justifiable. The first study examined discussions of risky sexual behaviour and HPV vaccination in news articles published over five years in British newspapers. The second study investigated mothers’ concern about their daughters engaging in risky sexual behaviour after vaccination by questioning a sample of mothers. The third study explored whether adolescents would interpret vaccination consent from parents as carte blanche approval for sexual activity, by surveying 162 girls. The fourth study prospectively investigated the impact of HPV vaccination and a fifth study compared differences between vaccinated girls and girls who had not been offered the vaccine. Concern about the impact of HPV vaccination on sexual behaviour was raised and countered in the media. A minority of mothers were apprehensive about girls’ sexual behaviour following vaccination, however these concerns did not relate to vaccine acceptance. Before the vaccination programme was introduced, some adolescents would infer implicit consent to sexual activity if their parents were to consent to vaccination but most would also take positive messages. Once the HPV immunisation programme was underway, girls’ sexual behaviour did not become more negative following vaccination, despite perceptions of risk lowering. Parents’ concerns may have resulted in reluctance to discuss sex with their daughters in the context of HPV vaccination so that implicit messages of approval for sexual activity are not conveyed. Risk perceptions were pertinent in HPV vaccination acceptability and when exploring behaviour change. These findings may help reduce resistance to HPV vaccination. Implications for theory and practice are discussed.

Background: Sexual behaviour among schoolchildren and adolescents is a sparsely researched area and there are delicate methodological obstacles and ethical concerns when conducting such research. Still it is a subject that engages both parents and professionals. A sexualized behaviour or an early sexual debut (younger than 14 years) can be a sign of sexual abuse. It is therefore of importance to describe what is common and what is uncommon sexual behaviour among children and what the consequences of an early or a late sexual debut may be for the individual upon reaching late adolescence. Adolescents who identify themselves as lesbian, gay or bisexual (LGB) are also a group that needs further attention and research since they are often described as having a lower quality of life and more often experience child abuse than heterosexual teens. Aims: The research leading to this thesis had four goals: 1) to elucidate the sexual behaviour of children between the ages of 7 and 13 as observed by their parents, 2) to investigate the relationship between an early sexual debut (before 14 years of age) and socio-demographic data, sexual experience, health, experience of child abuse and behaviour at 18-years-of-age, 3) to explore associations with no sexual debut (no oral, vaginal or anal sex) at the age of 18, and 4) to describe the relationship between sexual identification and socio-demographic background data, sexual behaviour, health and health behaviour, experiences of child sexual and/or physical abuse and present behaviour among Swedish adolescents. Methods: The parents of 418 children answered questionnaires about their child’s behaviour, both general and sexual, and a sample of 3432 Swedish high school students completed a survey about sexuality, health and abuse at the age of 18. In addition, 362 members of the Swedish Federation for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Rights (RFSL) completed the same survey at a mean age of 21.4 years. Results: Most of the sexual behaviours among the schoolchildren were common, and in part related to, or varied with, age and gender. A small number of sexual behaviours often referred to as sexualised or problematic behaviours (for example, kissing adults with the tongue, imitating intercourse, masturbating in public, and touching other children’s genitals with the mouth) were found to be very unusual or not reported by any parent in this normative group of Swedish children. Among the adolescents, an early debut (younger than 14 years of age) correlated positively with number of partners, experience of oral and anal sex, smoking, drug and alcohol use and antisocial behaviour, such as being violent, lying, stealing and running away from home. Girls with an early sexual debut had significantly more experience of sexual abuse while boys with an early sexual debut were more likely to have a weak sense of coherence, low self-esteem and poor mental health, together with experience of sexual abuse, selling sex and physical abuse. A multiple logistic regression model showed that a number of antisocial acts and health behaviours remained significant, but early sexual debut did not increase the risk of psychiatric symptoms, low self-esteem or low sense of coherence at 18-years-of-age. Just under a quarter (24.6%) of the 3,380 adolescents had not had their sexual debut (no oral, anal or vaginal sex by the age of 18). There was a positive correlation between not debuting sexually at age 18 and a number of factors such as: being more likely to have caring fathers; parents born outside Europe; low sexual desire; lower pornography consumption; lower alcohol and tobacco consumption; less antisocial behavior and fewer experiences of sexual abuse than 18 year olds who had already made their sexua  debut. Adolescents with a minority sexual identity more often described their relationship with their parents as based on low care and high overprotection than did their heterosexual peers. The minority adolescents used alcohol and drugs to a significantly higher degree than the heterosexual adolescents. Multivariate analysis showed a positive correlation between a minority sexual identity and experience of anal sex, higher sexual lust, experience of sexual abuse, physical abuse and sexual exploitation. It was more than twice as common to have experience of penetrating sexual abuse and physical abuse with a sexual minority identity. Conclusions: Behaviours usually referred to as sexualised and problematic are uncommon among children at 7-13 years of age. Professionals and should give a child showing a sexualised behaviour special attention and investigate the reasons for the behaviour. Early sexual debut seems to be associated with problematic behaviours during later adolescence, indicating the fact that the early debut for some children is associated with an increased vulnerability, which has to be addressed. Family socio-demographics such as family stability and/or cultural status matter when it comes to time of sexual debut. Personality also seems to matter and further studies are needed to investigate if there is any correlation between personality traits and late sexual debut. Adolescents with no sexual debut at 18 years of age reported fewer antisocial acts, were less likely to smoke and drink alcohol, had less sexual desire and less experience of sexual abuse. Young people with a sexual minority identity (homo- and bisexual) could be seen to have a lower quality of life compared to heterosexual peers and studies need to be done to further explore possible reasons. They have a higher risk of having experience of sexual and physical abuse compared to heterosexual adolescents. Professionals need to be more aware of this group’s additional vulnerability including the increased risk of child abuse and offer different forms of support.
