Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Sex differences in preschool behaviour'

A consistent finding in the literature is that children who demonstrate lower levels of social functioning (i.e., exhibit high levels of externalising and internalising problems and low levels of socially competent behaviour) have problems interpreting social cues and enacting appropriate behavioural responses in social situations (that is, they have poor social information processing (SIP) skills). Another consistent finding is that children who demonstrate lower levels of social functioning have problems regulating behaviour and/or emotions (that is, they have poor self-regulation skills). The research questions in this study explore two related issues: whether these associations can explain sex differences in social functioning (with girls consistently exhibiting higher levels of social competence and lower levels of externalising problems than boys) and whether an intervention targeting SIP and self-regulation skills can lead to improvements in social functioning. The study forms one component of a larger developmental prevention project (the Pathways to Prevention Project) which involves the provision of an integrated set of intervention strategies to children attending preschools in a highly disadvantaged Brisbane suburb. It also involves programs with their families, their schools and relevant ethnic communities. This study relates to a sub-sample of 308 children who participated solely in the social skills program. Children from two preschools received the program (N=174) and were compared with children from two other preschools who did not receive the program (N=134). The research questions were addressed using a repeated measures design, with data being collected from all intervention and comparison children pre- and post-intervention (that is, at the beginning and end of the school year) and at a one year follow-up at the end of Grade 1. The study is unique as it involves Australian children from a diverse range of cultural backgrounds, many of whom who are non-English speaking. Few studies have involved such diverse samples and none have been implemented in an Australian context. The first two research questions seek to confirm findings from prior studies, examining whether females exhibit higher levels of social functioning than males and whether there is a significant relationship between social functioning and SIP and self-regulation skills. The third research question significantly extends prior findings by examining whether there are sex differences in SIP and self-regulation skills and whether these can account for sex differences in social functioning. This issue has been largely overlooked in the literature. The fourth research question examines whether a social skills intervention designed to improve preschool children's SIP and self-regulatory skills can lead to improvements in these skills and increase levels of social functioning. The fifth research question examines the relative effect of the intervention for boys and girls. Using pre-intervention data, the study confirmed prior research, finding significant sex differences in social functioning with girls exhibiting higher levels of social competence and lower levels of externalising problems. A significant relationship was also found between measures of SIP, self-regulation skills and social functioning. A significant sex difference was found in SIP and self-regulation skills, with girls performing better than boys on these measures. After adjusting for children's scores on the SIP measure, sex differences in social competence were no longer significant. Sex differences in externalising problems remained significant but were markedly reduced. A similar pattern of findings was observed when adjusting for self-regulation skills. These findings represent a major contribution to the understanding of sex differences in social functioning. In comparison to non-participants, participants in the social skills program demonstrated significant improvements in SIP, self-regulation skills and social competence which were sustained 12 months after the completion of the intervention. In general, program participation was not found to be associated with changes in children's levels of externalising and internalising behaviour problems, although there were strong and significant reductions in externalising behaviour problems for disruptive children who were consistently engaged with the program. Program effects were greatest where it was consistently reinforced by teachers. No significant sex differences in program effects were found. Implications for future policy are that child-focused programs designed to increase school readiness and levels of social competence should include SIP and self-regulation components. More intensive programs may be required for long term improvements in behaviour problems. In terms of future practice, it is concluded that the implementation and evaluation of programs for young disadvantaged children from a range of multi-cultural backgrounds must limit English language requirements to increase program engagement, and encourage parental involvement using strategies such as parent training groups that do not demand high levels of parental literacy. Teacher involvement also needs to be maximised either through the provision of teacher training or through intensive mentoring.

A consistent finding in the literature is that children who demonstrate lower levels of social functioning (i.e., exhibit high levels of externalising and internalising problems and low levels of socially competent behaviour) have problems interpreting social cues and enacting appropriate behavioural responses in social situations (that is, they have poor social information processing (SIP) skills). Another consistent finding is that children who demonstrate lower levels of social functioning have problems regulating behaviour and/or emotions (that is, they have poor self-regulation skills). The research questions in this study explore two related issues: whether these associations can explain sex differences in social functioning (with girls consistently exhibiting higher levels of social competence and lower levels of externalising problems than boys) and whether an intervention targeting SIP and self-regulation skills can lead to improvements in social functioning. The study forms one component of a larger developmental prevention project (the Pathways to Prevention Project) which involves the provision of an integrated set of intervention strategies to children attending preschools in a highly disadvantaged Brisbane suburb. It also involves programs with their families, their schools and relevant ethnic communities. This study relates to a sub-sample of 308 children who participated solely in the social skills program. Children from two preschools received the program (N=174) and were compared with children from two other preschools who did not receive the program (N=134). The research questions were addressed using a repeated measures design, with data being collected from all intervention and comparison children pre- and post-intervention (that is, at the beginning and end of the school year) and at a one year follow-up at the end of Grade 1. The study is unique as it involves Australian children from a diverse range of cultural backgrounds, many of whom who are non-English speaking. Few studies have involved such diverse samples and none have been implemented in an Australian context. The first two research questions seek to confirm findings from prior studies, examining whether females exhibit higher levels of social functioning than males and whether there is a significant relationship between social functioning and SIP and self-regulation skills. The third research question significantly extends prior findings by examining whether there are sex differences in SIP and self-regulation skills and whether these can account for sex differences in social functioning. This issue has been largely overlooked in the literature. The fourth research question examines whether a social skills intervention designed to improve preschool children's SIP and self-regulatory skills can lead to improvements in these skills and increase levels of social functioning. The fifth research question examines the relative effect of the intervention for boys and girls. Using pre-intervention data, the study confirmed prior research, finding significant sex differences in social functioning with girls exhibiting higher levels of social competence and lower levels of externalising problems. A significant relationship was also found between measures of SIP, self-regulation skills and social functioning. A significant sex difference was found in SIP and self-regulation skills, with girls performing better than boys on these measures. After adjusting for children's scores on the SIP measure, sex differences in social competence were no longer significant. Sex differences in externalising problems remained significant but were markedly reduced. A similar pattern of findings was observed when adjusting for self-regulation skills. These findings represent a major contribution to the understanding of sex differences in social functioning. In comparison to non-participants, participants in the social skills program demonstrated significant improvements in SIP, self-regulation skills and social competence which were sustained 12 months after the completion of the intervention. In general, program participation was not found to be associated with changes in children's levels of externalising and internalising behaviour problems, although there were strong and significant reductions in externalising behaviour problems for disruptive children who were consistently engaged with the program. Program effects were greatest where it was consistently reinforced by teachers. No significant sex differences in program effects were found. Implications for future policy are that child-focused programs designed to increase school readiness and levels of social competence should include SIP and self-regulation components. More intensive programs may be required for long term improvements in behaviour problems. In terms of future practice, it is concluded that the implementation and evaluation of programs for young disadvantaged children from a range of multi-cultural backgrounds must limit English language requirements to increase program engagement, and encourage parental involvement using strategies such as parent training groups that do not demand high levels of parental literacy. Teacher involvement also needs to be maximised either through the provision of teacher training or through intensive mentoring.
Thesis (PhD Doctorate)
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
School of Psychology
Full Text

Sex-role socialisation begins from the day a child is born, and permeates all aspects of his or her life. As the child develops s/he gradually comes to acquire the behaviours and attitudes deemed appropriate for his or her gender. These behaviours begin to appear as early as three years, when a child's choice of play items becomes sex-typed. This development is the product of changes effected in child's behaviour via reinforcement (positive or negative) by the modelling and influence of significant others (especially parents, peers and the mass media). Such behavioural change is accompanied by cognitive development in regard to the child's concepts or schema regarding sex-roles and the child's personal identification with these roles. Of particular importance to the preschool child is storybooks; these act as mirrors to the outside world for the developing child. However, the messages are often stereotyped. The purpose of this study was to ascertain the extent to which children's adoption of sex-roles was amenable to change as a result of direct intervention, in terms of the effect of non-sexist stories on children's sex-typed toy-play behaviour. Eight sex-typed preschool children (four boys, four girls), from a Day Care Centre were selected to participate in the study. The experimental design used was single-case, where each child served as his or her own control. Specifically, the baseline phase involved the individual reading of a gender neutral story, followed by an observation of the child's toyplay behaviour, when presented with a set of sex-typed girl and boy toys. The intervention phase followed the same fonnat, however two non-sexist stories were used: a "girl" story and a "boy" story, with each displaying non-traditional behaviours for the relevant gender. The design was counter-balanced in regard to the order of presentation of the non-traditional stories, both for each child, and across the eight children. Thus four of the subjects' received the stories in the order ABC ACB and for the remaining four it was ACB ABC (A=Neutral, B=boy and C=girl). The 220 observations were conducted over a five month period, with data being plotted on a daily basis. The videotapes of the sessions were coded for any changes in levels of sex-typed play, thus the percentage of total time each child played with either the "girl" toys or "boy" toys was calculated. On completion of the observations the experimenter individually asked the children questions about the story and administered a number of tasks aimed primarily at ascertaining the children's recall and understanding of the stories. The subjects results are discussed on an individual basis, and then this is followed by an analysis of the three distinct trends that emerged. The first trend was that for some of the children the stories appeared to have an effect on their toy-play behaviour by increasing their levels of non-sex-typed play. For the second group, there appeared to be a temporary effect on toy-play behaviour and for the last there appeared to be no effect at all, that is there was no change from baseline. This is followed by an analysis of sex differences in the results, in that girls appeared to be influenced more by the girl stories than the boys were, by the boy stories. The findings are discussed from a number of theoretical perspectives on sex-role development, namely Social Learning, Social Cognitive and Gender Schema theories. The implications of the present research in an educational context are discussed, with particular reference to the importance of future research into the introduction of a more egalitarian curriculum being introduced into the preschool setting to help alleviate the restrictions stereotyping places on the human personality.

