Journal articles on the topic 'Sentence final forms'
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Terao, Rumi, and Erica Zimmerman. "Converging toward the interlocutor: Sentence-final forms in Japanese conversations." WORD 51, no. 1 (April 2000): 41–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00437956.2000.11432498.
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Hwang, Young Hee. "Normative Forms and Integrated Structure of Japanese in Incubation Period." Acta Linguistica Asiatica 10, no. 2 (July 30, 2020): 105–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.4312/ala.10.2.105-125.
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In this paper, I examine the change mechanism of Japanese sentence-final forms (SFF) maintained by two Korean returnee sisters for over 10 years after the cessation of L2 contact, and focus on the negative formal style of verb sentences and its deviation from the actual use of norms (analysis form) and non-norms (synthetic form). Findings are based on a comparison of two Korean sisters’ Japanese with that of thirteen Korean adults’ colonial Japanese maintained for over 60 years, which is also in the incubation phase. In the sisters’ Japanese sentence-final forms that were incubating as their L2, they rarely used the non-norms, while the norms were stably maintained, and the retention of the synthetic structure of their returnee Japanese correlated with the duration of the language acquisition period and with the elapsed time of contact cessation. That is, the sisters used more of the norms in the Korean colonial Japanese SFF than they did in their Japanese; I attribute this to the sisters’ 10-year incubation period. Specifically, the Korean returnee sisters’ speech included interventions of the explanatory [N] in the past affirmation of -ta desu, heavy use of non-norms in adjective and noun sentences, and connecting sentence-final particles to further grammatical structures. However, there were fixed and conventional Norms in the Korean returnee sisters’ Japanese, and once these are acquired, masu forms are retained for long periods in mirror image, especially on elder A. To summarize, in terms of the format of the returnee Japanese SFF, the two Korean returnee sisters were slower to shift from norms (masu) to non-norms (desu) than were adult Korean speakers of colonial Japanese. The same shift is observed with synthetic structure even after cessation of the language contact.
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Meijer, Paul J. A., and Jean E. Fox Tree. "Building Syntactic Structures in Speaking: A Bilingual Exploration." Experimental Psychology 50, no. 3 (January 2003): 184–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1026//1617-3169.50.3.184.
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Abstract. In a series of three experiments we investigated syntactic priming using a sentence recall task. Participants read and memorized a target sentence for later recall. After reading a prime sentence and engaging in a distraction task, they were asked to produce the target sentence aloud. Earlier investigations have shown that this task is sensitive to a syntactic priming effect. That is, the syntactic form of the prime sentence sometimes influences the syntactic form of the recalled target. In this paper we report on a variation on this task, using Spanish-English bilingual participants. In the first two experiments we replicated the prepositional phrase priming effect using English target sentences and Spanish prime sentences. In the final experiment we investigated two additional syntactic forms, using Spanish target sentences and English prime sentences. Implications for models of syntax generation and bilingual speech production are discussed.
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Asada, Hirofumi, and Michael Harrington. "Knowledge of gendered sentence-final forms in Japanese as a second language." Issues in the Teaching and Learning of Japanese 15 (January 1, 1998): 11–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/aralss.15.02asa.
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Abstract This study examines the use of gendered sentence-final forms by learners of Japanese as a second language (JSL). Sentence-final forms (SFF) like wa, zo, kashira, etc., are pervasive in Japanese speech, and serve to signal agreement or empathy with the interlocutor and to maintain the ongoing discourse. Although these forms carry no syntactic or semantic meaning, they serve a range of pragmatic functions, including that of marking gender, which is an important distinction in Japanese. In this study the receptive and productive knowledge of gendered forms by advanced JSL learners is examined. Results from a recognition test and an analysis of oral speech samples produced by JSL learners are compared with those of a control group of native Japanese speakers. Three findings emerged. 1) The advanced JSL learners consistently used the same sentence-final forms, which were far fewer in number than those used native speaker counterparts. 2) No clear-cut male-female differences emerged in either language group for most of the forms studied. 3) The productive and receptive responses for both groups differed from traditional classifications of the forms. The implications of the results for JSL pedagogy are discussed.
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Nivison, David S. "The “Question” Question*." Early China 14 (1989): 115–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0362502800002613.
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When we read Shang oracle-bone inscriptions, we should distinguish between what the diviner is saying (in the “charge,” mingci) and what he is doing in the whole divination rite. What he is doing is not always seeking information; and even when he is doing this, what he says is usually not a question. This paper offers various arguments and examples to show this. For example, Li Xueqin's research proves that the oracle language possessed grammatical forms, such as final particles and final negatives, for marking a sentence as a question. Therefore, the first assumption should be that when a diviner does not use these forms, he does not intend a sentence to be understood as a question. And when two sentences in the same inscription — e.g., the charge and the prognostication — are alike in form (both of them being without final negatives or interrogative particles), it is a mistake to construe one of them as a question and the other as a statement.