Barns och ungdomars sexuella beteenden är ett område som engagerar både föräldrar och professionella men det är ett förhållandevis outforskat område. Kanske mycket på grund av att det är ett tabubelagt område och att finns en hel del metodologiska hinder och etiska betänkligheter vid sådan forskning. Ett sexualiserat beteende kan vara tecken på sexuella övergrepp och det är därför viktigt att beskriva vad som är vanligt förekommande och förväntade sexuella beteenden hos barn och unga tillika vilka beteenden som är ovanliga och som kanske behöver utredas vidare. En tidig sexuell debut (debut före 14 års ålder) kan ses som ett riskbeteende i sig men även ett beteende kopplat till andra riskbeteenden som alkoholkonsumtion eller antisociala beteenden. Att vänta med den sexuella debuten beskrivs ibland som något önskvärt men det är inte särskilt väl utforskat. Därför är det viktigt att ta reda på vilka konsekvenser en tidig eller sen sexuell debut får för individen och vilka andra beteenden som är kopplade till en tidig eller sen sexuell debut. Ett annat viktigt område när det gäller ungdomar och sexualitet är sexuell identitet och dess konsekvenser. Ungdomar med en sexuell identitet som homo-, bisexuell eller transperson (HBT) beskrivs i tidigare forskning ofta uppleva en lägre livskvalitet samt oftare ha erfarenhet av barnmisshandel än jämnåriga med heterosexual identitet. Studierna i denna avhandling hade fyra huvudsyften: 1), att undersöka sexuella beteenden hos barn i åldrarna 7 till 13 år 2,) att undersöka sambanden mellan en tidig sexuell debut (yngre än 14 år) och sociodemografi, sexuella erfarenheter, hälsa, erfarenhet av barnmisshandel och beteende vid 18 års ålder 3), sen sexuell debut (ingen frivillig erfarenhet av oral-, vaginaleller analsex vid 18 års ålder) och sociodemografi, sexuella erfarenheter, hälsa, erfarenhet av barnmisshandel och beteende vid 18 års ålder samt 4), att beskriva relationen mellan sexuell identitet och sociodemografi, sexuellt beteende, hälsa, erfarenheter av barnmisshandel och nuvarande beteenden hos svenska 18-åringar. Föräldrarna till 418 barn i åldern 7 till 13 år svarade på en enkät angående deras barns generella och sexuella beteenden. För att undersöka ungdomars sexuella beteenden, debut och identitet genomfördes en undersökning bland 3432 svenska gymnasieelever i 18-års ålder. Dessutom svarade 362 medlemmar i Svenska Förbundet för homosexuellas, bisexuellas och transpersoners rättigheter (RFSL), med en medelåder på 21.4 år, på samma enkät. Det visade sig att många sexuella beteenden bland 7 till 13-åringarna var vanligt förekommande och att de varierade i frekvens med ålder och kön. Problematiska eller oroväckande sexuella beteenden (som till exempel att kyssa vuxna med tungan, imitera samlag, onanera inför andra, röra andras könsorgan med munnen och så vidare) rapporterades inte av några föräldrar eller var mycket ovanliga. En tidig sexuell debut (yngre än 14 år) korrelerade positivt med högre antal sex partner, erfarenhet av oral- och analsex, rökning, drog- och alkoholanvändning och antisocialt beteende, såsom våldsbenägenhet, att ljuga, stjäla och sova borta utan att föräldrarna vet om det. Flickor med en tidig sexuell debut hade större erfarenhet av sexuella övergrepp än flickor med senare debut. Pojkar med en tidig sexuell debut hade oftare en svag känsla av sammanhang, låg självkänsla, psykisk ohälsa, erfarenhet av sexuella övergrepp, att sälja sex eller fysisk misshandel jämfört med pojkar med en senare debut. Knappt en fjärdedel (24,6%) av de 3380 ungdomarna hade inte haft frivillig sexuell debut (oral-, anal- eller vaginalsex) vid 18 års ålder. Ungdomar med sen sexuell debut hade oftare en pappa-barn relation som byggde på en hög grad av omsorg. De hade oftare föräldrar födda utanför Europa, låg sexuell lust, låg pornografikonsumtion, låg alkohol- och tobakskonsumtion, få antisociala beteenden och mer sällan erfarenhet av sexuella övergrepp än 18-åringar som redan debuterat sexuellt. Ungdomarna med sexuell identitet som homo- eller bisexuella hade oftare en föräldra-barn relation som byggde på låg omsorg och hög kontroll än sina heterosexuella kamrater. De homo-och bisexuella ungdomarna använde också mer alkohol och droger jämfört med de heterosexuella ungdomarna. Multivariat analys visade ett positivt samband mellan homo- och bisexualitet och erfarenhet av analsex, sexuell lust, erfarenhet av sexuella övergrepp, misshandel och erfarenhet att sälja sex. Det var mer än dubbelt så vanligt att ha erfarenhet av sexuella övergrepp och fysisk misshandel hos de med en sexuell minoritets identitet. En av slutsatserna blev att översexualiserade eller problematiska sexuella beteenden är sällsynta hos barn i 7-13 års ålder. Det är viktig kunskap för professionella som arbetar med barn och som ofta får frågor kring barns olika beteenden och måste avgöra om det är förväntade och vanligt förekommande beteenden eller beteenden som ska leda till någon form av utredning, Om ett barn visar ett översexualiserat eller annorlunda sexuellt beteende ska det observeras och undersökas vidare av professionella med kunskap om barn och dess utveckling. Tidig sexuell debut verkar vara förknippad med andra problematiska beteenden under senare tonåren. Detta kan också tyda på att den tidiga debuten för vissa barn är associerat med en ökad sårbarhet, som också måste identifieras och tillgodoses av olika yrkeskategorier som arbetar med barn och ungdomar. Det finns olika anledningar till varför vissa ungdomar inte haft sexuell debut vid 18 års ålder. Faktorer som familjestabilitet och kulturell bakgrund spelade roll. Ungdomar med sen sexuell debut rapporterade färre antisociala handlingar, var mindre benägna att röka och dricka alkohol, hade mindre sexuell lust och mindre erfarenhet av sexuella övergrepp. Ytterligare studier behövs för att undersöka om det finns något samband mellan personlighetsdrag och sen sexuell debut. Ungdomar med en sexuell identitet som homo- eller bisexuell skulle kunna anses ha en lägre livskvalitet jämfört med heterosexuella kamrater men ytterligare studier måste göras för att ytterligare utforska möjliga orsaker. Det visade sig vara mycket vanligare med erfarenhet av såväl fysisk misshandel som sexuella övergrepp bland dessa ungdomar. Vuxna och framför allt professionella behöver bli mer medvetna om denna grupps sårbarhet, den ökade risken för erfarenhet av barnmisshandel och kunna erbjuda olika former av stöd.

