Journal articles: 'Sex-determining mechanisms'

1

Sanchez, Lucas. "Sex-determining mechanisms in insects." International Journal of Developmental Biology 52, no. 7 (2008): 837–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1387/ijdb.072396ls.

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Mittwoch, Ursula. "Sex-determining mechanisms in animals." Trends in Ecology & Evolution 11, no. 2 (February 1996): 63–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0169-5347(96)81044-5.

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Tanurdzic, M. "Sex-Determining Mechanisms in Land Plants." PLANT CELL ONLINE 16, suppl_1 (March 12, 2004): S61—S71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1105/tpc.016667.

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Bull, J. J. "Sex determining mechanisms: An evolutionary perspective." Experientia 41, no. 10 (October 1985): 1285–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf01952071.

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Viets, Brian E., Michael A. Ewert, Larry G. Talent, and Craig E. Nelson. "Sex-determining mechanisms in squamate reptiles." Journal of Experimental Zoology 270, no. 1 (September 15, 1994): 45–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jez.1402700106.

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Schwanz, L. E., T. Ezaz, B. Gruber, and A. Georges. "Novel evolutionary pathways of sex-determining mechanisms." Journal of Evolutionary Biology 26, no. 12 (October 11, 2013): 2544–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jeb.12258.

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Kozielska, M., F. J. Weissing, L. W. Beukeboom, and I. Pen. "Segregation distortion and the evolution of sex-determining mechanisms." Heredity 104, no. 1 (August 12, 2009): 100–112. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/hdy.2009.104.

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MANK, JUDITH E., DANIEL E. L. PROMISLOW, and JOHN C. AVISE. "Evolution of alternative sex-determining mechanisms in teleost fishes." Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 87, no. 1 (January 17, 2006): 83–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8312.2006.00558.x.

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She, Zhen-Yu, and Wan-Xi Yang. "Molecular mechanisms involved in mammalian primary sex determination." Journal of Molecular Endocrinology 53, no. 1 (June 13, 2014): R21—R37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1530/jme-14-0018.

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Sex determination refers to the developmental decision that directs the bipotential genital ridge to develop as a testis or an ovary. Genetic studies on mice and humans have led to crucial advances in understanding the molecular fundamentals of sex determination and the mutually antagonistic signaling pathway. In this review, we summarize the current molecular mechanisms of sex determination by focusing on the known critical sex determining genes and their related signaling pathways in mammalian vertebrates from mice to humans. We also discuss the underlying delicate balance between testis and ovary sex determination pathways, concentrating on the antagonisms between major sex determining genes.

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YAN, Nan, Bi-Cai ZHU, and Yu-Feng WANG. "Recent advances on sex determining mechanisms of Microtusmandarinus." Hereditas (Beijing) 31, no. 6 (August 14, 2009): 587–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.3724/sp.j.1005.2009.00587.

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Gamble, T. "A Review of Sex Determining Mechanisms in Geckos (Gekkota: Squamata)." Sexual Development 4, no. 1-2 (2010): 88–103. http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000289578.

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van Doorn, G. S. "Evolutionary Transitions between Sex-Determining Mechanisms: A Review of Theory." Sexual Development 8, no. 1-3 (2014): 7–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000357023.

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Janes, D. E., C. L. Organ, and S. V. Edwards. "Variability in Sex-Determining Mechanisms Influences Genome Complexity in Reptilia." Cytogenetic and Genome Research 127, no. 2-4 (2009): 242–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000293283.

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Escobedo-Galván, Armando H., and Constantino González-Salazar. "Survival and extinction of sex-determining mechanisms in Cretaceous tetrapods." Cretaceous Research 36 (August 2012): 116–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cretres.2012.02.016.

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POKORNÁ, MARTINA, and LUKÁŠ KRATOCHVÍL. "Phylogeny of sex-determining mechanisms in squamate reptiles: are sex chromosomes an evolutionary trap?" Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 156, no. 1 (May 2009): 168–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1096-3642.2008.00481.x.

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Rutkowska, Joanna, and Alexander V. Badyaev. "Meiotic drive and sex determination: molecular and cytological mechanisms of sex ratio adjustment in birds." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 363, no. 1497 (November 28, 2007): 1675–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.0006.