The apparent relationship between rejection from the peer group and future maladjustment, combined with the fact that peer rejection appears to be a relatively stable phenomenon (Coie & Dodge, 1983), has led to increasing concern about children who are experiencing peer relationship problems or who are socially rejected by their peers. Therefore, the social status of children deserves investigation to identify children at risk. Three factors that have emerged as important predictors of social status for children in middle childhood are individual differences in social information processing, temperament and social behaviour. However, although early childhood may be a optimum period for implementation of intervention programs, little is known about the correlates of social status in early childhood. Additionally, relatively little research has addressed the issue of sex differences in the factors that are associated with peer social status. The studies in this thesis were derived from a program of research focused on peer social status in early childhood. Specifically, the studies constitute an examination of sex and social status differences in social information processing, temperament and social behaviour in a sample of preschool-aged children. The first study used peer informants to identify children's social status as a basis for subject classification for the subsequent research studies. One hundred and eighty-seven preschool children (94 boys and 93 girls, mean age 62.4 months, SD = 4.22) were assigned to social status groups through a sociometric procedure involving a combination of limited choice positive nominations and a three-point rating scale (Asher & Dodge, 1986). From this procedure five social status groups were constituted: popular (12 boys, 14 girls), rejected (13 boys, 11 girls), neglected (13 boys, 12 girls), controversial (7 boys, 4 girls) and average (13 boys, 22 girls) and an unclassified group of "others" (36 boys, 30 girls). These social status groups were subsequently used for analysis of social status differences. In the second study, sex and social status differences in social information processing were examined. Children took part in individual interviews in which they were asked to respond to hypothetical problematic social situations involving same and opposite sex target peers. The situations consisted of intentional and ambiguous provocation situations, peer group entry and a situation that violated social expectations, such as sharing or taking turns. There were few social status differences in the competency of children's responses to the problematic social situations however, sex differences were evident both in the overall competency of children's responses and in the ways in which they responded to same and opposite sex target peers. Overall, girls were more likely than boys to suggest prosocial responses while boys were more likely than girls to suggest aggressive or retaliatory responses. In response to provocation situations, boys responded less competently to provocation by a boy target than they did to a girl target while girls responded similarly to same and opposite sex target figures. In contrast, while boys responded similarly across target figures in social expectation and peer group entry situations, girls responded less competently to a girl target child than to a boy target child in social expectation situations and less competently to a target group of boys than to a target group of girls in peer group entry situations. The third study assessed sex and social status differences in temperament. Teachers were asked to complete a 23 item Teacher Temperament Questionnaire (Keogh, Pullis & Cadwell, 1982) and data were analysed along the dimensions of Task Distractibility, Personal-Social Inflexibility, Reactivity and Threshold of Response. There were significant sex differences in temperament. Specifically, teachers rated boys as more likely than girls to display Task Distractibility in terms of high distractibility, high activity and low persistence. Temperament also emerged as an important discriminator between social status groups in that rejected children were rated by their teachers as displaying a more "difficult" temperamental style than popular children in terms of high Task Distractibility and high Personal-Social Inflexibility. The relationship between temperamental characteristics and social status also differed for boys and girls. Specifically, while Task Distractibility, Personal-Social Inflexibility and Reactivity were important predictors of rejected social status for girls, temperament did not predict rejected social status for boys. However, low Task Distractibility predicted popular social status for boys while temperament did not predict popular social status for girls. The fourth and fifth studies assessed children's social behaviour through teacher report and naturalistic observation. In the fourth study, teachers completed a 30 item questionnaire developed for this program of research which assessed aspects of prosocial behaviour, aggression, peer group entry and peer conflict. With respect to sex differences, teachers rated boys as more likely than girls to engage in aggressive behaviour, use aggressive and disruptive peer group entry strategies and use aggressive strategies when dealing with conflict. Results with respect to status differences indicated that the most powerful discriminator between children in the rejected and neglected groups and popular children was a lack of prosocial behaviour. The demonstration of cooperative play behaviour also emerged as the strongest predictor of popular social status for boys while low rates of cooperative play and prosocial behaviour predicted rejected social status for girls. In the fifth study, rejected, neglected and popular children were observed for a total of 25 minutes over a three month period engaging in free play within their preschool centres. Popular children were observed to engage in cooperative play, ongoing connected conversation and display positive affect while rejected and neglected children spent more time alone, engaged in conversation less often and were more likely to display neutral or negative affect. The final study investigated the stability of social status over a six month period. Group differences in temperament and social behaviour between children with stable rejected, neglected and popular social status and children whose social status was less stable were examined and profiles of children with stable rejected social status were described. The results indicated that preschool-aged children's social status classifications showed a moderate to high rate of stability for those children classified as popular, rejected and neglected. Specifically, half the boys and over half the girls identified as rejected on the basis of peer nominations and a rating scale at the beginning of the year retained this classification six months later. Children who were stably rejected and neglected were rated by their teachers as displaying higher Personal-Social Inflexibility and less prosocial behaviour than those children who were more transiently rejected or neglected. Children who retained popular social status over the six months of the study period were rated by their teachers as displaying lower Task Distractibility and more prosocial behaviour than children who were popular for a shorter period of time. Finally, four stably rejected children were selected and profiled in terms of their social problem solving strategies, teacher-rated temperament, teacher-rated social behaviour and observed social behaviour. The profiles illustrate both typical and atypical rejected children in order to demonstrate the need for intervention programs to be informed by observation of individual children and specifically tailored to the needs of each child. Overall, the results from the studies in this thesis suggest that although a lack of positive prosocial behaviours predicts a lack of peer acceptance in early childhood, the relationship between temperament, social behaviour and social status differs for boys and girls. Specifically, with respect to teacher-rated temperament, Task Distractibility, Personal-Social Inflexibility and Reactivity appeared to be important predictors of rejected social status for girls but not for boys. Similarly, with respect to teacher-rated social behaviour, low rates of prosocial, cooperative behaviour, high rates of aggression, use of aggressive or disruptive group entry strategies and infrequent use of direct group entry strategies predicted rejected social status for girls but not for boys. These differences appear to be related to gender specific styles of social functioning in that girls spend more time in small group activities, in cooperative and tum-taking games and are more sensitive to the requirements of collaboration than boys (Dorsch & Keane, 1994; Jones & Glenn, 1991; Maccoby, 1988). The results of these studies are discussed in tenns of the implications for intervention programs and research into the peer relationships of young children.

The problem of this study was to discover the relationship between field-independent and field-dependent cognitive styles and social behaviors during free-play of preschool children in a school setting. This study also compared the field-independent and field-dependent cognitive styles and social behaviors during free-play between age-groups and sex-groups. Thirty-six children from a university child development laboratory were subjects. They were selected from a 3-year-old classroom and a 4-year-old classroom. The research instrument, the Preschool Embedded Figures Test, was utilized to measure field-independent and field-dependent cognitive styles. The children's social behaviors were observed during free-play for four consecutive weeks. The nine categories of social behavior were solitary, parallel, and group play; .unoccupied, onlooker, transitional, and aggressive behaviors; and conversations with teachers and conversations with peers. Correlations between field-independent and field-dependent cognitive styles and social behaviors indicated that field-independence/field-dependence was related to social orientations in preschool children and also related to the choice of play activity. Field-dependent children tended to engage in conversations with teachers more often than field-independent children. Four-year-old children who were field-independent tended to spend more time in solitary play than 4-year-old children who were field-dependent. Four-year-old boys who were field-independent tended to play more often in the manipulative learning center than 4-year-old boys who were field-dependent. There were significant differences between age-groups but not significant differences between sex-groups in field-independence/field-dependence. Some social behaviors were significantly different between age-groups and sex-groups. Three-year-old children participated significantly more in physically aggressive behavior and less in conversations with peers than 4-year-old children. Boys engaged significantly more in aggressive behavior than girls.

The purpose of this study was to determine whether sex differences could be observed in computer use among preschool disadvantaged children. Each of the twenty-two three- and four-year-old children were administered the Bardwell- Sietsema Sex Stereotype Scale to obtain a measure of sex role identification. Subject's choice of a pre-programming or academic-oriented software program as well as actual time at the computer were also carefully recorded over a five week period. Data supports the following: there does not appear to be a relationship between sex role stereotyping and computer use among three and four year old disadvantaged children, stereotypical sex role identification exists between three and four year old disadvantaged children, the amount of time spent at the computer during free choice periods does not differ between boys and girls, and there is no difference between boys and girls in terms of choice of academic or pre-programming software.