This thesis is based in two parallel strands of research. The first is an exploration of the theoretical distinctions between two competing paradigms dominant in sexual health research: social cognition models and discourse theory. The second is an exploration of the practical use of a discourse theoretical approach to research accounts from people in the forty-something' age bracket about their experience of developing new sexually intimate relationships. Some developments in connectionist theory are used to explore some possible distinctions between implicit and explicit knowledge. These distinctions are then used to explore the scope of the two paradigms and, drawing on findings from the practical research, to discuss some implications for sexual health research and intervention.

Most epidemiologic studies of sexually transmitted diseases (STD) are based on patients seeking help or advice at various health care settings. Because many STD:s are subclinical, epidemiologic surveys can be strengthened by a population-based approach. The aims of the present study were to investigate the prevalence and incidence of STDs in a population of young women, and to assess associations between STDs and social background, education, previous genital infections, sexual behaviour, contraceptive use and reproductive experience. All women belonging to the 19-, 21-, 23- and 25-year age cohorts and living in the catchment area of a community health center, were invited by mail to participate in the study. In the presence of the investigator, participants answered a structured questionaire regarding their social background, education, previous genital infections, sexual behaviour, contraceptive use and reproductive experience. A gynecologic examination was performed. Cervical scrapes for human papillomavirus (HPV) DNA, as well as samples for wet smear, cervical pap smear, and Chlamydia trachomatis (CT) culture were taken. The presence of genital warts was noted, and a colposcopy was performed 2-5 minutes after application of 5% acetic acid on the cervix and vulva. Acetowhite changes were then assessed. A serologic test for CT and herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) antibodies were performed. Of the 816 women available, 611 (75%) participated in the study. One out of four women reported symptoms from the lower genital tract. The most common were itching, followed by discharge and soreness. There was a significant correlation between the womens" complaint of vaginal discharge, and previous CT infection, lack of lactobacilli and the presence of leucocytosis in wet smear. Twenty-two percent of the women were HPV DNA positive and acetowhitening at the cervix was observed in 16% of the women. The sensitivity of detection of HPV infection by acetowhitening of the cervix was 22% (95%CI 18%, 26%), and the specificity was 90% (95% Cl 87%, 93%). C.trachomatis culture positivity was found in 2.7% of the women and the seroprevalence of CT was 24.7 %. Atypical cytology was found in 3.4% of the women and 6.6% was HSV-2 seropositiv. Of the women studied 23.6% reported having had at least one STD previously and the laboratory analysis showed 45.4% to have had at least one STD. Multivariate logistic regression analysis showed that the number of sexual partners, age at first coitus, history of therapeutic abortion, and previous pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) was independently correlated with CT seropositivity. Lifetime number of sexual partners was the only independent risk factor for HPV. Multivariate analysis showed that increasing age, early sexual debut, and a history of spontaneous abortion were independently related to the presence of HSV-2 antibodies. The lifetime number of sexual partners and coitus on first date were independently associated with a previous STD. Conclusion, We found that one out of four women had some kind of lower genital tract complaint, almost every other women had at sometime in their life an STD, and STDs were often asymptomatic. Acetowhitening of the cervix and vulva has low sensitivity, to low to warrant its use as a predictor of subclinical HPV infection. The pattern of risk factors differed between STDs.

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The aims of this thesis were to expand the knowledge about sexual and reproductive health among urban Ugandan youths, living in a slum, and to evaluate the national flow-chart for management of the abnormal vaginal discharge (AVD) syndrome in adolescent girls. Data collection included individual interviews, focus-group discussions and clinical investigations with tests for chlamydia trachomatis (CT), neisseria gonorrhoea (NG), trichomonas vaginalis (TV), syphilis, and HIV infection. Poverty, peer pressure and gender power imbalance were obstacles to safe sexual practices: to abstain from sex, be faithful or to use condoms. Prevalence among the 199 female and 107 male adolescents for CT, NG, TV, syphilis and HIV was 4.5%, 9.0%, 8.0%, 4.0% and 15.2% for females and 4.7%, 5.7%, 0%, 2.8% and 5.8% for males. The national AVD flow-chart had a sensitivity of 61%, a specificity of 38.5% and a positive predictive value (PPV) of 11.6%. A flow-chart using risk factors, rather than symptoms, implicated a sensitivity/specificity and PPV of 82.6%/47% and 17.3% respectively. Socially disadvantaged females had a high risk to be HIV infected and HIV infection was associated to other STIs. Females were more likely than males to have any of the infections studied. Voluntary counselling and testing (VCT) for HIV was considered as helpful in preventing the spread of HIV. Obstacles for testing were: lack of time and money, fear of stigmatisation and fear that the knowledge of HIV positive status could shorten someone's life. An alternative flow-chart for management of AVD among adolescent girls should be evaluated. Girl's opportunities for education and income generating work should be a priority. VCT services for young people should be made accessible in terms of cost, time and quality of counselling.

This qualitative study comprised ten focus groups and 31 individual in-depth interviews conducted by same sex researchers with young people. Participants were selected purposively from major urban and rural districts of Kathmandu and Chitwan districts of Nepal. Most Focus participants were aged 18-22. This PhD found that many young people in Nepal face a range of socio-economic, psychological, sexual and reproductive health-related problems and these problems are created particularly due to less opportunity for sex, entertainment, curiosity, communication gap and poor sex education. Although dating practice is a relatively new phenomenon in Nepalese society, surprisingly, it has gained popularity among its young people. There is a huge influence of globalisation and modernisation on young people’s sex and relationships. Partnership formation, romantic relationships and dating practice among young people were found to lead to some form of sexual intimacy. Young people’s priority towards sexual pleasure has often discouraged them from using condoms and other sexual and reproductive health services. This PhD suggests that there is a need to disseminate more information on the risk of sexually transmitted infections and unwanted pregnancies, targeting young people. In order to effect real improvements in young people’s sexual health, more attention needs to be given to rigorous research and appropriate interventions. Being a multi-cultural and multi-ethnic society, Nepal’s different cultures and ethnic groups have their own norms and values around sexuality. Hence, these findings may not be easily transferable to other population groups.

This thesis investigates the underlying factors behind sexual risk-taking and non-risk-taking behavior with regard to Sexual Reproductive Health (SRH) among adolescents in Lusaka, Zambia. The Qualitative Approach was used for data collection and analysis and using the theory of Social Construction, the author explains how different contexts and aspects in the Zambian Society, that is Traditional, Socio-economic, Political, etc., influence the sexuality or sexual behavior of young people in Zambia. Hermeneutics was used to interpret the meanings in the texts/transcripts acquired through data collection and from the author’s knowledge and understanding of the Zambian historical and cultural contexts within which the participants of the research were constructed. Max Weber’s Ideal Type concept was also used to explain that each young individual’s sexual behavior is uniquely constructed by societal aspects. It explains how that the discourses of these different aspects of society impact on young people individually causing them to be either Sexually Risk-taking or Non Sexually Risk-taking. Either tendency depends on whether the societal aspect that has most the dominating influence on a given individual's life is a Power factor (causing them to rationally think their way into Non Sexually Risk-taking behavior) or a Risk factor(causing them to rationally think their way into Sexually Risk-taking behavior). The author of this thesis introduces a new Model for Social Construction of Adolescent Sexuality with regard to Risk-taking. She uses it to explain how it is either power factors or risk factors that can have a greater impact on an individual's thinking, causing them to have either sexual risk-taking or non-sexual risk-taking behavior. The author concludes that the extent to which unsafe sex among the Zambian adolescents constitutes a product of interacting and/or main discourses in relation to mainly Traditional aspect risk factors, varies from person to person depending on the strength of given risk factors over any power factors that may be at play in an individual's life.

The present research endeavors to predict prospectively sexually aggressive behaviours among heterosexual university males, while manipulating attitudes and emotions conducive to such behaviour. In both studies described below, questionnaires were used to assess risk for sexual aggression. For the first study (n = 65), participants were assigned to conditions: (1) insult/non-sexually coercive fantasy material; (2) no insult/sexually coercive fantasy material; and, (3) insult/sexually coercive fantasy material. Those deemed high risk for sexual coercion were more easily frustrated than the low group, especially when exposed to Condition 3. Changes in negative affect predicted likelihood of engaging in sexual aggression for the low but not the high risk group and anticipated enjoyment of sexual coercion in the high but not the low group. Controlling for degree of acculturation eliminated any differences between Chinese and Caucasian males. The results suggest that the appeal of sexually aggressive thoughts/fantasies is largely influenced by emotional reactivity in response to environmental stimuli. In the second study (n = 142), participants were assigned to conditions involving either an innocuous or a sexually aggressive cognitive priming task. Regardless of condition, high risk males were more likely to engage in sexual aggression in the laboratory than those deemed low risk. When the effects of discomfort were controlled, a significant interaction between risk and condition on sexual aggression was observed. While engaging in significantly less sexual aggression than the high group when assigned to the innocuous cognitive priming task, the low risk group assigned to the sexually aggressive cognitive priming task was indistinguishable from the high group. Chinese men were significantly more likely than Caucasian men to be deemed high risk and yet, this did not result in differential rates of sexual aggression in the laboratory. Discomfort in response to the sexually aggressive cognitive priming task did, however, result in Chinese men engaging in more sexual aggression than those assigned to the innocuous task. These findings suggest that even those not previously inclined towards sexual aggression can do so under opportunistic circumstances, following an increase in discomfort associated with exposure to and involvement with sexually coercive material.