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Диваев, Александр Борисович. "Execution of sentences, definitions and decisions - the final stage of criminal proceedings." Vestnik Kuzbasskogo instituta, no. 1(42) (March 20, 2020): 149–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.53993/2078-3914/2020/1(42)/149-159.
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Представленная статья посвящена природе такого вида процессуальной деятельности, как обращение приговоров, определений и постановлений по уголовным делам. Традиционно в теории уголовного процесса она рассматривается как элемент стадии исполнения приговора, наряду с деятельностью по рассмотрению вопросов, связанных с его исполнением. Такой подход подвергнут критике. В исследовании приведены аргументы в обоснование того, что содержание стадии исполнения приговора составляет исключительно деятельность по обращению приговора к исполнению, сущность которой значительно отличается от деятельности по разрешению вопросов, связанных с его исполнением, образующей отдельное дополнительное уголовно-процессуальное производство. The article is devoted to the nature of this type of procedural activity as the execution of sentences, definitions and decisions in criminal cases. Traditionally, in the theory of criminal procedure, it is considered as an element of the stage of execution of a sentence, along with the activity of considering issues related to its execution. This approach has been criticized. The study provides arguments in support of the fact that the content of the stage of execution of the sentence is exclusively the activity of applying the sentence to execution, the essence of which is significantly different from the activity of resolving issues related to its execution, which forms a separate additional criminal procedure proceedings.
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Cooke, Martin, Odette Scharenborg, and Bernd T. Meyer. "The time course of adaptation to distorted speech." Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 151, no. 4 (April 2022): 2636–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1121/10.0010235.
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When confronted with unfamiliar or novel forms of speech, listeners' word recognition performance is known to improve with exposure, but data are lacking on the fine-grained time course of adaptation. The current study aims to fill this gap by investigating the time course of adaptation to several different types of distorted speech. Keyword scores as a function of sentence position in a block of 30 sentences were measured in response to eight forms of distorted speech. Listeners recognised twice as many words in the final sentence compared to the initial sentence with around half of the gain appearing in the first three sentences, followed by gradual gains over the rest of the block. Rapid adaptation was apparent for most of the eight distortion types tested with differences mainly in the gradual phase. Adaptation to sine-wave speech improved if listeners had heard other types of distortion prior to exposure, but no similar facilitation occurred for the other types of distortion. Rapid adaptation is unlikely to be due to procedural learning since listeners had been familiarised with the task and sentence format through exposure to undistorted speech. The mechanisms that underlie rapid adaptation are currently unclear.
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Nivison, David S. "13. The “Question” Question." Early China 9, S1 (1986): 30–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s036250280000300x.
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ABSTRACTThis paper takes issue with the widely prevailing assumption that the “charge” (ming ci) in a Shang oracle inscription must always be understood as a question. I hold that we must distinguish between what the diviner is saying in the charge, and what he is doing in the whole divination rite. What he is doing is not always seeking information; and even when he is doing this, what he says is usually not a question. I present various arguments and examples to show this, e.g.:(1) Li Hsüeh-ch'in's research proves that the oracle language possessed grammatical forms, such as final particles and final negatives, for marking a sentence as a question. Therefore, I hold, our first assumption should be that when a diviner does not use these forms, he does not intend his sentence to be understood as a question.(2) When two sentences in the same inscription -- e.g., charge and prognostication -- are alike in form (both of them being without final negatives or particles), it is a mistake to construe one of them as a question and the other as a statement. But a prognostication must be a statement.
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Umberfield, Elizabeth E., Yun Jiang, Susan H. Fenton, Cooper Stansbury, Kathleen Ford, Kaycee Crist, Sharon L. R. Kardia, Andrea K. Thomer, and Marcelline R. Harris. "Lessons Learned for Identifying and Annotating Permissions in Clinical Consent Forms." Applied Clinical Informatics 12, no. 03 (May 2021): 429–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-0041-1730032.
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Abstract Background The lack of machine-interpretable representations of consent permissions precludes development of tools that act upon permissions across information ecosystems, at scale. Objectives To report the process, results, and lessons learned while annotating permissions in clinical consent forms. Methods We conducted a retrospective analysis of clinical consent forms. We developed an annotation scheme following the MAMA (Model-Annotate-Model-Annotate) cycle and evaluated interannotator agreement (IAA) using observed agreement (A o), weighted kappa (κw ), and Krippendorff's α. Results The final dataset included 6,399 sentences from 134 clinical consent forms. Complete agreement was achieved for 5,871 sentences, including 211 positively identified and 5,660 negatively identified as permission-sentences across all three annotators (A o = 0.944, Krippendorff's α = 0.599). These values reflect moderate to substantial IAA. Although permission-sentences contain a set of common words and structure, disagreements between annotators are largely explained by lexical variability and ambiguity in sentence meaning. Conclusion Our findings point to the complexity of identifying permission-sentences within the clinical consent forms. We present our results in light of lessons learned, which may serve as a launching point for developing tools for automated permission extraction.