Empathy is a multidimensional phenomenon that consists of both emotional and cognitive components. This paper gives an overview of behavioural and neuroscientific sex differences in empathy, as well as potential explanations to those results. Research indicates existence of sex differences in both emotional and cognitive empathy, although inconsistent findings suggest both female superiority as well as male superiority. Gender roles, social desirability, as well deficiencies in measurement and imprecise conceptualizations of empathy is argued as contributors to found sex differences. With a restricted amount of research on sex differences in empathy, inconsistent findings as well as a great proportion of critique towards both the research field of empathy as well as towards focus on sex differences; the authors argue that presented sex differences in empathy must be interpreted with a great caution. Keywords: empathy, sex, gender difference, behaviour, neuroscience

The importance of sex differences in the brain and behaviour is indisputable. It forms the basis for differences in risk across a range of neurological and psychiatric disorders, as well as gender roles within society. The classical approach to investigating sex differences primarily involves comparisons between males and females. While informative for characterizing the wide array of sexually dimorphic traits, straight comparisons are insufficient to elucidate specific molecular contributions due to the multiplicity of confounding factors. Discrete genetic polymorphisms can be used to investigate variance in these traits due to sex-related molecular factors independent of confounds of sex. This thesis applies candidate genetics to understand the specific contributions of molecular components of the sex hormone pathways to sexual dimorphism in brain structure, personality and cognition. A cohort of 384 individuals were recruited to undergo MRI brain scans, cognitive and personality testing. They also provided blood samples for candidate genotyping in polymorphisms in genes for the androgen receptor, oestrogen receptors, progesterone receptor and aromatase enzyme that converts testosterone to oestrogen. Voxel-based morphometry was used to characterise regional differences in brain volume accounted for by these polymorphisms and the relationship to sex differences in brain volume. Diffusion tensor imaging was then used to determine variation in white matter integrity and structural connectivity due to these polymorphisms. Sex differences in personality and cognition are further investigated in terms of correlations with the polymorphisms and brain structure. Finally an endophenotype approach was used to investigate differential risk for conditions such as Alzheimer’s disease and depression between sexes through related brain and personality-based traits. The neural and molecular genetic mechanisms underlying this risk are inferred from correlations with brain-based measures and genotype. The strengths and weaknesses of this approach and the scientific implications of this work to gender research are discussed.

This PhD thesis contributes to a synthesis of the bibliographic material reviewed from original sources written in various languages (and thus sometimes unknown in the scientific community at international level, since they were not published in English) and to scientific research by findings and results from experimental work carried out at the Mira y López Laboratory of the University of Barcelona on topics related to individual differences in proprioception based on fine motor behaviour. The main aim of this work is to show the importance of proprioceptive sense, as a basis of individual differences, for human health and life quality. Most of the experimental work is related to sex and age-dependent differences in human fine behaviour, thus allowing analysis and understanding of those differences. When self-correction of behaviour is not possible (the person does not see the feedback of his/her movements), the expression reflects the intrinsic qualities of each person based both on biological or endogenous factors or ones specific to the nervous system and adaptive behaviour learnt during his/her own experience with environmental interactions. Experimental work was carried out with use of the latest proprioceptive diagnostics which was a result of many years of work within the Mira y Lopez myokinetic psychodiagnosis (MKP) tradition, Proprioceptive Diagnostics of Temperament and Character or DP-TC in Spanish abbreviation (Tous, Muiños, Tous, O. i Tous, R., 2012). DP-TC was a result of digitization and statistical validation of MKP lineograms’ and parallels` parts. Thus, due to this special software, graphomotor fine behaviour (precision and speed) can be registered and measured and converted to the metric system: from pixels to millimetres. For the study of individual differences, various movement types were used: frontal, transversal and sagittal, both hands and two sensory conditions: proprioceptive-visual (PV), where the integration function of both sensory conditions can be observed, and proprioceptive-only (P). The experimental studies were cross-sectional and analysed for sex- and age-dependent individual differences mainly, although a brief résumé of other studies was included, showing the relationship between proprioceptive information feedback and both emotion and cognition, at the end of this thesis. The major contributions of this work are the following: - synthetic bibliographical work on the topic of proprioception and individual differences and importance for human health and quality of life, which is conducted for the first time and can be used for wider understanding in order to carry out future research and application (more effective therapeutic and educational work), and can be used and adapted to form part of a program, especially for psychological, pedagogical and neurological faculties; - brief description of fine motor behaviour in different cultures: Arabic (in which the custom is to write in a different direction to Western people); and Belarus (for the latter some results are given, together with relationships to verbal and other physical parameters) is represented in the initial part of the thesis; - an age-dependent proprioceptive differences study based on fine motor behaviour in 196 participants from 12 to 95 years old, in which the polynomial function was of the best fit for size (line length tracings) in frontal and transversal movements; - it was shown that proprioception function was the first to deteriorate in precision with increasing age value if compared to the integrative function of both sensory inputs (proprioceptive and visual); - the crucial ages for age-dependent changes were shown for the first time; these results give the first experimental support for the age of the mid-life crisis (approx. 40 years); - sex-dependent differences and sex*age-dependent differences were analysed and discussed also; - a correlational analysis was performed between precision and fine motor speed in two sensory conditions of the test; - practical applications of study results together with the future potential research interests in the area of proprioception and individual differences are given in the final part of the work.
Aquesta tesi doctoral contribueix tant a la sinterització del material bibliogràfic, revisat de fonts originals, escrit en diferents idiomes (a vegades desconegudes en la comunitat científica a nivell internacional, ja que no van ser publicades en anglès) com a la investigació científica amb els resultats de les investigacions experimentals, dutes a terme al Laboratori Mira i López de la Universitat de Barcelona, en l'estudi empíric de les diferències individuals en la propiocepció, basades en el comportament motor fi. L'objectiu principal teòric d'aquest treball és mostrar la importància de la propiocepció, com a base de les diferències individuals, per a la salut humana i la qualitat de vida. La major part del treball experimental es basa en la constatació de les diferències individuals en la motricitat fina propioceptiva relacionades amb l'edat i el sexe que permet analitzar i entendre aquestes diferències en el comportament humà. Quan la autocorrecció de la conducta no és possible (la persona no veu els traços dels seus moviments en la part propioceptiva del test), l'expressió grafomotora reflecteix les qualitats intrínseques de cada persona, basades en factors biològics, o endògens, específiques del sistema nerviós i la conducta adaptativa, apreses en les seves pròpies experiències amb les interaccions ambientals. Els treballs experimentals s'han realitzat amb l'ús del Diagnòstic Propioceptiu de Temperament i el Caràcter o DP-TC, en abreviatura espanyola (Tous, Muiños, Tous, O. i Tous, R., 2012), que és el resultat més recent de molts anys de treball dins la línia de la tradició del Psicodiagnòstic Miokinético (PMK) de Mira i López. El DP-TC és el resultat de la digitalització i validació estadística dels subtests corresponents als lineogramas i les paral • leles del PMK. Mitjançant aquest programa especial, el comportament grafomotor fi (precisió i velocitat) pot ser registrat i mesurat, ja que permet transformar les mesures en mil•límetres, del sistema mètric, a píxels. Per a l'estudi de les diferències individuals es van utilitzar diferents tipus de moviment: frontal, transversal i sagital, amb les dues mans per separat i dues condicions sensorials: propioceptiva-visual (PV), on es pot observar la funció d'integració de les dues condicions sensorials i només propioceptiva (P) on es pot observar la informació propioceptiva en la conducta motora fina. Els estudis experimentals van ser sobre les diferències individuals en el sexe i l'edat, encara que es dóna també, al final d'aquesta tesi, un breu resum d'altres estudis -alguns transculturals- que mostren la relació de la informació propioceptiva amb l'emoció i la cognició. Les principals contribucions d'aquest treball són els següents: - Treball bibliogràfic comentat sobre el tema de la propiocepció i les diferències individuals i la importància per a la salut humana i la qualitat de vida que es realitza per primera vegada i es pot utilitzar per a una comprensió més àmplia a l'hora de realitzar futures investigacions i aplicacions (treballs terapèutics i educatius més eficaços). La informació recollida es pot utilitzar i adaptar per formar part del programa formatiu, especialment en les facultats de psicologia, pedagogia i neurologia. - S'ha realitzat una breu descripció de la conducta motora fina en diferents cultures: Àrab, (que té l'hàbit d'escriure en una altra direcció que a Occident) i Bielorussa (per a aquests últims, alguns resultats es donen amb relació als paràmetres físics i verbals) que es representa a la part inicial del tesis. - L'estudi de les diferències propioceptives dependents de l'edat, basades en la conducta motora fina, en 196 participants 12-95 anys d'edat, que va permetre constatar que la funció polinòmica era la millor opció per a la descripció de l'evolució de la reproducció de la longitud de línia de traços en els moviments frontals i transversals. - Es va constatar que la funció de propiocepció era la primera que empitjorava en la precisió amb l'augment de l'edat abans de l'empitjorament de la funció integradora realitzada per les dues entrades sensorials (propioceptiva i visual); - Es posen de manifest les edats crucials per als canvis propioceptius dependents de l'edat; els resultats per primera vegada donen el suport experimental de l’edat de la crisi de l’edat mitjana (aprox. 40 anys). - S'han analitzat i discutit les diferències de sexe i la interacció sexe per edat; - S’ha fet anàlisi correlacional entre precisió motora fina i la velocitat en dues condicions sensorials del test. - Es dona en la part final de la tesi la descripció de les aplicacions dels resultats de la tesi i els interessos potencials de la investigació futura en l'àrea de la propiocepció i les diferències individuals.
Esta tesis doctoral contribuye tanto a la sintonización del material bibliográfico, revisado de fuentes originales, escrito en diferentes idiomas (a veces desconocidos en la comunidad científica a nivel internacional, ya que no fueron publicadas en inglés) como a la investigación científica con los resultados de las investigaciones experimentales, llevadas a cabo en el Laboratorio Mira y López de la Universidad de Barcelona, en el estudio empírico de las diferencias individuales en la propiocepción, basadas en el comportamiento motor fino. El objetivo principal teórico de este trabajo es mostrar la importancia de la propiocepción, como base de las diferencias individuales, para la salud humana y la calidad de vida. La mayor parte del trabajo experimental se basa en la constatación de las diferencias individuales en la motricidad fina propioceptiva relacionadas con el sexo y la edad que permite analizar y entender esas diferencias en el comportamiento humano. Cuando la autocorrección de la conducta no es posible (la persona no ve los trazos de sus movimientos en la parte propioceptiva del test), la expresión grafomotora refleja las cualidades intrínsecas de cada persona, basadas en factores biológicos, o endógenos, específicos del sistema nervioso y la conducta adaptativa, aprendidas en sus propias experiencias con las interacciones ambientales. Los trabajos experimentales se han realizado con el uso del Diagnóstico Propioceptivo de Temperamento y el Carácter o DP-TC, en abreviatura española (Tous, Muiños, Tous, O. y Tous, R., 2012), que es el resultado más reciente de muchos años de trabajo dentro de la línea de la tradición del Psicodiagnóstico Miokinético (PMK) de Mira y López. El DP-TC es el resultado de la digitalización y validación estadística de los subtests correspondientes a los lineogramas y las paralelas del PMK. Mediante este software especial, el comportamiento grafomotor fino (precisión y velocidad) puede ser registrado y medido; ya que permite transformar las medidas en milímetros, del sistema métrico, a píxeles. Para el estudio de las diferencias individuales se utilizaron diferentes tipos de movimiento: frontal, transversal y sagital, con ambas manos por separado y dos condiciones sensoriales: propioceptiva-visual (PV), donde se puede observar la función de integración de ambas condiciones sensoriales y solamente propioceptiva (P) donde se puede observar la información propioceptiva en la conducta motora fina. Los estudios experimentales fueron sobre las diferencias individuales en el sexo y la edad, aunque se da también, al final de esta tesis, un breve resumen de otros estudios -algunos transculturales- que muestran la relación de la información propioceptiva con la emoción y la cognición. Las principales contribuciones de este trabajo son los siguientes: - Trabajo bibliográfico comentado sobre el tema de la propiocepción y las diferencias individuales y la importancia para la salud humana y la calidad de vida de estos estudios que se realiza por primera vez y se puede utilizar para una comprensión más amplia a la hora de realizar futuras investigaciones y aplicaciones (trabajos terapéuticos y educativos más eficaces) que se puede utilizar y adaptar para formar de un parte programa formativo, especialmente en las facultades de psicología, pedagogía y neurología. - Se ha realizado una breve descripción de la conducta motora fina en diferentes culturas: Árabe, (que tiene el hábito de escribir en otra dirección que en Occidente) y Bielorrusa (para estos últimos, algunos resultados se dan con relación a los parámetros físicos y verbales) que se representa en la parte inicial de la tesis. - El estudio de las diferencias propioceptivas dependientes de la edad, basadas en la conducta motora fina, en 196 participantes 12 a 95 años de edad, que permitió constatar que la función polinómica era la mejor opción para la descripción de la evolución de la reproducción del tamaño (longitud de línea de trazos) en los movimientos frontales y transversales. - Se constató que la función de propiocepción la primera que empeora en la precisión con el aumento de la edad antes del empeoramiento de la función integradora realizada por las dos entradas sensoriales (propioceptiva y visual); - Se ponen de manifiesto las edades cruciales para los cambios propioceptivos dependientes de la edad; por la primera vez experimentalmente se justifican las fases de desarrollo y de la crisis de edad media en la base de propiocepción. - Se han analizado y discutido las diferencias de sexo y la interacción sexo por edad. - Las aplicaciones prácticas de los resultados derivados de la tesis y los intereses potenciales de la investigación futura en el área de la propiocepción y las diferencias individuales están representados en la parte final del manuscrito.
Кандидатская диссертация на тему «Возрастные и половые различия в проприоцепции на основе исследования тонкой моторики» даёт детальный анализ библиографического материала, собранного из первоисточников, написанных на различных языках (иногда неизвестных в научном международном сообществе, так как не были опубликованы на английском языке); а также научных исследований, выводов и результатов экспериментальных работ, выполненныхв Лаборатории Мира Лопес Барселонского Университета Барселоны на темы, связанные с индивидуальными различиями в проприоцепции на основе проявлений тонкой моторики. Основной целью данной работы является показать важность изучения проприоцептивного чувства в исследовании индивидуальных различий, так и в связи с исследованием здоровья человека и качества жизни. Большинство экспериментальных работ, представленных в диссертации, связаны с половыми и возрастными индивидуальными различиями в проявлении тонкой моторики; таким образом, результаты этих работ позволяют проанализировать и понять эти индивидуальные различия. В проприоцептивной части теста самостоятельная коррекция моторного акта на основе зрительного контроля невозможна. В связи с этим характеристика этих движений отражает индивидуальные качества каждого человека, формирующихся как на основе биологических (эндогенных факторов или специфических свойств нервной системы), так и на базе адаптивно усвоенного поведения (его собственного опыта, полученного в результате взаимодействия с окружающей средой). Экспериментальная работа проводилась с использованием новейшей проприоцептивной диагностики, которая является результатом многих лет работы в традициях миокинетической психодиагностики (MKP) Мира и Лопеса, Проприоцептивная Диагностика Темперамента и Характера или DP-TC в испанской аббревиатуре (Tous, Muiños, Tous, О.,Tous, R., 2012). DP-TC возник как результат применения новейших технологий (компьютеров и тактильных экранов), а также статистической проверки MKP, линеограмм и параллелей. Таким образом, с помощью специального программного обеспечения, мелкое графомоторное поведение (точность и скорость) может быть зарегистрировано, измерено и преобразовано в метрическую систему: с пикселей в миллиметры. Для изучения индивидуальных различий были использованы различные типы движения: фронтальный, трансверсальный и сагиттальной, обе руки и два сенсорных условия: проприоцептивно-визуальное (PV), с интегральной опорой на проприоцептивную и сенсорную афферентацию, и с опорой только на проприоцептивную афферентацию (P). Экспериментальные исследования были трансверсального типа и анализировали главным образом половые и возрастные индивидуальные различия. Также в диссертации приводится обзор данных других исследований, показывающих взаимосвязь показателей проприоцепции с эмоциями и познавательной сферой (памятью). Основные результаты этой работы: - анализ литературы по теме «Проприоцепция и индивидуальные различия, и ее значение для здоровья человека и качества жизни», который характеризуется теоретической новизной и большой практической значимостью (для более эффективных терапевтической и воспитательной работы), данный анализ литературы может быть с успехом использован при разработке образовательных программ, особенно для психологических, педагогических и неврологических факультетов; - краткое описание проявлений тонкой моторики в разных культурах: арабской (где практикуется письмо справа налево, в отличие от письма в западной культуре) и Беларуси (для последних некоторые результаты приведены вместе с корреляционным анализом взаимосвязи проприоцептивного метода с вербальными методиками и другими физическими параметрами) представлено в начальной части диссертации; - исследование возрастных различий в проприоцептивной функции на основе проявлений тонкой моторики, в котором приняли участие 196 испытуемых в возрасте от 12 до 95 лет, результаты которого показали, что полиномиальная функция наилучшим образом подходила для длины линий (трассировки длины линии) во фронтальных и трансверсальных движениях; - было показано, что проприоцептивная функция начинала ухудшаться первой с увеличением возраста по сравнению с интегративной функцией (проприоцептивно-визуальной); - критические точки (точки перегиба) возраста для возрастных изменений были показаны впервые экспериментально, что также в некоторой степени соответствует обозначенному возрасту кризиса середины жизни (около 40 лет) и другим фазам развития; - обсуждены и проанализированы половые и поло-возрастные различия тонкой моторики; - предоставлен корреляционный анализ зависимости точности тонкой моторики и скорости выполнения задания в двух сенсорных условиях теста; - практические применения результатов и перспективы дальнейших исследований в области проприоцепции и индивидуальных различий рассмотрены в заключительной части диссертации.