The aim of this research was to examine an individual's stage of change (SOC) for positive sexual health behaviours, (i.e. using condoms and seeking screening for sexually transmitted infections-STIs) and level of state anxiety at different times during attendance at a sexual health clinic (before examination, after treatment and at 6 week follow up). The study investigated whether there is a relationship between level of anxiety and SOC for positive sexual health behaviours depending on whether a patient is asymptomatic or not. Furthermore the research aimed to find out if level of anxiety and SOC for positive sexual health behaviours predict whether patients return back to the clinic. The study involved a repeated measures longitudinal design. Participants were asked to complete a sexual health questionnaire, which examined components of the Transtheoretical Model of behaviour change and level of state anxiety at three different phases of the study. There was no relationship between SOC for condom use and patients who were asymptomatic and those who were not. There was a relationship found with STI screening; asymptomatic patients were more likely to be in the earlier SOC and symptomatic patients were more likely to be in the later SOC. There was no difference in levels of anxiety between patients who were asymptomatic and those who were not. Level of anxiety was not a predictor for SOC for positive sexual health behaviours at initial attendance. Finally, SOC for positive sexual health behaviour and anxiety did not predict whether a patient would return to the clinic.

Thesis (MTh)--Stellenbosch University, 2015.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This study examines the value that body theology can add to an inclusive understanding of sexuality in adolescence. Sexuality was understood differently throughout different periods in time, but even today there is still no real clarity on what is meant by the term sexuality. Sexuality is a difficult term to define and its meaning plays an important role in the way people treat each other. Throughout the different periods the church has largely been either silent about sexuality or considered it a sin. As a result the church would not necessarily be seen as a good resource for advice on sexual matters. Adolescents go through a dramatic period of developing on a physical, cognitive and moral level, which all occur simultaneously, but sexual development is the most prominent. Sexual development prepares adolescents on a physical level to reproduce and to enter into sexual relationships, but cognitive and moral development also takes place; these two processes are supportive for the adolescent to understand and process the sexual development. These developing processes, together with the context in which an adolescent is growing up, has an impact on the type of moral value system compiled by adolescents, which determines how they behave. As already mentioned, the church is not necessarily involved in these discussions, and therefore this study challenges the churches to become involved again by making use of body theology. The research question can be formulated as follows: What contribution can body theology make to promote an inclusive understanding of sexuality during adolescence? To answer the research question, the first objective is discussed in chapter 2, namely to give a historical overview to obtain an understanding of sexuality and see how the understanding of sexuality changed over the different periods, but also to see that there were certain times when the understanding of sexuality was the same. The second objective is discussed in chapter 3, where the focus is on a historical overview of the understanding of the body. This historical overview is discussed to understand that the body often stood in an ambiguous position and dualisms formed part of the understanding of the body, but it also affects a deeper understanding of life. In chapter 4, the third objective is discussed by examining the centrality of sexual development during adolescence to understand the important role that sexual development plays in the adolescent's life, but also to realise that it affects other aspects of life. The fourth objective is discussed in chapter 5, which contains the discussion of body theology to indicate how it can promote an inclusive understanding of sexuality. This chapter also discusses how body theology developed and the importance of the body in body theology. Chapter 6 includes conclusions and recommendations, such as that youth workers and church leaders need to recognise their own understanding of sexuality and the body, but that body theology can promote an inclusive understanding of sexuality if youth workers and church leaders are able to make a theological shift and use body theology as a theological lens.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie studie ondersoek die waarde wat liggaamsteologie tot ʼn inklusiewe verstaan van seksualiteit tydens adolessensie kan byvoeg. Seksualiteit is deur verskillende tydperke verskillend verstaan, maar daar is selfs vandag nog nie werklik uitsluitsel van wat met die term seksualiteit bedoel word nie. Seksualiteit is ʼn moeilike term om te definieer en die verstaan daarvan speel ʼn belangrike rol in die wyse waarop mense mekaar hanteer. Die kerk was grootliks deur die verskillende tydperke óf stil oor seksualiteit óf het dit as ʼn sonde beskou, met die gevolg dat die kerk nie noodwendig as ʼn goeie hulpbron vir raad rakende seksuele sake beskou word nie. Adolessente gaan deur ʼn dramatiese tydperk waar alle ontwikkelingsprosesse, waarvan die seksuele ontwikkeling die prominentste is, gelyktydig plaasvind. Die seksuele ontwikkeling berei adolessente liggaamlik voor om voort te plant en in seksuele verhoudings te tree, maar kognitiewe en morele ontwikkeling vind ook plaas; hierdie twee prosesse is ondersteunend vir die adolessent om die seksuele ontwikkeling te kan verstaan en verwerk. Hierdie ontwikkelingsprosesse, tesame met die konteks waarin ʼn adolessent groot word, het ʼn invloed op die tipe morele waardestelsel wat adolessente saamstel, en wat bepaal hoe hulle optree. Soos reeds genoem, is die kerk nie noodwendig betrokke by hierdie gesprekke nie, en daarom stel hierdie studie voor dat kerke weer betrokke moet raak deur gebruik te maak van liggaamsteologie. Die navorsingsvraag kan soos volg geformuleer word: Watter bydrae kan liggaamsteologie maak tot die bevordering van ʼn inklusiewe verstaan van seksualiteit tydens adolessensie? Om die navorsingsvraag te beantwoord word die eerste doelstelling, om ʼn historiese oorsig oor die verstaan van seksualiteit te kry, om te sien hoe die verstaan van seksualiteit oor verskillende tydperke verander het, maar ook op sekere tye dieselfde verstaan van seksualiteit gehandaaf is, in hoofstuk 2 bespreek. Die tweede doelstelling word in hoofstuk 3 bespreek, waar die fokus op ʼn historiese oorsig van die verstaan van die liggaam val. Die historiese oorsig oor die verstaan van die liggaam word bespreek om ook te verstaan dat die liggaam baie keer in ʼn dubbelsinnige posisie gestaan het en dat dualismes deel gevorm het van die verstaan daarvan, maar dat dit ook verdere verstaan van die lewe beïnvloed het. In hoofstuk 4 word die derde doelstelling bespreek deur die sentrale rol van seksuele ontwikkeling tydens adolessensie te ondersoek om te verstaan watter belangrike rol seksuele ontwikkeling in die adolessent se lewe speel, maar ook dat dit ander aspekte van die lewe beïnvloed. Die vierde doelstelling word bespreek in hoofstuk 5, wat die bespreking van liggaamsteologie bevat om aan te dui hoe dit ʼn inklusiewe verstaan van seksualiteit kan bevorder. In hierdie hoofstuk word daar ook bespreek hoe liggaamsteologie ontstaan het en wat die belangrikheid van die liggaam in liggaamsteologie is. Hoofstuk 6 sluit die studie af met gevolgtrekkings en aanbevelings soos dat jeugwerkers en gemeenteleiers bewus moet word van hulle eie verstaan van seksualiteit en die liggaam, maar ook dat liggaamsteologie ʼn inklusiewe verstaan van seksualiteit kan bevorder, indien jeugwerkers en gemeenteleiers ʼn teologiese skuif maak en liggaamteologie as ʼn teologiese lens gebruik.