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Lee, EunMi, and DaHae Kim. "The use of sentence-final forms in cosmetic advertising in Korean and Japanese magazines." Center for Japanese Studies Chung-ang University 42 (August 31, 2016): 139. http://dx.doi.org/10.20404/jscau.2016.08.42.139.
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Moon Chang-hak. "Sentence Final Forms in Korean which correspond to darou in Japanese－Focused on kessci－." Journal of Japanese Language and Literature 74, no. 1 (August 2010): 21–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.17003/jllak.2010.74.1.21.
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NASERASADI, ALI, HAMID KHOSRAVI, and FARAMARZ SADEGHI. "Extractive multi-document summarization based on textual entailment and sentence compression via knapsack problem." Natural Language Engineering 25, no. 1 (October 31, 2018): 121–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1351324918000414.
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AbstractBy increasing the amount of data in computer networks, searching and finding suitable information will be harder for users. One of the most widespread forms of information on such networks are textual documents. So exploring these documents to get information about their content is difficult and sometimes impossible. Multi-document text summarization systems are an aid to producing a summary with a fixed and predefined length, while covering the maximum content of the input documents. This paper presents a novel method for multi-document extractive summarization based on textual entailment relations and sentence compression via formulating the problem as a knapsack problem. In this approach, sentences of documents are ranked according to the extended Tf-Idf method, then entailment scores of selected sentences are computed. Through these scores, the final score of each sentence is calculated. Finally, by decreasing the lengths of sentences via sentence compression, the problem has been solved by greedy and dynamic Programming approaches to the knapsack problem. Experiments on standard summarization datasets and evaluating the results based on the Rouge system show that the suggested method, according to the best of our knowledge, has increased F-measure of query-based summarization systems by two per cent and F-measure of general summarization systems by five per cent.
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Zhunusova, M. K., and A. Zh Sayazhanova. "The syntactic structure of the initial and final sentences." Bulletin of the Karaganda University. Philology series 99, no. 3 (September 30, 2020): 65–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.31489/2020ph3/65-72.
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The article analyzes the key role of syntactic features in the composition of the text. It was determined that the first and last sentences of the text are syntactically diverse. Sentence words, simple, introductory, and complex sentences perform communicative, expressive, and stylistic functions in the text. The semantic and compressed structures, modality, expressiveness, and stylistic skills that are based on various structures of these sentences were studied to reveal the clarity and comprehensibility of the idea of sentences. It is emphasized that with the help of syntactic laws, by means of one-or two-part sentences that convey the idea of the text, the features of the character are briefly and concisely revealed. The features of the formation of various initial sentences are defined. The syntactic structure of initial and final sentences is different: simple, ambiguous, complete, incomplete, positive, negative. All types of single-part components are nominal, vocative, and non-articulate sentences. However, such sentences are not complex, they are mostly simple short sentences. Semantic and syntactic characteristics of initial and final sentences are described in their idiomatic, narrative, interrogative, and complex forms. It was determined by the semantic properties of rhetorical questions in the initial proposals. It should be noted that the nominal structure of the initial sentences of the text is used not only for ease of description but also for emotionality as if it is related to certain aspects of the plot or the general content of the story and affects the reader's feelings. It is believed that the authors in the initial sentences not only indicate the time or place of the event, but also describe human behavior in relation to the environment and nature, and thus allow the reader to predict the end of the story. It was ascertained that the initial and final sentences, depending on the historical period, can be used in both positive and negative meanings.
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Suwandi, Suwandi. "Coherence and cohesion: An analysis of the final project abstracts of the undergraduate students of PGRI Semarang." Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics 5, no. 2 (January 30, 2016): 253. http://dx.doi.org/10.17509/ijal.v5i2.1349.
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An abstract is the gist of a research report which has the purpose to allow the reader to get the main information without reading the whole document. Since it plays an important role in grasping the information of the whole research report, the writing of the abstract, therefore should be concise and the logical relation among sentences is clear, coherent and cohesive. However, many of the students still find difficulties in making their writing coherent due to their limitation in understanding the cohesive devices and their application in their writing. This article attempts to reveal the coherence of the abstracts of the final project reports of the undergraduate students of PGRI University Semarang, Indonesia. Its objectives are (1) to reveal the micro-level coherence, how each sentence is connected to the other to make logical relations and (2) to discover the macro-level coherence, the right use of cohesive devices like conjunction, reference, substitution or ellipsis so as to make the whole text coherent. Several abstracts of the students’ final projects were selected randomly to be analyzed. Since it is a qualitative research, the data were in the level of words or sentences. The result shows that the abstracts analyzed have not satisfactorily achieved coherence though some cohesive devices like reference, conjunctions, ellipsis which are used to link one sentence to the other. Some grammatical mistakes are also found such as the plural forms, active-passive voice.