This thesis investigated the generalist or specialist theories of offending by examining the overlap of, sex differences in, and predictors of intimate partner violence (IPV), general violence and nonviolent offending. IPV is typically studied separately from other types of crime as it is perceived to be a specialist type of crime warranting its own research and theories (e.g. Dobash & Dobash, 1992; Hotaling, Straus & Lincoln, 1990; Giles-Sims, 1983). However, generalist theories (e.g. Gottfredson & Hirschi, 1990; Felson, 2002) suggest that crimes stem from the same etiology and share some commonalities: therefore perpetrators are likely to be generalists who perpetrate a variety of crimes rather than specialising solely in one type of crime. Investigating all three offences in one population will inform whether (or not) IPV is a specialist type of crime distinct from other violent and nonviolent crime. Study 1 assessed women’s violent and nonviolent offending, using data from two online student samples (men and women: n = 344), reporting on being (1) a perpetrator and witness (women), or (2) being a victim and witness (men). A comprehensive measure of general violence, IPV and nonviolent offending was developed. The results provided broad support for the generalist perspective of crime as women were found to be involved in a variety of offences. A similar pattern of offending was supported across data sources. Study 2 developed the Nonviolent and Violent Offending Behaviour Scale (NVOBS): a psychometrically sound measure of violent and nonviolent offending suitable for use with both male and female participants (using the combined sample from studies 3 and 4). Results suggested five separate subscales (general violence, IPV, drug-related offences, criminal damage, and theft). The results provided support for previous research into sex differences as men were found to perpetrate higher levels of general violence and nonviolent offences than women (supporting evolutionary theories of crime), and women perpetrated significantly more IPV than men (supporting the family conflict theory and not the feminist theory). The interrelatedness of the offence categories in men and women provided broad support for generalist theories of offending. Studies 3 (116 men; 181 women) and 4 (184 men; 171 women) explored potential predictors of offending behaviour using the NVOBS to examine whether the different forms of offending shared the same underlying correlates. Measures included: personality traits and disorder traits, attachment, anger, self-control and psychopathic traits. The same pattern of results was observed across both studies. Despite the sex differences in general violence and nonviolent offending (Study 2), there were similarities in the predictors of general violence and nonviolent offending for men and women. This supports Campbell’s (1995) theory that women’s offending may just be a muted version of men’s offending and also suggests that there are commonalities between different types of offending: supporting the generalist perspective of crime. The main difference was for IPV, where the predictors for men’s IPV were different to other types of crime and to the predictors for women’s IPV. This indicates that men’s and women’s risk factors for IPV may be different (providing some support for men’s IPV being specialist). In summary, three key themes can be taken from the research findings: (1) sex differences in offending, and mutuality of IPV, (2) the overlap between offences, and (3) the pattern of correlates and predictors of offending. Conclusions from the thesis are that men and women offenders perpetrate a variety of offences, which is consistent with the theory that criminals tend not to specialise. Limitations, ideas for future research, and original contributions to knowledge are discussed.