This study is the first to collect detailed empirical data on sexual practice among backpackers while exploring the material and social context of backpacking using an ethnographic framework. The theoretical concepts of liminality and sexual scripts were drawn on to analyse the findings. Backpackers were recruited from hostels in Sydney and Cairns; 559 backpackers (243 women, 316 men) completed an anonymous self-administered questionnaire. In addition, 25 in-depth one-to-one interviews with backpackers and 25 semi-structured interviews were conducted with sexual health and travel clinic staff and hostel service providers. Participant and non-participant observation in backpacker hostels also informed the analysis. Drinking alcohol, often to excess, was central to the backpacking setting and was both a reason for and a post-facto justification of unprotected sex. The backpacking setting encouraged transient liaisons. More than half (55%) of backpackers had sex with someone new during their trip and for 71% of them it was with someone that they had just met that day. Twenty-five per cent of those with no expectations to have casual sex on their trip and 22% of those with no previous experience of casual sex had casual sex during their trip. More than half (53%) of those who had sex with a someone new did so while other people were in the room. Only 55% always used a condom with their last new partner. While most backpackers carried condoms and intended to use them, unprotected sex was common. Perception of risk was low: 78% of those who did not use a condom the last time they had casual sex on the trip perceived their risk of getting HIV to be ??low?? to ??nil??. Three participants acquired HIV during their trip. The culture of backpacking encourages more sexually permissive attitudes but does not encourage condom use, especially for those who did not consistently use condoms at home. These findings highlight the need for more broad-based dissemination of information on STIs to young people, and for future sexual health campaigns to specifically target backpackers in the context in which they travel.

This thesis examines aspects of the prevention of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) in the Australian community, with a particular emphasis on HIV/AIDS in the context of general practice (or primary care settings). The work has four broad aims: i) To describe the primary prevention of sexually transmitted diseases, following from the arrival of the HIV/AIDS pandemic in Australia ii) To describe HIV/STD risk behaviour iii) To summarise previously known evidence of interventions to reduce risk and to raise awareness of HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases iv) To contribute new evidence addressing the potential of the general practitioners' role in HIV/STD prevention The first chapter gives a brief review of the history of HIV/AIDS from its discovery in the United States of America to its appearance in Australia and New Zealand, and discusses the Australian response strategies, both initial and continuing, to confine the epidemic. Specifically, the arrival of HIV/AIDS gave rise to increasing awareness of sexually transmitted diseases, which hitherto, although sometimes chronic, were rarely fatal. The public health risk of HIV necessitated swift government action and led to wider acceptance of publicity about sexual behaviour. Although the thesis does not concentrate solely on HIV, this is still an emphasis. This chapter provides useful background to ensuing chapters. Chapter Two provides an overview of behavioural risk in sexually transmitted diseases. It gives a review of risk factor prevalence studies, and introduces risk behaviour and cognitive models of behaviour change, as applied to STD risk. Sexual behaviour is a complex social interaction, usually involving more than one person, and relying on the personality and behaviour patterns intrinsic to the individuals taking part. It is therefore perhaps more challenging to alter than behaviour which is undertaken alone, being dependent on the behaviour and intentions of both parties. Moreover, comprehensive assessment of sexual risk behaviour requires very detailed information about each incident. Its private nature makes accurate data difficult to obtain, and sexual risk behaviour is, correspondingly, difficult to measure. Chapter Three reviews the effectiveness of interventions tested in primary health care settings to reduce sexual risk behaviour. The candidate uses a replicable method to retrieve and critique studies, comparable with standards now required by the Cochrane Collaboration. From 22 studies discussed, nine health interventions were short, 'one-shot', efforts owing to limited time, resources and other practical constraints. This review demonstrates the scarcity of interventions with people who may be perceived as 'low-risk'. Only four interventions were carried out in community health centres and two in university health clinics. One of the university interventions showed no change in sexual behaviour in any of three arms of the intervention (Wenger, Greenberg et al 1992) while the other showed an increase in condom use in both groups, although the intervention group's self-efficacy and assertiveness also improved (Sikkema, Winett & Lombard 1995). The rationale for the intervention, where given, is described. Chapter Four analyses the content, format and quality of sexual health information brochures available in New South Wales at the time of the candidate's own planning for an interventional study. One of the most effective ways to disseminate information widely is by the use of educational literature, especially when the subject material is potentially sensitive or embarrassing to discuss in person. In this chapter, the candidate reviews the literature available at the time of designing the intervention used in Chapter Five. Readability, attractiveness, clarity and the accurate presentation of facts about sexually transmitted disease risk are examined for each pamphlet. Forty-seven pamphlets were scored according to the Flesch formula, and twenty-four of these scored in the 'fairly' to 'very difficult' range. There was, therefore, a paucity of easy-to-read material on these subjects. Chapter Five evaluates a general practitioner-based counselling intervention to raise awareness of sexually transmitted diseases and to modify HIV/STD risk behaviour. While adults aged 18-25 are less likely than older cohorts to have a regular general practitioner or to visit often, most people visit a general practitioner at least once a year. This could provide an opportunity for the general practitioner to raise preventive health issues, especially with infrequent attendees. As the effectiveness of an opportunistic intervention about sexual risk behaviour was yet to be tested, the candidate designed an innovative randomised controlled trial to raise awareness of risk and increase preventive behaviour. The participation rate was 90% and 76% consented to followup; however the attrition rate meant that overall only 52% of the original participants completed the follow-up questionnaire. The intervention proved easy and acceptable both to GPs and to patients, and risk perception had increased at three months' follow-up; however this occurred in both the control (odds ratio 2.6) and the intervention group, whose risk perception at baseline was higher (odds ratio 1.3). In order to establish some markers of risk in the general population, Chapter Six analyses data resulting from questions on sexual behaviour asked in the Central Sydney section of the NSW Health Survey. The candidate advocated for inclusion of relevant questions to determine some benchmarks of sexual risk behaviour and to provide an indication of condom use among heterosexuals. Although limited in scope as a result of competing priorities for questions in the survey, results demonstrate that, while a small percentage of people were at risk, those with higher levels of partner change or of alcohol use were the most likely to always use condoms. Specifically, 100% of those with more than four new partners in the last 12 months had used condoms with every new partner. In addition, 'heavy' alcohol users were more likely to report condom use every time with new partners (odds ratio 0.34). To furnish data to inform future planning of educational activities for general practitioners, Chapter Seven presents the results of a survey of Central Sydney general practitioners' opinions and current practices in HIV risk reduction with in the broader context of sexually transmitted disease prevention. The general practitioner is in an ideal position to provide information and advice, especially if future research affirms the impact of such advice on STD risk behaviour. General practitioners in this study said they would be slightly more likely to discuss sexual health matters with young patients than with older ones (p=0.091), but this was not significant. The most cited barrier to discussing sexual health was inadequate remuneration for taking time to do so (over 50% gave this reason). The next most cited obstacle was difficulty in raising the subject of STDs or HIV in routine consultations, but this reason was given by less than half the sample. Forty-six percent had participated in continuing medical education programs in STDs, HIV/AIDS, or hepatitis diagnosis or management; 32% of GPs had patients with HIV, and 55% of all GPs indicated they would like more training in management and continuity of care of HIV patients. Approximately half (51%) wanted more training in sexuality issues, including sexual dysfunction. Chapter Eight reviews the whole thesis and discusses future directions for the research agenda.