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Differences in relative fitness of male and female offspring across ecological and social environments should favour the evolution of sex-determining mechanisms that enable adjustment of brood sex ratio to the context of breeding. Despite the expectation that genetic sex determination should not produce consistent bias in primary sex ratios, extensive and adaptive modifications of offspring sex ratio in relation to social and physiological conditions during reproduction are often documented. Such discordance emphasizes the need for empirical investigation of the proximate mechanisms for modifying primary sex ratios, and suggests epigenetic effects on sex-determining mechanisms as the most likely candidates. Birds, in particular, are thought to have an unusually direct opportunity to modify offspring sex ratio because avian females are heterogametic and because the sex-determining division in avian meiosis occurs prior to ovulation and fertilization. However, despite evidence of strong epigenetic effects on sex determination in pre-ovulatory avian oocytes, the mechanisms behind such effects remain elusive. Our review of molecular and cytological mechanisms of avian meiosis uncovers a multitude of potential targets for selection on biased segregation of sex chromosomes, which may reflect the diversity of mechanisms and levels on which such selection operates in birds. Our findings indicate that pronounced differences between sex chromosomes in size, shape, size of protein bodies, alignment at the meiotic plate, microtubule attachment and epigenetic markings should commonly produce biased segregation of sex chromosomes as the default state, with secondary evolution of compensatory mechanisms necessary to maintain unbiased meiosis. We suggest that it is the epigenetic effects that modify such compensatory mechanisms that enable context-dependent and precise adjustment of primary sex ratio in birds. Furthermore, we highlight the features of avian meiosis that can be influenced by maternal hormones in response to environmental stimuli and may account for the precise and adaptive patterns of offspring sex ratio adjustment observed in some species.

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Janes, Daniel E., Christopher L. Organ, Rami Stiglec, Denis O'Meally, Stephen D. Sarre, Arthur Georges, Jennifer A. M. Graves, et al. "Molecular evolution of Dmrt1 accompanies change of sex-determining mechanisms in reptilia." Biology Letters 10, no. 12 (December 2014): 20140809. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2014.0809.

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In reptiles, sex-determining mechanisms have evolved repeatedly and reversibly between genotypic and temperature-dependent sex determination. The gene Dmrt1 directs male determination in chicken (and presumably other birds), and regulates sex differentiation in animals as distantly related as fruit flies, nematodes and humans. Here, we show a consistent molecular difference in Dmrt1 between reptiles with genotypic and temperature-dependent sex determination. Among 34 non-avian reptiles, a convergently evolved pair of amino acids encoded by sequence within exon 2 near the DM-binding domain of Dmrt1 distinguishes species with either type of sex determination. We suggest that this amino acid shift accompanied the evolution of genotypic sex determination from an ancestral condition of temperature-dependent sex determination at least three times among reptiles, as evident in turtles, birds and squamates. This novel hypothesis describes the evolution of sex-determining mechanisms as turnover events accompanied by one or two small mutations.

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Eberle, James, Jill Nemacheck, Chi-Kuang Wen, Mitsuyasu Hasebe, and Jo Ann Banks. "Ceratopteris: A Model System for Studying Sex-Determining Mechanisms in Plants." International Journal of Plant Sciences 156, no. 3 (May 1995): 359–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/297257.

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19

Sander van Doorn, G. "Patterns and Mechanisms of Evolutionary Transitions between Genetic Sex-Determining Systems." Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology 6, no. 8 (July 3, 2014): a017681. http://dx.doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a017681.

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Janzen, F. J., M. E. Wilson, J. K. Tucker, and S. P. Ford. "Endogenous Yolk Steroid Hormones in Turtles with Different Sex-Determining Mechanisms." General and Comparative Endocrinology 111, no. 3 (September 1998): 306–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/gcen.1998.7115.

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21

Jayakar, S. D. "Some two locus models for the evolution of sex-determining mechanisms." Theoretical Population Biology 32, no. 2 (October 1987): 188–215. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0040-5809(87)90047-5.

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22

Piferrer, Francesc. "Epigenetic mechanisms in sex determination and in the evolutionary transitions between sexual systems." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 376, no. 1832 (July 12, 2021): 20200110. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2020.0110.

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The hypothesis that epigenetic mechanisms of gene expression regulation have two main roles in vertebrate sex is presented. First, and within a given generation, by contributing to the acquisition and maintenance of (i) the male or female function once during the lifetime in individuals of gonochoristic species; and (ii) the male and female function in the same individual, either at the same time in simultaneous hermaphrodites, or first as one sex and then as the other in sequential hermaphrodites. Second, if environmental conditions change, epigenetic mechanisms may have also a role across generations, by providing the necessary phenotypic plasticity to facilitate the transition: (i) from one sexual system to another, or (ii) from one sex-determining mechanism to another. Furthermore, if the environmental change lasts enough time, epimutations could facilitate assimilation into genetic changes that stabilize the new sexual system or sex-determining mechanism. Examples supporting these assertions are presented, caveats or difficulties and knowledge gaps identified, and possible ways to test this hypothesis suggested. This article is part of the theme issue ‘Challenging the paradigm in sex chromosome evolution: empirical and theoretical insights with a focus on vertebrates (Part I)’.