It has peen argued that for young boys who are trying to evolve a sex-role differentiated from that of girls, contact on a daily and prolonged basis with male teachers should serve to help clarify their concept of the masculine sex-role (Clyde 1987). It is this traditionally based reasoning, that males are needed to defeminise early childhood centres by modelling masculine behaviours, that has been used by many writers as the basis for calls to include more males as teachers in early childhood education. Lee and Gropper (1974, cited in Fagot 1981) took a non-traditional stance in suggesting that providing male teachers for young children would also help teach young children that males can engage in female-typed activities, thereby increasing the chances of providing a non-sexist environment for young children. Carpenter et al (1986) suggested that to facilitate attempts to thoughtfully and ethically modify the conditions of socialisation of sex-typed behaviours, the optimal strategy might be first to understand the processes by which individual's sex-typed behaviours are socialised, and secondly to use elements of the naturally occurring processes to implement changes. One of those naturally occurring processes is the free play activity choices that children typically make. The present study arises from the premise that children's play experiences can be used as a vehicle of social change, and focuses on the development of gender-role stereotypes in early childhood. Specifically, the effect of teacher modelling of gender appropriate and gender inappropriate behaviour on the free play activity preferences of children will be examined. It is hoped to determine the relative importance of the sex of the teacher, the activity choice, and the sex-typing of the teacher modelled behaviour on children's choice of free play activities in order to better understand the processes by which individual's sex-typed behaviours are socialised. The subjects in the present study were twenty five children from a local pre-school centre. The children ranged in age from four years seven months to five years four months of age. The only criteria used for the selection of the centre was that it had an established male and female teaching team. The present study was conducted in three phases, the first of these involved a pre-test or baseline phase. Observations made during this time were used in three ways 1) to provide definitions of masculine and feminine behaviour for the treatment conditions in the intervention phase, 2) to provide baseline participation levels against which to compare the influence of the interventions and 3) to provide information on the social context of the centre. The second phase of the study was the intervention phase. During this phase the treatments were introduced following a reversal methodology (ABA). By then withdrawing the intervention in the third reversal condition experimental control was increased. Systematic evidence was collected using three event recording check lists. The first of these, the Male and Female Representations Check List (Meade 1981 ), was designed to assess gender-based differences in the number of representations of males and females in pictures, jigsaws, books and dress-up clothes displayed within the centre. The second check list, The Preschool Teachers Interactions with Children Check List (Ebbeck 1985), was designed to record differences in the interactional style of staff towards the children. It also shows the curriculum areas in which the teachers were involved with the children during free play. Finally, the Children's Participation Check List (Lloyd 1989) was used to establish the usage pattern of the centre by the children during the pre-test, intervention and post-test phases of the study. The pre-test observations were made for five days prior to the intervention phase. From these observations, two areas were selected to concentrate on, one area in which the participation rate was dominated by the girls and one area in which the participation rate was dominated by the boys. The activity themes and equipment used in these areas by the girls were coded as feminine, and the activity themes and equipment used by the boys were coded as masculine. Eight treatment conditions were formed from the combination of teacher sex, curriculum area, and activity theme I equipment choice variables. Results of the pre-test phase showed that although there was little in the physical environment to label and reinforce notions of gender appropriate and genderinappropriate behaviours, the daily experiences of the children showed a differentiation based on gender, both in terms of the teacher's interactions with children and their free play activity choices. From these observations the area in which the participation rate was dominated by the girls was the collage area, and the area in which the participation rate was dominated by the boys was the block area. With the introduction of the intervention conditions in the block and collage areas, the girl's participation rate decreased in the presence of the female teacher and increased in the presence of the male teacher. The greatest increase in the girl's participation rate occurred when the male teacher modelled masculine behaviour in the block area and feminine behaviours in the collage area. The boy's participation rate however increased in the presence of both teachers in the collage area and decreased with the presence of both teachers in the collage area. These results are discussed with reference to the prevalent theories on sex-role development, and their implications for the provision of non-sexist learning environments for children. The results of the present study suggest that there is little to discriminate between a male or female teacher in terms of the children's responses to the modelling conditions. Neither teacher was a more effective model because of their sex. Thus the non-traditional stance can be supported from these results, that is that the male teachers contribution consists of disproving the idea that men need to act in some "manly" way.

This study investigates how 4/5 year old children, from one preschool centre, and their parents perceive gender relations in our gendered society. By observing children's interactions in a preschool setting, and discussing these interactions with the children involved, the discourses and discursive practices operating in the gender regime of this setting are uncovered. The characteristics of children's gender relations in this setting are that asymmetrical relationships are prevalent; masculine and feminine storylines are common along with shared storylines; masculinise hegemonic discourses are dominant although many girls and boys cross the gender divide; some children see the other sex/gender as ‘foreign’ and children's subjectivities fluctuate in interactions. Using a feminist poststructuralist analysis of the discourses dominant in this setting, indicators for change in this preschool setting are uncovered. Although male/female dualism is dominant and obvious, many opportunities for change are available through deconstruction of these discourses with and by the children. Through the use of a questionnaire and follow up interviews, parents' perspectives on the gender relations in the gender regime of the home setting are established. Parents' perspectives on gender relations in this setting are predominantly associated with subordinate ungendered discourses and discursive practices of our society. However, parents' perspectives on their children's beliefs and attitudes imply that the children themselves have gendered ideas about their relationships with their peers. Through the use of a feminist poststructuralist analysis of the discourses dominant in this setting, indicators for change in the home setting are established. Parental concern with regard to their children's gendered ideas indicates that opportunities for change are available through parent/teacher partnerships. By combining the findings of both these investigations, a further step toward gender justice for this group of 4/5 year old children may be taken.

This dissertation presents three essays on retirement and savings behaviour. It relies on secondary data from British national surveys to empirically address how workers prepare and adapt to the economic circumstances of later life. Chapter 1 analyses the effectiveness of providing workers with the opportunity to join workplace pension schemes to stimulate pension savings. It estimates the potential opt-in rate among employees who haven’t been offered a pension plan by an employer, had they been offered the opportunity to join a scheme. Governmental policies enforcing pension plan provision at every workplace could generate a major impact on aggregate participation rates. This potential success does not seem to be conditional on the existence of mechanisms imposed by law concerning the way workers are enrolled. Chapter 2 examines the effect of workplace pension schemes provision and participation on other individual financial savings, such as personal pension plans and financial assets. It exploits the variability in workplace pension scheme provision and membership induced by the employer’s payroll size as an identification strategy. No evidence is found that providing employees with access to workplace pension schemes would make them less likely to save through non-pension financial instruments. These results support the enforcement of the universal provision of workplace pension schemes as a national policy to improve financial preparation for retirement. Chapter 3 builds on the literature of the economic role of home production of goods and services at retirement. The literature usually restricts the explanation of retirees’ heterogeneous attitudes towards home production to gender differences or social norms related to couples’ division of labour. The present study provides novel evidence that non-cognitive skills in the form of personality traits explain the heterogeneous reallocation of time and consumption that occurs during a transition from the labour market to retirement.

Artificial light at night (ALAN) is becoming a greater threat to nocturnal species. Aside from the overall increase in light output, replacing outdated monochromatic street lighting with light-emitting diode (LED) lights with a broad emission spectrum could raise this issue more. However, studies evaluating the effect of artificial lights on nocturnal species, such as moths, are scarce. This study examines any variations in moth attraction as well as any other sex-based behavioural differences (mating behaviour – wing fanning, trajectory-circular movement, overall movement time) between male and female moths in the presence of warm-white light. This study used warm-white light LED (2718 K) and Galleria mellonella moth, reared in the lab and completed the experiment under standardised conditions in an enclosed setting. I found the male moths (100%)  were significantly (p = 0.024) attracted to warm-white light LED compare to female moths (37%). While other behaviours such as wing fanning, circular movement, overall moving time, and favoured light illuminance for rest weren't significantly different (p > 0.05). In the future, it will be important to investigate the effects of warm-white light LED with different lower CCT (< 2718K) on moths, as well as the sex differences in their behaviour both in a controlled and an open environment. This will help authorities to decide on outdoor lighting systems in different countries and continents.

Human adolescents exhibit higher levels of sensation seeking behaviour than younger or older individuals, and sensation seeking is higher in males than females from adolescence onwards. Data suggest that changes in gonadal hormone levels during adolescence and differences in the dopamine neurotransmitter system are the bases for why some people exhibit sensation seeking behaviour while others do not. However, causal relationships between physiology and behaviour have been difficult to establish in humans. In order to explore the physiological influences on novelty-seeking behaviour, we looked at response to novelty in a laboratory rodent. This research examined responses to novelty in the conditioned place preference (CPP) task and the novel object recognition (NOR) task in Lister-hooded rats, and assessed the benefits and limitations of each methodology. While the CPP task was not found to provide a reliable measure of response to novelty, the NOR task was more successful. In order to understand the ontogeny of sex differences in novelty responses, both males and females were tested from adolescence through to adulthood. While no sex difference was found in adults in the NOR test, mid-adolescent males exhibited higher novelty preference behaviour than either younger or older males, or females at each stage of development. Since gonadal hormones levels rise during adolescence, a pharmacological agent (a gonadotrophin-releasing hormone antagonist) was used to suppress gonadal hormone levels from early adolescence before again examining responses on the NOR test at mid-adolescence. Gonadal hormone suppression from early adolescence onwards eliminated the sex difference in the NOR test at mid-adolescence by reducing the male response to novelty, while no difference was measured in the female animals. These findings suggest that gonadal hormones play a significant role in the development of response to novelty, especially in males, and the implications for our understanding of human sensation-seeking behaviour are discussed.