Recently, it has been discovered that serotonin (5-HT) receptors exist as subtypes in the mammalian brain. At least two major subtypes that differ in their distribution, and affinity for serotonergic drugs, have now been described. These receptors have been labeled 5-HT₁, and 5-HT₂ receptors. The purpose of this thesis is to determine what roles the 5-HT₁, and 5-HT₂ receptors might play in the modulation of sexual behaviour in the female rat. The administration of the 5-HT₂ receptor antagonist pirenperone inhibited sexual receptivity in adult, ovariectomized Sprague Dawley rats that had been primed either chronically with estradiol benzoate (EB), or acutely with EB plus varying doses of progesterone (P). An inhibition occurred at peripherally administered doses of 50, 100 and 150, but not 25 µg/kg of pirenperone. Pirenperone also inhibited receptivity when administered intraventricularly at a dose of 15 µg/kg, however this dose of pirenperone was ineffective when administered peripherally. Increasing the dose of P did not attenuate the inhibitory effect of pirenperone. The 5-HT₂ antagonists ketanserin (2.5 mg/kg) and spiperone (250 µg/kg) also inhibited receptivity in females that had been primed with EB plus P. The inhibitory effect of pirenperone was attenuated by the 5-HT₂ agonist quipazine , however the 5-HT precursor 5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP) (20 mg/kg), and the 5-HT₁, agonists 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethytryptamine (5MeODMT) (200 µg/kg) and tryptamine (2 mg/kg) did not attenuate the effect of pirenperone. Quipazine, 5-HTP, and 5MeODMT did not effect receptivity in females that had been primed with EB plus P, however tryptamine inhibited receptivity. Whereas the nonselective 5-HT antagonist methysergide (3 mg/kg) failed to have an effect on receptivity in females that had been primed with EB, methysergide coadministered with quipazine facilitated receptivity. Pirenperone also inhibited proceptivity in females that had been primed with EB plus P. Although quipazine did not attenuate the inhibitory effect of pirenperone upon proceptivity, quipazine alone facilitated proceptivity in females that had been primed either with EB, or with EB and P. Methysergide did not effect proceptivity, and 5-HTP, 5MeODMT, and tryptamine were also ineffective with regards to proceptivity. The results of the present series of experiments are not entirely consistent with Meyerson's widely held theory of serotonergic inhibition , rather they suggest a dual role for 5-HT in female sexual behaviour. Therefore, a new theory regarding the role of 5-HT in sexual behaviour is proposed. Specifically, it is proposed that inhibitory effects of 5-HT are mediated by activity at 5-HT₁, receptors, whereas facilitatory effects are mediated by activity at 5-HT₂ receptors.
Arts, Faculty of
Psychology, Department of
Graduate

Part 1: Literature review - Aim: To review the literature and examine factors which have been identified to contribute to the job satisfaction of formal caregivers working within dementia care. Method: 11 papers were included in the review following a systematic search of three databases. Results: Factors found to be associated with job satisfaction in caregivers include Person Centred Care, setting type, caregiver distress, support and exposure to aggression. Several methodological limitations of the reviewed studies were noted; namely a lack of consensus on the definition of job satisfaction and a wide variety of measures utilised. Conclusion: Due to the ambiguity of what constitutes job satisfaction precision regarding predictive factors was difficult; this is also reflected in wider healthcare literature. Future research with a qualitative design may elicit what job satisfaction means to caregivers working within dementia care. Part 2: Research report - Aim: This study set out to explore the experience of informal caregiver’s living and caring for someone with dementia who presents with Inappropriate Sexual Behaviour (ISB). Method: Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis was used to explore the lived experience of two caregivers. Results: Analysis across both cases revealed divergence and convergence. Three super-ordinate themes were identified: ‘What the behaviour means to me’, ‘The change in our relationship’ and ‘Making sense of outsiders’. Both caregivers seemed to adopt coping strategies such as minimisation and distancing their spouse from ISB by attributing the behaviour to dementia. Conclusion: This study provided a unique glimpse into the lives of spousal caregivers experiencing ISB and the importance of raising awareness of this behaviour. Further exploration is required to build on the current study and develop this under-researched topic. Part 3: Critical appraisal - A reflective account of the whole research process which highlights key aspects of the journey.

Literature Review Dementia care in acute services is under researched, not least an examination of the emotional impact of the work. This review aimed to explore and synthesise the available literature regarding the experiences of staff in acute care settings. A systematic review was conducted using systematic and transparent methods. Themes, as experienced and described by staff, included environmental inadequacies and insufficient knowledge of dementia. The emotional impact of the work was elicited and areas of enlightened practice were indicated. Supporting patients with a dementia in the acute care setting appears to be complicated by a range of influences including case complexity, insufficient resources and staff constructions of the patient. The review highlighted areas of need as identified by staff. Empirical Paper Research assessing the impact of Inappropriate Sexual Behaviour (ISB) on staff working in dementia care is circumscribed. This study explored staff experience of ISB exhibited by older adults with a dementia. Interviews with fourteen staff working within an inpatient setting were undertaken and analysed using a Grounded Theory methodology. The core category, ‘A Question of Attribution’ was identified, describing the process experienced when confronted with ISB. Four main categories were inducted representing participants initial experiences, their contextualising of the behaviour, their process of interpretation and pragmatic management of ISB. Staff’s feelings about ISB appeared equivocal with some staff reporting indifference, others feeling violated. Findings imply that the impact of ISB should be more routinely considered in preparing staff for working with patients with a dementia. Critical Appraisal This paper outlined numerous reflections and observations made during the research journey with consideration of the chosen methodology, study limitations and the personal impact of conducting the research, in addition to the learning experience.