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Uller, Tobias, Beth Mott, Gaetano Odierna, and Mats Olsson. "Consistent sex ratio bias of individual female dragon lizards." Biology Letters 2, no. 4 (August 7, 2006): 569–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2006.0526.

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Sex ratio evolution relies on genetic variation in either the phenotypic traits that influence sex ratios or sex-determining mechanisms. However, consistent variation among females in offspring sex ratio is rarely investigated. Here, we show that female painted dragons ( Ctenophorus pictus ) have highly repeatable sex ratios among clutches within years. A consistent effect of female identity could represent stable phenotypic differences among females or genetic variation in sex-determining mechanisms. Sex ratios were not correlated with female size, body condition or coloration. Furthermore, sex ratios were not influenced by incubation temperature. However, the variation among females resulted in female-biased mean population sex ratios at hatching both within and among years.

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Sánchez, L. "Sex-Determining Mechanisms in Insects Based on Imprinting and Elimination of Chromosomes." Sexual Development 8, no. 1-3 (2014): 83–103. http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000356709.

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25

Ezaz, Tariq, Alexander E. Quinn, Stephen D. Sarre, Denis O’Meally, Arthur Georges, and Jennifer A. Marshall Graves. "Molecular marker suggests rapid changes of sex-determining mechanisms in Australian dragon lizards." Chromosome Research 17, no. 1 (January 2009): 91–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10577-008-9019-5.

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Quinn, Alexander E., Stephen D. Sarre, Tariq Ezaz, Jennifer A. Marshall Graves, and Arthur Georges. "Evolutionary transitions between mechanisms of sex determination in vertebrates." Biology Letters 7, no. 3 (January 6, 2011): 443–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2010.1126.

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Sex in many organisms is a dichotomous phenotype—individuals are either male or female. The molecular pathways underlying sex determination are governed by the genetic contribution of parents to the zygote, the environment in which the zygote develops or interaction of the two, depending on the species. Systems in which multiple interacting influences or a continuously varying influence (such as temperature) determines a dichotomous outcome have at least one threshold. We show that when sex is viewed as a threshold trait, evolution in that threshold can permit novel transitions between genotypic and temperature-dependent sex determination (TSD) and remarkably, between male (XX/XY) and female (ZZ/ZW) heterogamety. Transitions are possible without substantive genotypic innovation of novel sex-determining mutations or transpositions, so that the master sex gene and sex chromosome pair can be retained in ZW–XY transitions. We also show that evolution in the threshold can explain all observed patterns in vertebrate TSD, when coupled with evolution in embryonic survivorship limits.

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CHANDLER, C. H., P. C. PHILLIPS, and F. J. JANZEN. "The evolution of sex-determining mechanisms: lessons from temperature-sensitive mutations in sex determination genes in Caenorhabditis elegans." Journal of Evolutionary Biology 22, no. 1 (January 2009): 192–200. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1420-9101.2008.01639.x.

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Cockburn, A. "Sex-Ratio Variation in Marsupials." Australian Journal of Zoology 37, no. 3 (1989): 467. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/zo9890467.

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Many marsupials produce sex ratios biased towards male or female young. In several cases these changes are comfortably accommodated in the existing theory of sex allocation. Local resource competition and the Trivers-Willard hypothesis have been usefully applied to several data sets, and preliminary experimental work has supported the main tenets of theory. By contrast, several data sets lack explanation, and provide challenges to theoreticians. The high frequency of bias in marsupials does not result from data-dredging, as bias is usually reported in descriptive accounts of marsupial reproduction, without recourse to any theoretical or mechanistic explanations. It is not possible to distinguish whether the marsupial mode of reproduction is well suited to manipulate sex allocation, or whether it facilitates measurement of biased sex allocation. As for most eutherians and birds, the mechanism of prenatal sex allocation is unknown for any marsupial. However, the current interest in sex-determining mechanisms in marsupials suggests a profitable avenue for collaboration between geneticists, physiologists and evolutionary ecologists.

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Brunelli, Joseph P., Kelsey J. Wertzler, Kyle Sundin, and Gary H. Thorgaard. "Y-specific sequences and polymorphisms in rainbow trout and Chinook salmon." Genome 51, no. 9 (September 2008): 739–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/g08-060.