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Korbozerova, Nina, and Olena Obruchnikova. "Evolution of the Spanish Relative Construction: Acquisition of National Features." PROBLEMS OF SEMANTICS, PRAGMATICS AND COGNITIVE LINGUISTICS, no. 39 (2021): 24–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.17721/2663-6530.2021.39.03.
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Complex attributive sentences in the Spanish language of the medieval period are characterized by a vague expression of the degree of syntactic subordination. During the XII-XVI centuries there is a process of constant enrichment of meanings and forms of complex attributive sentences. The final formation of the structural organization of a complex attributive sentence ended in the XVII century, in the period of unification and formation of the national Spanish language. Starting from the Old Spanish period, the externally formal homogeneity of models of a complex attributive sentence is disturbed by deep internal complications of semantic connections between the main and subordinate parts. Thus, in the Middle Spanish period, a complex attributive sentence gradually reformatted its structural organization by strengthening the contact position of the nominal center of subordination with the conjunctions and strengthening bilateral links between predicative components, which further contributed to the normalization of the position of the subordinate part. On the other hand, there is an intensive mutual replacement of some conjunctions with others. In the Old Spanish period, the conjunctions bigan to lose their uncoordinated lexical correlation between the correlative word and the supporting noun in the main part. This trend contributed to the consolidation of the structural organization of a complex attributive sentence, which was realized in the early Spanish period.
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Tekliński, Jarosław. "POSTPONEMENT OF CUSTODIAL SENTENCE EXECUTION IN COURT STATISTICSs." Probacja 4 (March 31, 2021): 107–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0014.7907.
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Postponement of the custodial sentence execution is one of few derogations from the rule of immediate sentence execution, defined in art. 9 § 1 of the Penal Enforcement Code. Its application results in a situation when some of the convicted remain outside the penitentiary system in the period defined by the court in the postponement order. Because of that fact, this institution at least periodically influences the size of the prison population. This article analyses the application of postponement of the custodial sentence execution based on statistical data and its impact on shaping the domestic prison population. The research material comprised statistical data, included in MS-S10 reports on executing orders according to material jurisdiction for the period 2012-2018 (concerning district and regional courts), made available by the Managing Statistical Information Division of the Strategy and European Funds Department within the Ministry of Justice. The data were presented in charts made by the author. The dissertation is opened with the analysis of the data, which concern passing the custodial sentence. It also includes modal forms such as substitutive custodial sentences instead of unpaid fines and unserved custodial sentences, as well as orders to serve suspended custodial sentences and orders to cancel parole. All the above prepare the ground for the central dissertation issues, i.e., the policy that applies the postponement of the custodial sentence execution by district and regional courts and the significance of the postponement mentioned above among other reasons for not putting the convicted in penitentiaries. Having done the preliminary research of available statistical data, the author concludes that, compared to other reasons for not putting the convicted in prisons, the role of the postponement of the custodial sentence execution in shaping the prison population is decreasing. This phenomenon should be perceived as an unfavourable one in principle. The author explains the view in the final remarks.
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Abdullabekova, U. B. "MONOFINITE COMPLEX CLAUSE IN THE KUMYK LANGUAGE." Russian Journal of Multilingualism and Education 12 (December 25, 2020): 28–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.35634/2500-0748-2020-12-28-36.
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This article aims to analyze the monofinite complex clause in the Kumyk language in terms of structure. The originality of the research lies in the fact that the article proposes a different approach than in Russian studies on the analysis of the syntactic structure of a sentence. The relevance of the research is determined by the role of the sentence structure and methods of its study in linguistics in general. The main method used in the study is the method of syntactic modeling, which is used in terms of functions (members of a sentence), in terms of morphological forms of words and the semantic structure of a sentence. Turkic languages are not characterized by properly complex sentences with two formally independent finite parts connected by an analytical form. Case affixes and postpositions form not finite verb forms, but infinite verb forms. Such constructions in agglutinative languages are central and most frequent. The monofinite complex clause, or a sentence complicated by an infinite phrase (participial and adverbial phrase), or “polypredicative construction” according to the Novosibirsk syntactic school is investigated in this article. The author argues that when characterizing a complex clause, it is necessary to take into account such parameters as the finiteness / infiniteness of the dependent predicate, the nature of the means of communication and the referential identity / non-identity of the subjects of the main and dependent parts. The constructive center of a monofinite complex clause is the indicator of connection –analytical, that is, an auxiliary word, or synthetic, that is, a morpheme in the composition of a dependent predicate. Formally, this is a part of the infinite form of such a predicate, but functionally it serves to express the relationship between the predicative parts. Since the dependent predicate in the Kumyk language occupies the final position in the dependent predicative unit, the synthetic link indicator is located on the border between the main predicative unit and the dependent predicative unit.