Includes bibliographical references (leaves 67-82).
This study deals with sexual behaviour of adolescents in a rural area of South Africa. The primary objective is to explore the sexual behaviour of rural adolescents, specifically with regard to the first time they engage in sexual intercourse, the number of sexual partners, their use of contraceptives and their knowledge of HIV/AIDS and how this influences their sexual activity. This study also examines how alcohol drinking, cigarette smoking, drug and substance use affect adolescent sexuality. Lastly, it explores the influence of religion and family connectedness on adolescent sexuality.

Fatherlessness is a problem that affects a majority of African families in South Africa. African fathers become absent in the home due to various reasons such as, death, divorce, separation, imprisonment and distant work commitments. Father figures such as older brothers, uncles and stepfathers are a prominent feature in the African the community. The literature study revealed that adolescence is a period of transitioning from childhood into adulthood. During adolescence, adolescents experience physiological, psychological, cognitive and social changes. This is the time when adolescents begin to move away from their parents and seek independence. Adolescence is also a time when romantic interests begin and adolescents worry about whether they are attractive and if others will accept them. Literature also revealed that fathers and father figures are essential in defining masculinity and socialising young boys. African male adolescents can be socialised into manhood through traditional male circumcision and mentorship. The literature study also questioned whether there is a crisis in masculinity and society’s role in redefining masculinity. The goal of the research study was to explore paternal influences on the sexual behaviour of African male adolescents. The intention of the researcher was to search for a deeper understanding of paternal influences by functioning biological fathers and father figures on the sexual behaviour of African male adolescents. The iv researcher also sought to identify how social services can improve service delivery to families, fathers and male adolescents. The research focused on the role fathers and father figures play on the sexual behaviour of young males who are currently in the developmental phase of adolescence, which can also be described as the period of transition into adulthood. The researcher used applied research and the qualitative research approach to conduct the study. The study was conducted with a sample size of 15 participants between the ages of 15 to 17 years. The researcher collected data by means of means of semi-structured interviews and the use of an interview schedule. The empirical findings of this study suggest that African male adolescents believe that African male adolescents are affected negatively by father absence. African male adolescence perceive a good father or father figure as a father who is more than just a breadwinner, a father who is able to provide guidance, advice and care as well as spend time with his son. African male adolescents also believe that a ‘real man’ knows how to treat women; he is faithful, trustworthy, considerate, decisive, assertive and honest. African male adolescents expect their fathers and father figures to teach them about relationships, sexuality, the consequences of unsafe sex and the importance of delaying sexual début. Some African male adolescents feel that their fathers and father figures often share little or no detailed information about sexuality, sexual behaviour and relationships with them. Some African male adolescents noted that additional sources of information about sexuality, sexual behaviour and relationships come from school and other male relatives in the family such as uncles. The empirical findings further revealed that some male adolescents are concerned about the sexual behaviours modelled by their own fathers and father figures, they observe that their fathers and father figures change partners too often and that creates confusion in their lives. However other African male adolescents expressed that their fathers and father figures model appropriate sexual behaviours that give them something to aspire to. African male adolescents shared that there are lessons about sexual behaviour that they have learnt from their fathers and father figures that are worthy of being passed on to their own sons one day. A few felt that they would rather pass on their own knowledge to their sons one day. The empirical findings confirmed that fathers and father figure are influential on the sexual behaviour of African male adolescents. Both the literature review and v empirical findings further confirmed that paternal influences or lack thereof influence the choices of African male adolescents about the kinds of fathers they want to be in the future. The study contains an in-depth literature review, research methodology, followed by empirical findings that answer the research question. The last objective of the study will be to draw conclusions and make recommendations on paternal influences on the sexual behaviour of African male adolescents to inform social services professionals’ service delivery to families and the youth, within the social work profession.
Dissertation (MSW)--University of Pretoria, 2016.
Social Work and Criminology
MSW
unrestricted

In Drosophila, the functionally conserved transcription factor, doublesex (dsx), is pivotal to the specification of sexual identity in both males and females. One of its key dedicated roles involves regulating the development of a sexually dimorphic nervous system (NS) that underlies both male and female reproductive behaviours. Specific inhibition of the function of dsx-expressing neurons in males and females results in a global disruption of these sex-specific behavioural outputs. However, little is known about the functional organisation of this dsx circuit that encodes the potential to display these behaviours. Such investigations require the generation of a novel transgenic tool, capable of separating the function of dsx in the NS from that of the body. To achieve this, I generated a novel split-GAL4 dsx^GAL4-DBD hemidriver by ends in homologous recombination. Coupling the novel tool with the pan-neuronal elav^VP16-AD hemidriver, revealed spatial restriction of dsx^GAL4-DBD/elav^VP16-AD expression to dsx neurons only; enabling the realisation of novel patterns of dsx-expression in the peripheral NS. Next, the ability to elicit male-specific behavioural outputs upon activation of all dsx neurons formed the basis of a large behavioural screen aimed at parsing dsx circuitry into functionally distinct clusters. I utilised the novel dsx^GAL4-DBD hemidriver to screen a large collection of extant enhancer trap lines (ET^VP16-AD), for the elicitation of distinct sub-behaviours of male courtship. Here, I show that the activity of dsx-expressing clusters in: i) the brain (dsx-pC1, -pC2 and -pC3 collectively) regulate the early steps of male courtship (initiation, orientation and wing extension), ii) the pro- and mesothoracic ganglia (dsx-TN1 and -TN2) regulate the middle steps of male courtship (wing extension and possibly courtship song) and iii) the abdominal ganglia (dsx-Abg) regulate the late steps of male courtship (abdominal curling, attempted copulation and copulation). These data establish functional correlations between dsx clusters in distinct neuroanatomical foci and specific sub-behaviours of the courtship repertoire. Furthermore, the novel intersectional tool primed a collaborative study on female post-copulatory behaviours. We identified key sensory neurons in the female reproductive tract involved in initiating post-mating behaviours. Subsequent functional interrogations of dsx circuitry in the central NS revealed a subset of dsx-expressing neurons in the Abg that mediate changes in the female behavioural repertoire after mating. Characterisation of this relatively simple neural circuitry sheds light on the organisation of the fly brain. Ultimately, future studies will define principles of neural circuit operation, which may be similarly conserved in the nervous systems of higher animals.

In the last thirty years there have been many research studies which have examined the reasons why adolescents and young adults engage in sexual behaviours. Most of these studies have lacked a theoretical basis, Consequently there are many links made between variables, but no consistency across studies, or attempts to develop an underlying theory to explain the results. However, there have been theoretical models developed to explain adolescents’ and young adults’ sexual decision making. Unfortunately, many of these models have not been empirically validated. This thesis attempts to address these deficiencies in the literature by utilising a theory of behaviour and applying it to adolescent and young adult sexual decision making. This theory is the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB). Two longitudinal studies were conducted to examine the utility of an adaptation of the TPB to sexual decision making among adolescents and young adults. In the first study 58 adolescent males, aged between 14 years and 18 years participated in a longitudinal study using a questionnaire adapted from the Depth of Sexual Involvement Scale. In the second study, 194 young adults (156 female, 38 male) aged between 18 years and 21 years participated in a similar study. The first study found that intention to engage in behaviour was well predicted, although some of the variables in the model, did not in fact, contribute significantly to the prediction. The prediction of behaviour was less strong than that of intention. Study two found that intention to engage in behaviours was well predicted by the model. However, the degree to which intention led to behaviour was not well predicted. Overall, the results of these studies suggest that the TPB is a good theoretical basis from which to launch a systematic and theoretically informed explanation of adolescent and young adult sexual decision making. However, other factors may need to be added to the model to fully describe the decision making process and accurately predict behaviour. Suggestions are made for future research, as well as interventions that may arise as more knowledge is gathered using this paradigm.