Artificial light at night (ALAN) is becoming a greater threat to nocturnal species. Aside from the overall increase in light output, replacing outdated monochromatic street lighting with light-emitting diode (LED) lights with a broad emission spectrum could raise this issue more. However, studies evaluating the effect of artificial lights on nocturnal species, such as moths, are scarce. This study examines any variations in moth attraction as well as any other sex-based behavioural differences (mating behaviour – wing fanning, trajectory-circular movement, overall movement time) between male and female moths in the presence of warm-white light. This study used warm-white light LED (2718 K) and Galleria mellonella moth, reared in the lab and completed the experiment under standardised conditions in an enclosed setting. I found the male moths (100%)  were significantly (p = 0.024) attracted to warm-white light LED compare to female moths (37%). While other behaviours such as wing fanning, circular movement, overall moving time, and favoured light illuminance for rest weren't significantly different (p > 0.05). In the future, it will be important to investigate the effects of warm-white light LED with different lower CCT (< 2718K) on moths, as well as the sex differences in their behaviour both in a controlled and an open environment. This will help authorities to decide on outdoor lighting systems in different countries and continents.

Various competing theoretical frameworks have been invoked to explain heterosexual sex differences in mating psychology. Chapter One provides examples of such frameworks, details how considering both heterosexual and homosexual men and women can help identify the most tenable frameworks, and reviews previous research comparing the mating psychology of heterosexual and homosexual men and women. Chapter Two demonstrates the utility of this comparative method by examining the mate retention behaviour of heterosexual and homosexual men and women. Where heterosexual sex differences exist, the mate retention behaviour of homosexual men is largely sex-typical while that of homosexual women is sex-atypical. The significance of these results for explaining heterosexual sex differences in mate retention is discussed. Chapter Three discusses how the data presented and reviewed here might inform our understanding of the psychological mechanisms underlying mating psychology as well as the development of sexual orientation in men and women.
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The main objective of this thesis was to examine gender differences in co-rumination using observational, experimental, and diary methods. At the start of this project there were no existing studies which had assessed co-rumination in this way and this thesis intended to be an exploratory investigation of co-rumination using these methods. Rose (2002) defined co-rumination as ‘excessively discussing problems within a dyadic relationship’ (p. 1830) and used it to explain why females have closer, more supportive, friendships (Rose & Rudolph, 2006) but are also more susceptible to depression (Weissman & Klerman, 1977). Her findings suggest that co-rumination has maladaptive outcomes for females (increased depression and anxiety) but not for males. The six studies within this thesis aimed to investigate the outcomes of co-rumination using adult (Studies 1- 4), adolescent (Studies 5 and 6) and child samples (Study 6). The first three studies within this thesis assessed co-rumination using dyadic analyses of observational and experimental data. The results of these studies indicated that scores from the co-rumination questionnaire (CRQ) and the co-rumination coding scheme (CRCS) were associated with affect, but that the co-rumination manipulation used in Study 3 had no effect on levels of affect. CRCS was mainly predictive of depressive outcomes whereas CRQ was predictive of both depressive and anxious outcomes. The research indicated that CRQ scores positively correlated across the two dyad members. However, each dyad member’s score showed different associations with affect, depending on whether the dyad member was presenting his or her own problem for discussion. The diary studies indicated that co-rumination was best assessed using daily items which were more predictive of changes in positive and negative affect than the CRQ. It was clear from the studies within this thesis that co-rumination did not only have negative outcomes for females, and that future research should examine the outcomes of co-ruminative discussions for males and females. It was suggested that future researchers should conduct similar experimental research to Study 3 but that they should include multiple co-ruminative interactions and more immediate assessments of co-rumination in the days following a co-ruminative interaction.

In this thesis, I explore sex differences in adult human social learning, and how these sex differences might be underpinned by differences in risk-taking and confidence. The capacity for high-fidelity social learning is fundamental to the complex culture observed in humans. Examining when we choose to learn socially rather than asocially and the factors that influence these choices is valuable for understanding broader patterns of cultural evolution. In Chapter 1, I give an overview of the literature on sex differences in social learning, particularly how individual differences in risk-taking and confidence impact upon social information use. I introduce stereotype threat as a possible factor affecting women's confidence. I then use the stereotype threat literature as an example of the replication crisis in psychology, and discuss how improved methods of statistical analysis could help to elucidate the ambiguity in this literature. Chapter 2 provides an experimental investigation into when adult humans choose to use social or asocial information to solve a virtual construction task. I found that when the asocial information was made to be risky, women, but not men, preferred to learn socially. In Chapter 3, I present experimental data exploring the links between confidence and conformity. I found that lower confidence led to a greater likelihood of conforming, although I was unable to reliably alter confidence levels experimentally. In Chapter 4, I present a model of the stereotype threat literature by simulating numerous datasets and analysing them using four different statistical methods. I found that using informative priors in a Bayesian framework provided greater certainty about the presence or absence of an effect in a population. Finally, in Chapter 5 I conclude that studying the factors that lead to sex differences in social learning provides researchers with a greater understanding of the dynamics of cultural evolution.

The purpose of the study was to examine the effects of developmental instruction on the whole number computational abilities and mathematical attitudes of kindergarten children. Gender differences in mathematical achievement and attitudes were also explored.Ten traditional mathematics lessons were adapted by the researcher from the adopted mathematic program for the school system, Heath Mathematics, Connections, (Mangre, et al., 1992). Ten developmental mathematics lessons were created by the researcher following the guidelines of the NCTM Standards (1989) promoting the notion of a developmentally appropriate curriculum. The research designed both the Attitudinal Scale and Cognitive Abilities Test which were given both before and after the instructional treatment.The school corporation chosen as the site for the research was located in an urban area consisting of two small cities and the surrounding rural areas. The community consisted of people with diverse socioeconomic status and cultural backgrounds. The sample for the study consisted of 62 kindergarten students enrolled in four half-day classes in one elementary school. Complete data were available for 50 students. Four hypotheses were formulated and tested at the .05 level of significance.ResultsThe four hypotheses were analyzed using a 2 (method) x 2 (gender) MANOVA on the gain scores for both achievement and attitude taken together. Gain scores were obtained by subtracting the pretest score from the posttest score for both achievement and attitude.The findings of the study were:1. There was no significant difference between the whole number computational abilities of kindergarten children receiving developmental instruction and kindergarten children receiving traditional instruction.2. There was no significant difference between the whole number computational abilities of kindergarten boys and kindergarten girls receiving developmental and traditional instruction.3. There was no significant difference in the mathematical attitudes of kindergarten children receiving developmental instruction and kindergarten children receiving traditional instruction.4. There was no significant difference in the mathematical attitudes of kindergarten boys and kindergarten girls receiving developmental and traditional instruction.
Department of Elementary Education

Central place foragers, such as territorial hummingbirds, feed from resources that tend to be constant in space and to replenish with time (e.g. nectar in flowers). The ability to remember both where and when resources are available would allow these animals to forage efficiently. Animals that feed at multiple locations would also benefit from forming routes between these multiple locations. Hummingbirds are thought to forage by repeating the order in which they visit several locations following a route called a “trapline”, although there are no quantitative data describing this behaviour. As a first step to determining how and if wild free living hummingbirds forage by traplining, I decomposed this behaviour into some of its key components. Through five field experiments, where I trained free-living hummingbirds to feed from artificial flowers, I confirmed that territorial hummingbirds will, in fact, trapline. Birds will use the shortest routes to visit several locations and will prioritize those locations that are closest to a usual feeding site. Additionally, even though hummingbirds can learn to use temporal information when visiting several patches of flowers, the spatial location of those patches has a larger influence in how these birds forage in the wild. Since male and female hummingbirds were thought to forage differently I also tested whether there were sex differences in the types of cues they use when foraging. Contrary to expectation, female hummingbirds will also use spatial cues to relocate a rewarded site. Using the foraging ecology of rufous hummingbirds to formulate predictions as to what information these birds should use has lead me to discover that these birds forage in a completely different way than previously thought.

Schizophrenia is a debilitating and costly mental illness. Many patients do not respond well to currently available treatments, and adverse side effects are common. Cannabidiol (CBD), a natural component of the Cannabis Sativa plant, has been shown to have a number of therapeutic qualities, including potential as a new antipsychotic. Although CBD has been used in several different models of schizophrenia, previous research has failed to consider possible sex differences in responsiveness to the compound. The present research therefore used both male and female rats in the widely used ketamine model of schizophrenia. PVG/C Hooded rats were randomly assigned to one of four experimental conditions: a saline only control group (saline injection followed by second saline injection; N = 6M, 6F); ketamine only group (ketamine injection followed by saline injection; N = 6M, 6F); cannabidiol low dose group (ketamine injection followed by a cannabidiol injection of 10mg/kg; N = 6M, 6F); and a cannabidiol high dose group (ketamine injection followed by a cannabidiol injection of 20mg/kg; N = 6M, 6F). Behavioural testing occurred in a Y-maze and open-field, where both normal and stereotyped behaviours were recorded, as well as locomotor activity and spatial memory. Ketamine successfully induced stereotypy but failed to induce hyperlocomotion. Findings support the potential antipsychotic effects of CBD, particularly for reducing stereotypic behaviour in females. Results found data trends that suggest sex differences in responsiveness to CBD when administered with ketamine, although further research is needed due to lack of statistical significance.