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Abdullabekova, U. B. "MONOFINITE COMPLEX CLAUSE IN THE KUMYK LANGUAGE." Russian Journal of Multilingualism and Education 12 (December 25, 2020): 28–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.35634/2500-0748-2020-12-28-36.
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This article aims to analyze the monofinite complex clause in the Kumyk language in terms of structure. The originality of the research lies in the fact that the article proposes a different approach than in Russian studies on the analysis of the syntactic structure of a sentence. The relevance of the research is determined by the role of the sentence structure and methods of its study in linguistics in general. The main method used in the study is the method of syntactic modeling, which is used in terms of functions (members of a sentence), in terms of morphological forms of words and the semantic structure of a sentence. Turkic languages are not characterized by properly complex sentences with two formally independent finite parts connected by an analytical form. Case affixes and postpositions form not finite verb forms, but infinite verb forms. Such constructions in agglutinative languages are central and most frequent. The monofinite complex clause, or a sentence complicated by an infinite phrase (participial and adverbial phrase), or “polypredicative construction” according to the Novosibirsk syntactic school is investigated in this article. The author argues that when characterizing a complex clause, it is necessary to take into account such parameters as the finiteness / infiniteness of the dependent predicate, the nature of the means of communication and the referential identity / non-identity of the subjects of the main and dependent parts. The constructive center of a monofinite complex clause is the indicator of connection –analytical, that is, an auxiliary word, or synthetic, that is, a morpheme in the composition of a dependent predicate. Formally, this is a part of the infinite form of such a predicate, but functionally it serves to express the relationship between the predicative parts. Since the dependent predicate in the Kumyk language occupies the final position in the dependent predicative unit, the synthetic link indicator is located on the border between the main predicative unit and the dependent predicative unit.
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Lee, Hye-Jeong. "An Analysis of KARA and NODE -From the viewpoint of polite and ordinary sentence final forms." Japanese Language and Literature Association of Daehan ll, no. 55 (August 2012): 119–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.18631/jalali.2012..55.008.
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이혜정. "An Analysis of KARA and NODE -From the viewpoint of sentence final forms using the Japanese corpus." Japanese Language and Literature Association of Daehan ll, no. 57 (February 2013): 49–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.18631/jalali.2013..57.004.
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Ohana, Daniel. "Sentencing Reform in Israel: The Goldberg Committee Report." Israel Law Review 32, no. 4 (1998): 591–643. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021223700015818.
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Sentencing reform has been the subject of much debate over the past two decades in North America, Europe and Australia. Among the concerns spurring this widespread reconsideration of sentencing principles and practices, there is the need to promote consistency in sentencing, the crisis in public confidence in the criminal justice system, and the constitutional argument for more legislative intervention in the area of sentencing. The reforms implemented in various jurisdictions to address these concerns have taken numerous forms: at the federal level in the United States, “base sentences” were assigned to each offense category, the final sentence being fixed in the light of the offender's prior criminal history and aggravating and mitigating circumstances; at the state level, several jurisdictions adopted a less detailed system of numerical guidelines, schematized by a two-dimensional grid of sentence ranges defined by classes of offenses and the offender's criminal record. Other jurisdictions, such as Canada, Britain and Sweden, eschewed the use of numerical guidelines as a vehicle to structure judicial discretion in favour of simpler statutory statements of principles in sentencing.
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Xiao, Feng. "Development in the use of Chinese mitigation in interaction." Chinese as a Second Language Research 6, no. 1 (June 27, 2017): 39–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/caslar-2017-0003.
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AbstractThis study investigated changes in the use of mitigation and face negotiation in interaction in two advanced-level Chinese learners over eight weeks in China. Data included video-recordings of semi-structured interviews between the learners and a Chinese native speaker as well as their stimulated recalls with the recorded interviews. Sequential analysis of their use of mitigation showed that, at the beginning of their study abroad (SA), the learners used the dànshì /kěshì (‘but’) clause but did not use the four mitigation forms identified as common sentential mitigation devices in Chinese corpora (reduplication of verbs, verb+yīxià, the sentence final particle ba, and a/ya). Eight weeks later, they started using the sentence final particle ba, but not the other three common sentential mitigation forms. At the discourse level, they used single pre- and post-expansions at the beginning of SA; eight weeks later, they started using multiple pre- and post-expansions. The stimulated recall data revealed that the learners’ use of mitigation in both the pre- and post-interviews was based on their face (i.e., pubic self-image) consideration in interaction.
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Kovačević, Miloš. "FINALNI IMPERATIV U SAVREMENOM SRPSKOM JEZIKU." Nasledje, Kragujevac XVIII, no. 50 (2021): 79–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.46793/naskg2150.079k.