The environment an animal inhabits directs the inheritance of traits that improve fitness, with genes that aid survival being selected for each generation. Furthermore, sexual selection plays a role directing the inheritance of traits that enhance individual reproduction. As such, the presence of particular traits exhibited by animals within different environments can provide insights into species or population level social and mating systems. The overall aim of this thesis was to examine long-standing evolutionary assumptions surrounding reproductive ecology, and male life history, in the Eastern grey kangaroo (Macropus giganteus). Specifically, the impacts of genetic relatedness on social and behavioural aspects of free ranging kangaroos, as well as the influence of sexually selected traits on male reproductive success, were investigated. Initial investigations identified correlations among genetic relatedness, social affiliation and geographic home range. Females were found to be more related to one-another than males were, males exhibited larger home range overlap and more social affinity than females, and socially affiliated males and females were more related than expected by chance. Further investigations elucidated several male attributes that were correlated with reproductive success at two geographically isolated sites, namely body size parameters, including weight and testes size. While larger males generally sired more offspring, other smaller successful males appeared to engage in alternative reproductive strategies, including extensive roaming habits. The findings of this study enhance our understanding of the complex interplay between intrinsic and extrinsic factors that influence male reproductive success in a free ranging polygynous marsupial species, including the notion that site-specific factors likely influence the relative importance of these attributes.

1.Many studies have investigated why males and females segregate spatially in sexually dimorphic species. These studies have focused primarily on temperate zone ungulates in areas lacking intact predator communities, and few have directly assessed predation rates in different social environments. 2.Data on the movement, social affiliation, mortality and foraging of radio-collared African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) were collected from 2001–06 in the Kruger National Park, South Africa. 3.The vast majority of mortality events were due to lion (Panthera leo) predation, and the mortality hazard associated with being an adult male buffalo in a male-only ‘bachelor’ group was almost four times higher than for adult females in mixed herds. The mortality rates of adult males and females within mixed herds were not statistically different. Mortality sites of male and female buffalo were in areas of low visibility similar to those used by bachelor groups, while mixed herds tended to use more open habitats. 4.Males in bachelor groups ate similar or higher quality food (as indexed by percentage faecal nitrogen), and moved almost a third less distance per day compared with mixed herds. As a result, males in bachelor groups gained more body condition than did males in breeding herds. 5.Recent comparative analyses suggest the activity-budget hypothesis as a common underlying cause of social segregation. However, our intensive study, in an area with an intact predator community showed that male and female buffalo segregated by habitat and supported the predation-risk hypothesis. Male African buffalo appear to trade increased predation risk for additional energy gains in bachelor groups, which presumably leads to increased reproductive success.

The present research aimed to address two questions. First, is dating anxiety associated with sexual intimacy anxiety? Second, do young people who report harmful sexual behaviour, as an offence or harmful dating behaviour, have higher levels of dating and sexual intimacy anxiety than young people who report no harm, non-sexual harm or sexual and non-sexual harm (generalists)? The Dating Anxiety Scale for Adolescents (DAS-A) was used to measure overall dating anxiety. Questions relating DAS-A sub-factors fear of negative evaluation and social distress - dating were amended to measure sexual intimacy anxiety. A scale to measure partnership anxiety and sexual behaviour anxiety were designed. Participants were 77 young people aged 13 to 18 years (M = 15.4, SD = 1.41). Forty-five (58%) of participants were female and 32 (42%) participants were male. Results found a strong, significant association between higher levels of dating anxiety and higher levels of sexual intimacy anxiety r(75) = .80, p < .001. Young people who reported a sexual offence had significantly higher sexual behaviour anxiety than non-sexual offence (M = 15.82, SD = 6.23, p = .005) and generalist offence groups (M = 21.77, SD = 6.53, p = .044). Despite no other significant differences, a pattern emerged that suggests young people who report harmful sexual or generalist dating behaviour may have higher dating and sexual intimacy anxieties. Furthermore, young people who report harmful dating behaviour may have higher anxieties than young people who report an offence. The implications of the findings for future harmful sexual behaviour and harmful dating behaviour research and practice are discussed.

Adolescence is a crucial sensitive period in the development of the endocannabinoid system. Perturbations to this system during adolescence using exogenous CB₁ receptor ligands produces long-lasting changes in adult behaviours, though potential effects on sexual behaviour remains to be fully explored experimentally. This was investigated in two studies: study one examined the effects of adolescent administration of cannabinoids on adult sexual behaviours in male rats, while study two did the same in female rats. In study one, adolescent male rats were administered CB1 agonist HU-210, CB₁ antagonist AM-251, or no drug chronically during adolescence. Then they received drug abstinence until adulthood, followed by sexual behaviour testing. Study two used similar methods in females. In study one, AM-251 decreased sexual behaviour compared to control while HU-210 increased it. In study two, female sexual behaviour was not significantly affected by any drug treatment. The results for males are opposite of past findings on the effect of adult cannabinoid exposure, which show that CB₁ receptor agonism in adulthood decreases sexual functioning while antagonism increases it. This shows that the endocannabinoid system is involved in the adolescent development of normative adult male sexual behaviour. Further research is needed to fully contextualize the results for females, though it appears female sexual behaviour may be less vulnerable than male sexual behaviour to adolescent endocannabinoid system disruptions. Findings from these studies will contribute to an understanding of how the endocannabinoid system is involved in the development of sexual behaviour, how disregulation during adolescence may underlie sexual dysfunctions, and the potential risks of adolescent cannabis consumption on sexual health.
Arts, Faculty of
Psychology, Department of
Graduate

The current study examined the capacity of the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) and the Prototype/Willingness model (P/W model) to predict intention to have unsafe sex with new and regular partners as well as frequency of unsafe sex in a sample of men who have sex with men (MSM) sample. The study also examined aspects of the sexual situation immediately prior to or during unsafe sexual intercourse (such as substance use, venue and emotional state) to determine whether there were any significant correlations and group differences. One hundred and fifty-eight male participants between the ages of 18-26 who have had sex with another male in the last nine months completed an online survey of sexual habits, TPB and P/W model variables. With the exception of prototypes, the results showed significant group difference in terms of TPB and P/W model variables between risk groups. Furthermore, there was no significant difference between models in predictive capacity in terms of either intention or frequency of unsafe sex. The results of the study suggested participants were generally only having unsafe sex with regular partners, that in older samples it may be more parsimonious to use the TPB than P/W model and that it is important to measure TPB variables in terms of both new and regular partners for increased accuracy and greater applicability in terms of HIV/STI interventions.