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Improved methods for genetically sexing salmonids and for characterization of Y-chromosome homologies between species can contribute to understanding the evolution of sex chromosomes and sex-determining mechanisms. In this study we have explored 12.5 kb of Y-chromosome-specific sequence flanking the previously described OtY2 locus in Chinook salmon ( Oncorhynchus tshawytscha ) and 21 kb of homologous rainbow trout ( Oncorhynchus mykiss ) Y-chromosome-specific sequence. This is the first confirmed Y-specific sequence for rainbow trout. New Y-specific markers are described for Chinook salmon (OtY3) and rainbow trout (OmyY1), which are readily detected by PCR assays and are advantageous because they also produce autosomal control amplification products. Additionally, AFLP analysis of Chinook salmon yielded another potential Y-chromosome marker. These descriptions will facilitate genotypic sexing and should be useful for population studies of Y-chromosome polymorphisms and for future studies to characterize what appears to be a common sex-determining mechanism between these species.

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Roco, Álvaro S., Adrián Ruiz-García, and Mónica Bullejos. "Testis Development and Differentiation in Amphibians." Genes 12, no. 4 (April 16, 2021): 578. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/genes12040578.

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Sex is determined genetically in amphibians; however, little is known about the sex chromosomes, testis-determining genes, and the genes involved in testis differentiation in this class. Certain inherent characteristics of the species of this group, like the homomorphic sex chromosomes, the high diversity of the sex-determining mechanisms, or the existence of polyploids, may hinder the design of experiments when studying how the gonads can differentiate. Even so, other features, like their external development or the possibility of inducing sex reversal by external treatments, can be helpful. This review summarizes the current knowledge on amphibian sex determination, gonadal development, and testis differentiation. The analysis of this information, compared with the information available for other vertebrate groups, allows us to identify the evolutionarily conserved and divergent pathways involved in testis differentiation. Overall, the data confirm the previous observations in other vertebrates—the morphology of the adult testis is similar across different groups; however, the male-determining signal and the genetic networks involved in testis differentiation are not evolutionarily conserved.

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Clerico, Aldo, Silvia Masotti, Veronica Musetti, and Claudio Passino. "Pathophysiological mechanisms determining sex differences in circulating levels of cardiac natriuretic peptides and cardiac troponins." Journal of Laboratory and Precision Medicine 4 (February 2019): 8. http://dx.doi.org/10.21037/jlpm.2019.01.03.

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Kaur, Gurpreet, and David A. Jans. "Dual nuclear import mechanisms of sex determining factor SRY: intracellular Ca 2+ as a switch." FASEB Journal 25, no. 2 (November 4, 2010): 665–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1096/fj.10-173351.

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33

Schutt, C., and R. Nothiger. "Structure, function and evolution of sex-determining systems in Dipteran insects." Development 127, no. 4 (February 15, 2000): 667–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/dev.127.4.667.

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Nature has evolved an astonishing variety of genetic and epigenetic sex-determining systems which all achieve the same result, the generation of two sexes. Genetic and molecular analyses, mainly performed during the last 20 years, have gradually revealed the mechanisms that govern sexual differentiation in a few model organisms. In this review, we will introduce the sex-determining system of Drosophila and compare the fruitfly to the housefly Musca domestica and other Dipteran insects. Despite the ostensible variety, all these insects use the same basic strategy: a primary genetic signal that is different in males and females, a key gene that responds to the primary signal, and a double-switch gene that eventually selects between two alternative sexual programmes. These parallels, however, do not extend to the molecular level. Except for the double-switch gene doublesex at the end of the cascade, no functional homologies were found between more distantly related insects. In particular, Sex-lethal, the key gene that controls sexual differentiation in Drosophila, does not have a sex-determining function in any other genus studied so far. These results show that sex-determining cascades, in comparison to other regulatory pathways, evolve much more rapidly.

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34

Charlesworth, Deborah. "Evolution of recombination rates between sex chromosomes." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 372, no. 1736 (November 6, 2017): 20160456. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2016.0456.