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The paper syntactically and semantically analyzes the constructions of the doubled imper- ative in which the second imperative has a final meaning only recognized in the latest syntac- tic literature, which is confirmed by the substitution of the imperative by the final infinitive and the final da-present-tense clause which is always possible, such as: Idi kupi [→ kupiti / da kupiš] novine. The basic question to be answered in the paper is: how, and in which syntac- tic-semantic conditions, is it possible that two finite verb forms separated neither by conjunc- tions, nor by punctuation, form a very specific asyndetic construction which is subordinate in its semantic status, and whose only conjunctive equivalent syntactically is a coordinated copulative sentence. In the conducted analysis the characteristics of doubled imperatives, unseparated or sepa- rated by commas were interrelated. Doubled comma-separated imperatives represent asyndetic copulative sentences. Thanks to the semantic correlation of imperative verbs, these sentences represent a special semantic subtype of copulative sentences: independent asyndetic and/or syn- detic copulative sentences with final meaning (e.g. Dođi, jedi / Dođi i jedi). The meaning of finality is thus, within an independent compound sentence, only a subtype of copulative meaning. The constructions of doubled imperatives not separated by commas represent a unique case of structurally subordinated constructions in the Serbian language. They are structured as dependent syntagms, since the second imperative performs the function of an adverbial complement or goal determination, just as the one the semantically equivalent final infinitive does, too. These constructions are synonymous constructions with three imperative particles: hajde, daj and de(der), due to the fact that these particles appear in the meaning of the imper- atives idi, pođi, dođi and the like (cf. Hajde / daj / deder donesi vode → Idi / pođi / kreni don- esi vode). Having in mind that imperative particles form a compact intonation unit with the imperative verb following them, then there is no justification to separate the imperative par- ticle from the verb in the imperative with a comma in writing. Since imperative particles are pragmatically synonymous with basic verbs of movement - this equivalence is also transferred to writing: no comma or any other punctuation mark is placed between the doubled imperatives. It is this fact that enables the final interpretation of the second imperative in the constructions of the doubled or reduplicated imperative. And its final meaning is confirmed by the possibil- ity of substitution by a final infinitive and/or a final da-present-tense clause without changing the meaning of the utterance.
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Shigurov, Viktor Vasil'evich, and Tat'yana Alekseevna Shigurova. "Indexation of the zone of infinitive-modal structures in Russian language." Филология: научные исследования, no. 3 (March 2020): 64–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.7256/2454-0749.2020.3.32614.
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The relevance of this topic is substantiated by the need to objectivize the results of analysis of transposition mechanism of modalation of verbs in finite and attributive forms using quantitative methods of material processing. The goal of this article is to examine the levels of correspondence of differential signs of infinite forms of verbs in the zone of hybrid structures to the signs of nuclear representatives of the initial and final elements of inter-categorical introductory-modal transposition. The subject of this research became the infinitive-modal structures in transitive sentences that combine the attributes of conjunctionless complex sentences and simple expanded sentence (with unattached introductory-modal component). On the example of word form, the author demonstrates the combinatorial structure and proportion of attributes of verbs and introductory-modal units interacting with each other within the hybrid structure. The conducted research illustrates that the level of modalation of hybrids is determined by the proportion of differential properties of nuclear infinitive and nuclear introductory-modal words. It is established that in transitive structure, which balance on the border of conjunctionless complex and simple expanded sentence, hybrids of the type “to know” show 68% of correspondence to nuclear infinitives (“know”) and 45% of correspondence to introductory-modal words (“must be”). In syntactic constructs with such hybrid the external syntactic position of modus framework of conjunctionless complex is combined with internal syntactic position of introductory-modal component of the expression.
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HSIEH, LI, LAURENCE B. LEONARD, and LORI SWANSON. "Some differences between English plural noun inflections and third singular verb inflections in the input: the contributions of frequency, sentence position, and duration." Journal of Child Language 26, no. 3 (October 1999): 531–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s030500099900392x.
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Grammatical inflections such as the English plural noun -s and third person singular verb -s are acquired at different points in time by young children. This finding is typically attributed to factors such as relative semantic salience or the distinction between lexical and functional categories. In this study input frequency, sentence position, and duration were examined as possible contributing factors. In both conversations with and stories aimed at young children, noun plural inflections were found to be more frequent than third singular verb inflections, especially in sentence-final position. Analysis of the speech of four mothers reading stories to their two-year-old children confirmed that duration differences also exist in the input. Because fricatives were lengthened in sentence-final position and plural nouns were much more likely to appear in these positions than were third singular verb forms, plural nouns were significantly longer than third singular inflections on average. The possible implications of these findings for language learnability theories and accounts of grammatical deficits in specific language impairment are discussed.
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Taguchi, Naoko, Haomin Zhang, and Qiong Li. "Pragmatic competence of heritage learners of Chinese and its relationship to social contact." Chinese as a Second Language Research 6, no. 1 (June 27, 2017): 7–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/caslar-2017-0002.