This thesis presents a set of models of enrolment behaviour in senior secondary science courses in New South Wales (Australia) schools. The models have been developed out of concerns about declining enrolments and continued sex differences in enrolments in these courses. They use the framework of the Science enrolment Model (SEM), a framework which uses an expectancy/value approach to examine the relationships between the various influences and their combined effect on enrolment behaviour. The SEM was constructed by fitting the factors which have been shown to influence enrolment behaviour in the sciences to the structure of the General Model of Academic Choice, a model of achievement related behaviour developed by Eccles and colleagues. Models were constructed for enrolment behaviour in three specialist science courses; Biology, Chemistry and Physics and two non-specialist science courses; General Science and Science for Life. These five courses account for 97 percent of enrolments in senior secondary science in New South Wales. Measures of enrolment intentions were predicted by, measures of interest, perceived career value, TER value (value as a means gaining university entrance) and a combined measure of self-concept and performance expectations. These constructs were, in turn, predicted by measures of perceptions of parent and teacher attitudes, perceptions of past performance, attributions for past performance and personality measures. The enrolment models explained between 60% and 70% of the variance in enrolment intentions in the specialist science subjects. 'Career value' was found to be a major influence on enrolment behaviour in all five subjects. The expectancy and value variables explained approximately 80 percent of the sex difference in enrolment intentions in the specialist science subjects. Career considerations accounted for between 30 percent and 50 percent of this difference
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

Many anxiety and stress-related disorders exhibit definitive sex differences in their prevalence, symptomology, response to treatment and prognosis. Animal studies have increased the understanding of these disorders, but much of the current research in this area has been conducted using only male rats or mice. Thus, the investigation of sex differences, especially within other rodent species is still relatively ignored. There is much evidence to implicate the involvement of steroid hormones in the response to anxiety and stress. The neuroactive steroid progesterone has been associated with the regulation of anxiety behaviour in rodents, whilst the steroid corticosterone has been related to the damaging effects of stress, especially within the hippocampus. However, current investigations have failed to examine the influence of gender on these findings. The initial aim of this thesis was to evaluate the suitability of the elevated plus-maze and black-white box tests of anxiety for male and female Mongolian gerbils. The second part of this thesis then evaluates the behavioural effects of progesterone treatment and withdrawal in this species. Finally, this thesis evaluates the influence of chronic corticosterone treatment on hippocampal volume and astrocyte cell numbers in male and female rats. Pharmacological validation of the elevated plus-maze and blackwhite box revealed that diazepam produced similar anxiolysis in male and female gerbils. Buspirone appeared to modulate motor activity rather that anxiety-specific behaviours in both sexes, but to a greater extent in males. Caffeine administration induced anxiety in both tests, but was more prominent in male gerbils. FG7142 also demonstrated some anxiogenic activity, however, this increase in anxiety was represented by different behavioural alterations in each sex. Investigation of the behavioural effects of progesterone treatment revealed that acute and chronic administration produced only weak effects on anxiety-related behaviour. Even so, acute progesterone appeared to produce greater anxiolysis in females, whereas these sex differences in treatment response were abolished by chronic treatment. Withdrawal of chronic progesterone appeared to increase anxiety in both the elevated plus-maze and black-white box, and was comparable for males and females. Examination of the effects of chronic corticosterone in rats revealed no significant alteration in the volume of the hippocampus in either sex, although male rats had larger hippocampal volume than females. Prolonged corticosterone treatment did produce increases in hippocampal astrocyte numbers in specific hippocampal regions. The findings of these investigations are discussed in relation to the aetiology of anxiety disorders and stress-related hippocampal damage.

The research area of this work is online threat awareness within an information security context. The research was carried out on secondary school learners at boarding schools in Grahamstown. The participating learners were in Grades 8 to 12. The goals of the research included determining the actual levels of awareness, the difference between these and self-perceived levels of the participants, the assessment of risk in terms of online behaviour, and the determination of any gender differences in the answers provided by the respondents. A review of relevant literature and similar studies was carried out, and data was collected from the participating schools via an online questionnaire. This data was analysed and discussed within the frameworks of awareness of threats, online privacy social media, sexting, cyberbullying and password habits. The concepts of information security and online privacy are present throughout these discussion chapters, providing the themes for linking the discussion points together. The results of this research show that the respondents have a high level of risk. This is due to the gaps identified in actual awareness and perception, as well as the exhibition of online behaviour patterns that are considered high risk. A strong need for the construction and adoption of threat awareness programmes by these and other schools is identified, as are areas of particular need for inclusion in such programmes. Some gender differences are present, but not to the extent that, there is as significant difference between male and female respondents in terms of overall awareness, knowledge and behaviour.

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The aim of this study was to estimate toothache prevalence and associated factors among adult residents in a Southern Brazilian city, named Pelotas. A cross-sectional population-based study was carried out with individuals aged 20 years and over (n=3353). A multi-stage sampling scheme was adopted, and data collection was performed at participants homes through standardised pre-tested questionnaires. Toothache in the past six months was regarded as the outcome. Socio-economic and demographic data as well as health related behaviours were collected. All analyses were undertaken with a Poisson regression model, following a hierarchical conceptual model. The response rate was 93.5% and toothache prevalence was 17.7% (CI95% 16.0-19.3). Multivariable analyses revealed that toothache was more likely to be reported by those with low educational attainment and low family income. Younger subjects, women and those with black skin colour were also more likely to report toothache. Current smokers and problem drinkers were at increased risk of experiencing toothache in the past six months. The toothache prevalence reported in the present study is not negligible and should stimulate preventive policies and support the planning of local oral health services.
Nos últimos seis meses, cerca de 20% dos pelotenses adultos tiveram dor de dente. Sabe-se que a dor de dente pode causar grande impacto na qualidade de vida, atrapalhando a alimentação, o sono, o convívio familiar e social e a realização de atividades diárias. Em trabalho recente, no qual foram entrevistados 2752 adultos com mais de vinte anos residentes na cidade de Pelotas, revelou-se que quase 20% deles, ou seja, um em cada cinco, apresentou dor de dente nos últimos seis meses. A dor de dente foi mais freqüente nas mulheres, entre os mais jovens, mais pobres e com menor escolaridade. Também as pessoas mais afetadas pela dor eram de cor/raça preta, fumantes, usuários problemáticos de álcool e que consideraram sua saúde bucal como ruim ou muito ruim . A elevada freqüência de dor de dente na população estudada reforça a necessidade de ações preventivas tanto em nível coletivo como individual, cabendo citar a fluoretação das águas de abastecimento e as campanhas e os programas de educação em saúde bucal. Medidas de combate ao tabagismo e ao uso abusivo de álcool também podem ajudar a reduzir a ocorrência de dor nos grupos mais afetados.

Adolescence is a formative period of identity development. From the start of high school young people begin to direct their own development through peer selection and behavioural choices. During this time young people have the opportunity to engage in risky behaviours such as drinking alcohol, smoking, having unprotected sex and taking illegal drugs, for the first time. These behaviours amongst young people have been linked to a range of adverse health and wellbeing outcomes, both short and long term. This study seeks to improve understanding of eleven to fifteen year olds' behavioural choices through investigation of potential links to perceptions of adulthood and gender. In order to capture this more fully a mixed methods approach is used with a quantitative cross-sectional pupil survey and in-depth intergenerational family qualitative interviews. By exploring a broad range of age and gender stereotyped, and risky behaviours, this study seeks to provide better understanding of participants' perceptions, motivations and involvement in these behaviours. Results of the study demonstrate both gendered and age differentiated patterns of perceptions. Between eleven and fifteen years old, boys demonstrate more pronounced values attributed to masculine roles. Conversely, stereotyped feminine roles appear to decrease in appeal to girls. Fourth year girls perceive risky behaviours as considerably more relevant to them, than their male peers. Interviewed mothers were unsure of how best to manage their daughter's behaviours considering their own lack of experience and the apparently high value attributed to non-confrontational, friendship based, mothering. Current methods of teaching and intervening generally address mixed gender age-group classes. This research suggests in order to modify risk-taking behaviours a gender specific approach may be more effective.

Simple content analysis methods, such as the Bechdel test and measuring percentage of female talk time or characters, have seen a surge of attention from mainstream media and in social media the last couple of years. Underlying assumptions are generally shared with the gender role socialization model and consequently, an importance is stated, due to a high degree to which impressions from media shape in particular young children’s identification processes. For young girls, the Disney Princesses franchise (with Frozen included) stands out as the number one player commercially as well as in customer awareness. The vertical lineup of Disney princesses spans from the passive and domestic working Snow White in 1937 to independent and super-power wielding princess Elsa in 2013, which makes the line of films an optimal test subject in evaluating above-mentioned simple content analysis methods. As a control, a meta-study has been conducted on previous academic studies on the same range of films. The sampled research, within fields spanning from qualitative content analysis and semiotics to coded content analysis, all come to the same conclusions regarding the general changes over time in representations of female characters. The objective of this thesis is to answer whether or not there is a correlation between these changes and those indicated by the simple content analysis methods, i.e. whether or not the simple popular methods are in general coherence with the more intricate academic methods.