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In species with genetic sex-determination, the chromosomes carrying the sex-determining genes have often evolved non-recombining regions and subsequently evolved the full set of characteristics denoted by the term ‘sex chromosomes’. These include size differences, creating chromosomal heteromorphism, and loss of gene functions from one member of the chromosome pair. Such characteristics and changes have been widely reviewed, and underlie molecular genetic approaches that can detect sex chromosome regions. This review deals mainly with the evolution of new non-recombining regions, focusing on how certain evolutionary situations select for suppressed recombination (rather than the proximate mechanisms causing suppressed recombination between sex chromosomes). Particularly important is the likely involvement of sexually antagonistic polymorphisms in genome regions closely linked to sex-determining loci. These may be responsible for the evolutionary strata of sex chromosomes that have repeatedly formed by recombination suppression evolving across large genome regions. More studies of recently evolved non-recombining sex-determining regions should help to test this hypothesis empirically, and may provide evidence about whether other situations can sometimes lead to sex-linked regions evolving. Similarities with other non-recombining genome regions are discussed briefly, to illustrate common features of the different cases, though no general properties apply to all of them. This article is part of the themed issue ‘Evolutionary causes and consequences of recombination rate variation in sexual organisms’.

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Whiteley, Sarah L., Clare E. Holleley, Susan Wagner, James Blackburn, Ira W. Deveson, Jennifer A. Marshall Graves, and Arthur Georges. "Two transcriptionally distinct pathways drive female development in a reptile with both genetic and temperature dependent sex determination." PLOS Genetics 17, no. 4 (April 15, 2021): e1009465. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgen.1009465.

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How temperature determines sex remains unknown. A recent hypothesis proposes that conserved cellular mechanisms (calcium and redox; ‘CaRe’ status) sense temperature and identify genes and regulatory pathways likely to be involved in driving sexual development. We take advantage of the unique sex determining system of the model organism,Pogona vitticeps, to assess predictions of this hypothesis.P.vitticepshas ZZ male: ZW female sex chromosomes whose influence can be overridden in genetic males by high temperatures, causing male-to-female sex reversal. We compare a developmental transcriptome series of ZWf females and temperature sex reversed ZZf females. We demonstrate that early developmental cascades differ dramatically between genetically driven and thermally driven females, later converging to produce a common outcome (ovaries). We show that genes proposed as regulators of thermosensitive sex determination play a role in temperature sex reversal. Our study greatly advances the search for the mechanisms by which temperature determines sex.

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Pan, Qiaowei, Tomas Kay, Alexandra Depincé, Mateus Adolfi, Manfred Schartl, Yann Guiguen, and Amaury Herpin. "Evolution of master sex determiners: TGF-β signalling pathways at regulatory crossroads." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 376, no. 1832 (July 12, 2021): 20200091. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2020.0091.

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To date, more than 20 different vertebrate master sex-determining genes have been identified on different sex chromosomes of mammals, birds, frogs and fish. Interestingly, six of these genes are transcription factors ( Dmrt1 - or Sox3 - related) and 13 others belong to the TGF-β signalling pathway ( Amh , Amhr2 , Bmpr1b , Gsdf and Gdf6 ). This pattern suggests that only a limited group of factors/signalling pathways are prone to become top regulators again and again. Although being clearly a subordinate member of the sex-regulatory network in mammals, the TGF-β signalling pathway made it to the top recurrently and independently. Facing this rolling wave of TGF-β signalling pathways, this review will decipher how the TGF-β signalling pathways cope with the canonical sex gene regulatory network and challenge the current evolutionary concepts accounting for the diversity of sex-determining mechanisms. This article is part of the theme issue ‘Challenging the paradigm in sex chromosome evolution: empirical and theoretical insights with a focus on vertebrates (Part I)’.

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Schwanz, Lisa E., and Arthur Georges. "Sexual Development and the Environment: Conclusions from 40 Years of Theory." Sexual Development 15, no. 1-3 (2021): 7–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000515221.

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In this review, we consider the insight that has been gained through theoretical examination of environmental sex determination (ESD) and thermolability – how theory has progressed our understanding of the ecological and evolutionary dynamics associated with ESD, the transitional pathways between different modes of sex determination, and the underlying mechanisms. Following decades of theory on the adaptive benefits of ESD, several hypotheses seem promising. These hypotheses focus on the importance of differential fitness (sex-specific effects of temperature on fitness) in generating selection for ESD, but highlight alternative ways differential fitness arises: seasonal impacts on growth, sex-specific ages of maturation, and sex-biased dispersal. ESD has the potential to generate biased sex ratios quite easily, leading to complex feedbacks between the ecology and evolution of ESD. Frequency-dependent selection on sex acts on ESD-related traits, driving local adaptation or plasticity to restore equilibrium sex ratio. However, migration and overlapping generations (“mixing”) diminish local adaptation and leave each cohort/population with the potential for biased sex ratios. Incorporating mechanism into ecology and evolution models reveals similarities between different sex-determining systems. Dosage and gene regulatory network models of sexual development are beginning to shed light on how temperature sensitivity and thresholds may arise. The unavoidable temperature sensitivity in sex-determining systems inherent to these models suggests that evolutionary transitions between genotypic sex determination (GSD) and temperature-dependent sex determination, and between different forms of GSD, are simple and elegant. Theoretical models are often best-served by considering a single piece of a puzzle; however, there is much to gain from reflecting on all of the pieces together in one integrative picture.