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AbstractThis study aimed to investigate: (1) Chinese heritage learners’ (CHLs) pragmatic competence in comparison to foreign language learners of Chinese (CFLs) and (2) the relationship between CHLs’ pragmatic competence and their language contact in a range of social settings. Focal linguistic forms included sentence final particles (SFPs) and formulaic expressions (FORs). Sixty Chinese language learners in the intermediate- and advanced-level classes (31 CHLs and 29 CFLs) participated in the study. Participants completed a computerized listening comprehension task, a written production task, and a language contact questionnaire. Findings showed that CHLs outperformed CFLs in both comprehension and production of Chinese sentence final particles and formulaic expressions. The analysis of language contact questionnaire revealed that learners who reported a greater amount of interactive language contact achieved higher scores on the pragmatic tasks, regardless of the constructs and skill domains assessed.
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Jarnow, Alexander. "Making questions with tone: Polar question formation in Kinyarwanda." Proceedings of the Linguistic Society of America 5, no. 1 (March 23, 2020): 213. http://dx.doi.org/10.3765/plsa.v5i1.4699.
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Kinyarwanda is a Bantu language with one phonemic (H) tone (Kimenyi 2002). This can phonetically realized as high, low, rising, and falling. This talk addresses the tonological discrepancy between declaratives and polar questions in Kinyarwanda. Kimenyi(1980) briefly addresses Kinyarwanda polar questions and describes them as “a rising pitch at the sentence final position”. This generalization captures crucially cannot predict polar questions in which there is no LHL contour at the end of the sentence. I argue that what polar questions share is (a) suspension of downstep on the rightmost lexical H and (b) deletion of all word-final prosodic H. Kinyarwanda forms a prosodic structure that takes the scope of the question. This expands on Richards (2010) analysis of wh-questions. Kinyarwanda marks the right edges of prosodic words using boundary tones, similar to Chichewa (Kanerva 1990; Myers 1996).
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ALA editors. "Foreword." Acta Linguistica Asiatica 10, no. 2 (July 30, 2020): 5. http://dx.doi.org/10.4312/ala.10.2.5.
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In these strange days of a limited physical and social contact due to the worldwide pandemic we are especially grateful for the existence of the parallel virtual world, which goes beyond human shortcomings. Our work continued without any obstructions and we are pleased to announce the summer ALA issue of the year 2020. In it we offer six research articles that extend over a broad linguistic area and include languages of the far East Asia, namely Mandarin Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese.
The issue opens with the WU Jiayi’s article “Contextual Conditions and Constraints in Chinese Dangling Topics: Syntax-Discourse Interface Analysis”, in which the author revisits dangling topics in Mandarin Chinese from the semantic and syntactic view, and evolves their findings to the hypothesis concerning language typology.
The second article on Chinese is Tina ČOK’s “Lexical Aspect Classification for Unrelated Languages: A Case Study on Slovenian and Chinese Lexical Aspect”, in which the author analyzes Chinese and Slovenian verb aspect to show that deeper cognitive differences effect our perception of reality, and upon her findings proposes an upgraded general classification of verb types.
The following article entitled “The New Chinese Corpus of Literary Texts Litchi” by Mateja PETROVČIČ, Radovan GARABÍK, and Ľuboš GAJDOŠ presents a newly launched corpus of Chinese literary texts Litchi, and exemplifies the variety of its benefits.
Furthermore, Petra JAKLIN “The Many Meanings of the Japanese Causative:Widening the Pragmatic Take on the -(sa)seru Causative Sentence” is an article in which the author revisits the range of possible interpretations and meanings carried by Japanese causative sentences, and supports her conclusions with comparisons to English and Croatian structures.
HWANG Yoong Hee’s article “Normative Forms and Synthetic Structure of Japanese in the Incubation Period of L2: Subject to Sentence-final Forms in Longitudinal Discourse Data of Korean Returnee Sisters’ Japanese” focuses on L2 Japanese sentence-final forms and their change mechanism in case of Korean returnees.
Last but not least, “Examining the Part-of-speech Features in Assessing the Readability of Vietnamese Texts” is an article by An-Vinh LUONG, Diep NGUYEN, and Dien DINH that discusses the present state of research on text readability in Vietnamese and proposes an improved model on estimating readability of texts and consequently their classification.
Editors and Editorial board wish the regular and new readers of the ALA journal a pleasant read full of inspiration.
Editors
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WEISLEDER, ADRIANA, and SANDRA R. WAXMAN. "What's in the input? Frequent frames in child-directed speech offer distributional cues to grammatical categories in Spanish and English." Journal of Child Language 37, no. 5 (August 24, 2009): 1089–108. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0305000909990067.