Betyg VG (skala IG-VG)

Gun violence and violent injury are major concerns in our society today, especially in urban settings. Research has demonstrated that there are specific risk factors for violent gun injury among men, but literature in this area has historically disregarded women. Previous research on men found that participation in criminal activities significantly increases risk of violent injury, but it is unknown whether criminal behaviour increases the risk of violent victimization in women. This study aims to determine whether criminal arrests differ significantly between violently injured women and women in the general population. To pursue this aim, rates of gun, drug, property, violent, and prostitution crime arrests were compared between women treated for violent injuries at a Level I Trauma Centre and women in the community at large. Chi-square analyses found that violently injured women are significantly more likely to have criminal arrests than women in the comparison population, indicating that criminal behaviour may be an important risk factor for violent injury in women. Supplementary analyses found that violent crimes contribute uniquely to the risk of violent injury in comparison to other crimes. Implications for female victims of violence are discussed.
1
Samia Lalani

Recent epidemiological research suggests that the prevalence of eating disorder features (EDF), namely, binge eating, extreme weight-control behaviors (i.e., extreme dietary restriction, purging and/or excessive exercise), and key cognitive features, such as the overvaluation of body weight/shape, may be increasing in both men and women. There is also some evidence that men, like women, experience significant psychosocial impairment associated with the occurrence of EDF. If so, then there may be important implications for prevention and health promotion initiatives, which currently focus exclusively or primarily on female audiences. The current research comprised two, community-based studies designed to further understanding of sex differences in psychosocial impairment associated with EDF. A third study, included in an appendix, was conducted in fulfillment of the University’s DPsych Program’s Research Practicum requirement. All three studies have been published in peer-reviewed scientific journals. Study 1 examined sex differences in psychosocial impairment associated with EDF in adults (N = 2,856), whereas Study 2 examined potential sex differences in psychosocial impairment associated with EDF in adolescents (N = 1,666). In both studies, binge eating, purging (i.e., self-induced vomiting and/or laxative misuse) and overvaluation of weight/shape were associated with similarly high levels of impairment in males and females. In adolescents, extreme dietary restriction and excessive exercise were also associated with similarly high levels of impairment in male and female participants. In adults, extreme dietary restriction was associated with greater impairment in females than in males, whereas excessive exercise was not associated with impairment in either males or females. Findings from these studies suggest that the occurrence of EDF is associated with similarly high levels of impairment for males and females and that this is the case for both adults and adolescents. The primary implication of these findings, when taken with evidence for increases in the prevalence of EDF in both males and females, is that health promotion and prevention programs will need to: (a) include both male and female participants; and (b) improve community mental health literacy relating to males’ experiences of EDF in particular. These steps will be needed in order for progress to be made in reducing the individual and community health burden of EDF moving forward. Future research examining the help-seeking behavior of males experiencing EDF would be of interest. Study 3 examined young men’s (n = 35) and women’s (n = 141) perceptions of psychosocial impairment associated with EDF, as well as the effect on these perceptions of an eating disorders “mental health literacy” intervention. Participants generally perceived binge eating, purging and extreme dietary restriction to be associated with significant psychosocial impairment and this did not change with the provision of the intervention. Overvaluation of weight/shape and excessive exercise were initially perceived to be less impairing than other EDF, though perceptions of impairment increased following the intervention. Few sex differences were present. These findings suggest that failure to recognize the adverse impact of overvaluation of weight/shape and excessive exercise on quality of life may warrant particular attention in health promotion and preventive interventions.

Possible sex differences in response to predator odour exposure were examined in adult rats. The first study measured behaviour, cell proliferation, and survival in the dentate gyrus of adult males and females in response to acute and repeated trimethyl thiazoline (TMT, the main component of fox feces) or control odour exposure. Rats were injected with one of the cell synthesis markers bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) or [³H] thymidine and perfused 24 hours (cell proliferation) after an acute TMT exposure or after 5 days (cell survival) of repeated TMT exposure. After acute exposure, cell proliferation and death were suppressed in TMT-exposed males compared to control males, but not in females. Repeated TMT exposure in males increased cell death and increased the survival of new cells born on Day 1 of exposure. Males initially expressed more defensive behaviours in response to TMT but this expression habituated after repeated TMT exposure. This habituation was concurrent with enhanced new cell survival, possibly indicating that learning enhanced new cell survival. In a second study, we assessed whether ovarian hormones altered the response to acute TMT exposure in females. Ovariectomized (OVX) females were given either a high dose of estradiol (EB) or a low dose of estradiol and progesterone followed by a high dose of estradiol (EB-P). TMT exposure did not affect cell proliferation in any group. However, hormone treatment affected the behavioural, hormonal, and cell death response to TMT. EB increased cell proliferation and decreased defensive behaviour whereas EB-P decreased cell proliferation and increased defensive behaviour. Thus, we demonstrated that pre-treatment with a low dose of estradiol and progesterone profoundly affected the behavioural and cellular response to later administration of estradiol. Taken together, acute TMT exposure suppressed both cell proliferation and death while repeated TMT exposure enhanced new cell survival and cell death in males. However, female rats did not show a change in cell proliferation, regardless of hormone condition, but OVX female rats exhibited increased cell death in response to acute TMT exposure. This is the first demonstration of a sex difference in cell proliferation and cell death in the adult dentate gyrus in response to stress.

This study investigated the relationship between individual knowledge transfer methods, self-study and work experience and behaviour patterns, facilitation, conduct and ability in the development of SMEs. This study further sought to find out if gender had an effect on the behaviour patterns. The study is empirical and cross sectional in nature. A questionnaire was used to collect data from 200 employees of selected SMEs in Durban-South Africa. Findings show that there is a positive, significant relationship between the knowledge transfer method self-study and behavioural aspects, facilitation, conduct and ability. In addition, this study found that work experience had an insignificant correlation with facilitation, conduct and ability. Finally, the study found that there are no gender differences in terms of facilitation, conduct and ability. It is recommended that all the stakeholders in the SME sector continuously analyse the internal organisational environment to ensure that knowledge resources are effectively used for productive employees’ behaviour.
Business Management
M. Tech. (Business Administration)

Ce mémoire débute avec deux chapitres portant sur les problèmes des conduites et la régulation du stress, notamment sur l’axe hypothalamique-pituitaire-surrénal (HPS). Ensuite, la littérature est résumée et nous voyons que les études qui cherchent à établir un lien entre les problèmes des conduites et l’axe HPS ont trouvé des résultats différents et parfois contradictoires. Le chapitre suivant illustre les problèmes méthodologiques qui pourraient expliquer ces résultats différents. Vient ensuite l’étude présentée dans ce mémoire qui cherche à établir un lien entre la réponse cortisolaire à l’éveil (RCE), considérée comme un bon indice du fonctionnent de l’axe HPS, et les problèmes de conduites chez l’enfant. De plus, les émotions négatives ont été associées avec les problèmes des conduites ainsi qu’aux dysfonctions de l’axe HPS, notamment le RCE. L’étude présentée dans ce mémoire cherche aussi à établir si les émotions négatives pourrait être une variable médiatrice dans la relation potentielle entre la RCE et les problèmes des conduites. L’étude révèle que pour les garçons mais pas pour les filles, une RCE réduite est associée avec les émotions négatives, ce qui est successivement associé avec les problèmes des conduites. Le dernier chapitre du mémoire examine les implications théoriques de cette médiatisation et propose également des pistes psychobiologiques pour expliquer les différences sexuelles observées.
This thesis begins with two chapters which discuss conduct problems and stress regulation, with a focus on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. Subsequently, the literature is reviewed and we see that with regards to the relationship between conduct problems and HPA axis activity, the findings are inconsistent. It is possible that methodological considerations underlie the inconsistency found in the literature and the following chapter is concerned with methodology. This is followed by the featured study presented in this thesis which examines the link between the cortisol awakening response (CAR), which is considered a good indicator of HPA axis functioning, and conduct problems in children. Further, negative affect has been linked to both conduct problems and the Cortisol Awakening Response (CAR). Thus it was hypothesized that negative affect acts as a mediator in the cortisol-conduct problems relationship. The featured study found that a reduced CAR was associated with both negative affect and conduct problems, however only in boys and not in girls. Further, the mediation hypothesis was supported in boys. The last chapter in this thesis discusses the implications of this mediation finding for theories of conduct problems as well as proposing some psychobiological mechanisms to explain the sex differences found.

This research was undertaken to determine factors causing career indecision of schoolleavers in Kwandebele. Literature study indicates that factors such as interest, sex, dependency, vocational immaturity, the economy and politics have a direct influence on career indecision. Literature study further indicates that parties involved in career decision-making also contribute to career indecision. 424 Kwandebele school leavers answered questionnaires. The schoolleavers were requested to indicate the importance and contributions of five categories, namely personal aspects, family, school, guidance teacher and society to his career choice making process. Most of the personal aspects were regarded as important and also the other four categories showed a significant difference between school leavers who have made a choice and those that have not made a choice. This research could not cover the implication of career education at all levels of the child, recommendations for future research have been made.
Psychology of Education
M. Ed. (Psychology of Education)

Sleep is an essential part of human life and is associated with both physical and mental health. When, where and how people sleep is known to vary across different cultures (Glaskin and Chenhall, 2013) but very little is documented about whether there are significant differences in attitudes and beliefs about sleep across different cultures or different ethnic groups. Previous research has found that both dysfunctional beliefs and attitudes about sleep and poor sleep hygiene knowledge can contribute to sleeping problems, especially for those with insomnia. As non-pharmacological treatments for insomnia often include addressing cognitive aspects related to sleep it is important that there is a good understanding of how sleep beliefs and attitudes may vary across groups and individuals, including possible ethnic differences. However, there has been no research, to the author’s knowledge, investigating the possible differences in sleep attitudes and beliefs between older adult Vietnamese migrants and Australians. This study aimed to examine the dysfunctional beliefs and attitudes about sleep, sleep hygiene knowledge and sleep perceptions between these two ethnic groups. Sex differences on the dependent variables were also of interest. Insomnia status was addressed as it is a possible confound. The participants consisted of 207 subjects (100 Vietnamese and 107 Australians). There were 36 males and 54 females for the Vietnamese sample with a mean age of 65.50 years (SD = 5.62). The Australian sample consisted of 50 males and 57 females with a mean age of 68.82 years (SD = 7.32).