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Umen, James, and Susana Coelho. "Algal Sex Determination and the Evolution of Anisogamy." Annual Review of Microbiology 73, no. 1 (September 8, 2019): 267–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-micro-020518-120011.

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Algae are photosynthetic eukaryotes whose taxonomic breadth covers a range of life histories, degrees of cellular and developmental complexity, and diverse patterns of sexual reproduction. These patterns include haploid- and diploid-phase sex determination, isogamous mating systems, and dimorphic sexes. Despite the ubiquity of sexual reproduction in algae, their mating-type-determination and sex-determination mechanisms have been investigated in only a limited number of representatives. These include volvocine green algae, where sexual cycles and sex-determining mechanisms have shed light on the transition from mating types to sexes, and brown algae, which are a model for UV sex chromosome evolution in the context of a complex haplodiplontic life cycle. Recent advances in genomics have aided progress in understanding sexual cycles in less-studied taxa including ulvophyte, charophyte, and prasinophyte green algae, as well as in diatoms.

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Packer, Craig, D. Anthony Collins, and Lynn E. Eberly. "Problems with primate sex ratios." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences 355, no. 1403 (November 29, 2000): 1627–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2000.0725.

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Birth sex ratios of baboons in Gombe National Park, Tanzania, show an overall male bias of ca . 20%, but there is no obvious explanation for this trend. Individual females did not alter their sex ratios according to persistent levels of local resource competition. Sex ratios showed an unexpected relationship between age and rank: subordinate females had more sons when they were young; dominant females had more sons when they were old. The sex ratio of low–ranking females also varied with the severity of environmental conditions during pregnancy. Our findings suggest that mammalian sex ratios might be the product of more complex processes than is generally recognized or that sex–determining mechanisms impose sufficient constraints to prevent adaptive variation in all contexts.

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Juchault, Pierre, Thierry Rigaud, and Jean-Pierre Mocquard. "Evolution of sex-determining mechanisms in a wild population of Armadillidium vulgare Latr. (Crustacea, Isopoda): competition between two feminizing parasitic sex factors." Heredity 69, no. 4 (October 1992): 382–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/hdy.1992.138.

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41

Xu, Jianping. "The inheritance of organelle genes and genomes: patterns and mechanisms." Genome 48, no. 6 (December 1, 2005): 951–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/g05-082.

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Unlike nuclear genes and genomes, the inheritance of organelle genes and genomes does not follow Mendel's laws. In this mini-review, I summarize recent research progress on the patterns and mechanisms of the inheritance of organelle genes and genomes. While most sexual eukaryotes show uniparental inheritance of organelle genes and genomes in some progeny at least part of the time, increasing evidence indicates that strictly uniparental inheritance is rare and that organelle inheritance patterns are very diverse and complex. In contrast with the predominance of uniparental inheritance in multicellular organisms, organelle genes in eukaryotic microorganisms, such as protists, algae, and fungi, typically show a greater diversity of inheritance patterns, with sex-determining loci playing significant roles. The diverse patterns of inheritance are matched by the rich variety of potential mechanisms. Indeed, many factors, both deterministic and stochastic, can influence observed patterns of organelle inheritance. Interestingly, in multicellular organisms, progeny from interspecific crosses seem to exhibit more frequent paternal leakage and biparental organelle genome inheritance than those from intraspecific crosses. The recent observation of a sex-determining gene in the basidiomycete yeast Cryptococcus neoformans, which controls mitochondrial DNA inheritance, has opened up potentially exciting research opportunities for identifying specific molecular genetic pathways that control organelle inheritance, as well as for testing evolutionary hypotheses regarding the prevalence of uniparental inheritance of organelle genes and genomes.Key words: isogamy, anisogamy, paternal leakage, mating type, quantitative organelle inheritance.

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Ligon, Day B., Joseph R. Bidwell, and Matthew B. Lovern. "Incubation temperature effects on hatchling growth and metabolic rate in the African spurred tortoise, Geochelone sulcata." Canadian Journal of Zoology 87, no. 1 (January 2009): 64–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/z08-138.

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We tested competing hypotheses regarding the persistence of temperature-dependent sex determination (TSD) in the African spurred tortoise (Geochelone sulcata (Miller, 1779)), by measuring the effects of incubation temperature (Tinc) on a suite of physiological and behavioral endpoints, including resting metabolic rate, yolk-to-tissue conversion efficiency, posthatching growth, and temperature preference. Correlations of these variables with Tinc could lend support to the hypothesis that TSD persists owing to sex-specific benefits of development at specific temperatures, whereas absence of Tinc effects support the null hypothesis that TSD persists simply because selection favoring alternate sex determining mechanisms is weak or absent. The metabolic rate Q10 value exhibited temporal variation and was higher immediately after hatching compared with 40 or 100 days posthatching, and mass conversion efficiency varied among clutches. Incubation temperature correlated inversely with duration of embryonic development, but did not influence yolk conversion efficiency, growth, or resting metabolic rate. Thus, our results provide little evidence indicating contemporary benefits of TSD, suggesting that TSD in G. sulcata is no longer evolutionarily adaptive but persists because selection against it and in favor of other sex-determining mechanisms is weak, or that TSD is an adaptive trait but for reasons not elucidated by this study.

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Hughes, I. A., Howard Martin, Jarmo Jääskeläinen, and C. L. Acerini. "Nuclear receptor action involved with sex differentiation." Pure and Applied Chemistry 75, no. 11-12 (January 1, 2003): 1771–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1351/pac200375111771.

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Sex determination and differentiation in the male is an orderly sequence of events coordinated by genetic and hormonal factors operating in a time- and concentration-dependent manner. The constitutive sex in mammals is female. Disorders of fetal sex development have provided the means to identify testis-determining genes and the molecular mechanisms of hormone action. Thus, the androgen receptor, a nuclear hormone receptor critical for androgen-induced male sex differentiation, displays unique intra-receptor and protein-protein interactions which, when disturbed, can result in extreme forms of sex reversal. Polymorphic variants are associated with milder disorders of sex development. Against this genetic background, endocrine active substances may further contribute to the underlying causes of an increase in male reproductive tract disorders.

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Lagomarsino, Irma V., and David O. Conover. "Variation in Environmental and Genotypic Sex-Determining Mechanisms Across a Latitudinal Gradient in the Fish, Menidia menidia." Evolution 47, no. 2 (April 1993): 487. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2410066.

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Lagomarsino, Irma V., and David O. Conover. "VARIATION IN ENVIRONMENTAL AND GENOTYPIC SEX-DETERMINING MECHANISMS ACROSS A LATITUDINAL GRADIENT IN THE FISH, MENIDIA MENIDIA." Evolution 47, no. 2 (April 1993): 487–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1558-5646.1993.tb02108.x.

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Angeloni, Benedetta, Rachele Bigi, Gianmarco Bellucci, Rosella Mechelli, Chiara Ballerini, Carmela Romano, Emanuele Morena, et al. "A Case of Double Standard: Sex Differences in Multiple Sclerosis Risk Factors." International Journal of Molecular Sciences 22, no. 7 (April 2, 2021): 3696. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms22073696.

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Multiple sclerosis is a complex, multifactorial, dysimmune disease prevalent in women. Its etiopathogenesis is extremely intricate, since each risk factor behaves as a variable that is interconnected with others. In order to understand these interactions, sex must be considered as a determining element, either in a protective or pathological sense, and not as one of many variables. In particular, sex seems to highly influence immune response at chromosomal, epigenetic, and hormonal levels. Environmental and genetic risk factors cannot be considered without sex, since sex-based immunological differences deeply affect disease onset, course, and prognosis. Understanding the mechanisms underlying sex-based differences is necessary in order to develop a more effective and personalized therapeutic approach.

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Stalvey, John R. D., Edward J. Durbin, and Rober T. P. Erickson. "Sex vesicle “entrapment”: Translocation or nonhomologous recombination of misaligned Yp and Xp as alternative mechanisms for abnormal inheritance of the sex-determining region." American Journal of Medical Genetics 32, no. 4 (April 1989): 564–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajmg.1320320436.

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Kutnyánszky, Vera, Balázs Hargitai, Bernadette Hotzi, Mónika Kosztelnik, Csaba Ortutay, Tibor Kovács, Eszter Győry, et al. "Sex-specific regulation of neuronal functions in Caenorhabditis elegans: the sex-determining protein TRA-1 represses goa-1/Gα(i/o)." Molecular Genetics and Genomics 295, no. 2 (November 27, 2019): 357–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00438-019-01625-0.

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AbstractFemales and males differ substantially in various neuronal functions in divergent, sexually dimorphic animal species, including humans. Despite its developmental, physiological and medical significance, understanding the molecular mechanisms by which sex-specific differences in the anatomy and operation of the nervous system are established remains a fundamental problem in biology. Here, we show that in Caenorhabditis elegans (nematodes), the global sex-determining factor TRA-1 regulates food leaving (mate searching), male mating and adaptation to odorants in a sex-specific manner by repressing the expression of goa-1 gene, which encodes the Gα(i/o) subunit of heterotrimeric G (guanine–nucleotide binding) proteins triggering physiological responses elicited by diverse neurotransmitters and sensory stimuli. Mutations in tra-1 and goa-1 decouple behavioural patterns from the number of X chromosomes. TRA-1 binds to a conserved binding site located in the goa-1 coding region, and downregulates goa-1 expression in hermaphrodites, particularly during embryogenesis when neuronal development largely occurs. These data suggest that the sex-determination machinery is an important modulator of heterotrimeric G protein-mediated signalling and thereby various neuronal functions in this organism and perhaps in other animal phyla.

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Renn, Suzy C. P., and Peter L. Hurd. "Epigenetic Regulation and Environmental Sex Determination in Cichlid Fishes." Sexual Development 15, no. 1-3 (2021): 93–107. http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000517197.

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Studying environmental sex determination (ESD) in cichlids provides a phylogenetic and comparative approach to understand the evolution of the underlying mechanisms, their impact on the evolution of the overlying systems, and the neuroethology of life history strategies. Natural selection normally favors parents who invest equally in the development of male and female offspring, but evolution may favor deviations from this 50:50 ratio when environmental conditions produce an advantage for doing so. Many species of cichlids demonstrate ESD in response to water chemistry (temperature, pH, and oxygen concentration). The relative strengths of and the exact interactions between these factors vary between congeners, demonstrating genetic variation in sensitivity. The presence of sizable proportions of the less common sex towards the environmental extremes in most species strongly suggests the presence of some genetic sex-determining loci acting in parallel with the ESD factors. Sex determination and differentiation in these species does not seem to result in the organization of a final and irreversible sexual fate, so much as a life-long ongoing battle between competing male- and female-determining genetic and hormonal networks governed by epigenetic factors. We discuss what is and is not known about the epigenetic mechanism behind the differentiation of both gonads and sex differences in the brain. Beyond the well-studied tilapia species, the 2 best-studied dwarf cichlid systems showing ESD are the South American genus Apistogramma and the West African genus Pelvicachromis. Both species demonstrate male morphs with alternative reproductive tactics. We discuss the further neuroethology opportunities such systems provide to the study of epigenetics of alternative life history strategies and other behavioral variation.

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Lee, LingSze, Eugenia E. Montiel, Beatriz M. Navarro-Domínguez, and Nicole Valenzuela. "Chromosomal Rearrangements during Turtle Evolution Altered the Synteny of Genes Involved in Vertebrate Sex Determination." Cytogenetic and Genome Research 157, no. 1-2 (2019): 77–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000497302.

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Sex-determining mechanisms (SDMs) set an individual's sexual fate by its genotype (genotypic sex determination, GSD) or environmental factors like temperature (temperature- dependent sex determination, TSD), as in turtles where the GSD “trigger” remains unknown. SDMs co-evolve with turtle chromosome number, perhaps because fusions/fissions alter the relative position/regulation of sexual development genes. Here, we map 10 such genes via FISH onto metaphase chromosomes in 6 TSD and 6 GSD turtles for the first time. Results uncovered intrachromosomal rearrangements involving 3 genes across SDMs (Dax1, Fhl2, and Fgf9) and a chromosomal fusion linking 2 genes (Sf1 and Rspo1) in 1 chromosome in a TSD turtle (Pelomedusa subrufa) that locate to 2 chromosomes in all others. Notably, Sf1 and its repressor Foxl2 map to Apalone spinifera's ZW chromosomes but to a macro- (Foxl2) and a microautosome (Sf1) in other turtles potentially inducing SDM evolution. However, our phylogenetically informed analysis refutes Foxl2 (but not Sf1) as Apalone's master sex-determining gene. The absence of common TSD-specific or GSD-specific rearrangements underscores the independent evolutionary trajectories of turtle SDMs. Further comparative analyses using more genes from the sexual development network are warranted to inform genome evolution and its contribution to enigmatic turnovers of vertebrate sex determination.

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Journal articles on the topic 'Sex-determining mechanisms'

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