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ABSTRACTRecent analyses have revealed that child-directed speech contains distributional regularities that could, in principle, support young children's discovery of distinct grammatical categories (noun, verb, adjective). In particular, a distributional unit known as the frequent frame appears to be especially informative (Mintz, 2003). However, analyses have focused almost exclusively on the distributional information available in English. Because languages differ considerably in how the grammatical forms are marked within utterances, the scarcity of cross-linguistic evidence represents an unfortunate gap. We therefore advance the developmental evidence by analyzing the distributional information available in frequent frames across two languages (Spanish and English), across sentence positions (phrase medial and phrase final), and across grammatical forms (noun, verb, adjective). We selected six parent–child corpora from the CHILDES database (three English; three Spanish), and analyzed the input when children were aged 2 ; 6 or younger. In each language, frequent frames did indeed offer systematic cues to grammatical category assignment. We also identify differences in the accuracy of these frames across languages, sentences positions and grammatical classes.
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Heim, Johannes M., and Martina E. Wiltschko. "Deconstructing Questions: Reanalyzing a heterogenous class of speech acts via commitment and engagement." Scandinavian Studies in Language 11, no. 1 (July 9, 2020): 56–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.7146/sss.v11i1.121361.
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Direct and indirect characterizations of the relation between clause type (syntactic form) and speech act (pragmatic function) are problematic because they map oversimplified forms onto decomposable functions. We propose an alternative account of questions by abandoning any (in)direct link to their clause type and by decomposing speech acts into two variables encoding propositional attitudes. One variable captures the speaker’s commitment to an utterance, another their expectation toward the addressee’s engagement. We couch this proposal in a syntactic framework that relies on two projections dedicated to managing common ground (GroundP) and managing turn-taking (ResponseP), respectively. Empirical evidence comes from the conversational properties of sentence-final intonation in English and sentence-peripheral particles that serve to manage the common ground.
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Richards, Brian, and Peter Robinson. "Environmental correlates of child copula verb growth." Journal of Child Language 20, no. 2 (June 1993): 343–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s030500090000831x.
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ABSTRACTA recurring result from studies which relate the frequency of input variables to rate of language development, is the link between auxiliary verb growth and yes—no questions addressed to children. Explanations for this relationship usually concentrate on the advantages of hearing stressed and non-contracted auxiliary forms in sentence-initial position over hearing unstressed, contracted forms in medial position in declaratives. If such accounts are correct, then it can be predicted that yes—no questions which place forms of COPULA be in initial position will also increase the rate of growth of children's COPULA verb development. This prediction was tested using a sample of 33 children, carefully matched for stage of language development at 1;9 and 2;0 years; rate of copula verb growth was then measured over the succeeding nine months. Analyses include an examination of the contribution of sub-categories of yes—no question, tag questions, and utterances containing sentence-final copulas to the growth of contracted and full copulas. Results confirm that the frequency of inverted copulas in yes—no questions predicts children's copula development. Nevertheless, caution is urged before interpreting the relationship in terms of a direct causal model.
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Martin, Katherine I., and Nick C. Ellis. "THE ROLES OF PHONOLOGICAL SHORT-TERM MEMORY AND WORKING MEMORY IN L2 GRAMMAR AND VOCABULARY LEARNING." Studies in Second Language Acquisition 34, no. 3 (August 15, 2012): 379–413. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0272263112000125.
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This study analyzed phonological short-term memory (PSTM) and working memory (WM) and their relationship with vocabulary and grammar learning in an artificial foreign language. Nonword repetition, nonword recognition, and listening span were used as memory measures. Participants learned the singular forms of vocabulary for an artificial foreign language before being exposed to plural forms in sentence contexts. Participants were tested on their ability to induce the grammatical forms and to generalize the forms to novel utterances. Individual differences in final abilities in vocabulary and grammar correlated between 0.44 and 0.76, depending on the measure. Despite these strong associations, the results demonstrated significant independent effects of PSTM and WM on L2 vocabulary learning and on L2 grammar learning, some of which were mediated by vocabulary and some of which were direct effects.
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Sun, Xuefeng, and Jungnam Kim. "A study on contrastive analysis of sentence-ending forms in Korean and Chinese languages, Focused on a comparison between sentence-final endings in Korean and mood words in Chinese." Korean Semantics 59 (March 31, 2018): 109–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.19033/sks.2018.03.59.109.
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EITELMANN, MATTHIAS. "Support for end-weight as a determinant of linguistic variation and change." English Language and Linguistics 20, no. 3 (October 25, 2016): 395–420. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1360674316000356.
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The term end-weight refers to the tendency for bulkier constituents to occur at the end of sentences. While end-weight has occasionally been analysed as a more general short-before-long principle in the sense of Behaghel's (1909–10) Law of Growing Constituents, the operation of end-weight in absolute sentence-final position has until recently lacked empirical verification. This article shows that end-weight effects can be observed in grammatical variation contexts in which language users have a choice between variants that differ in terms of length and degree of explicitness. Using two variation phenomena as a testing ground, we empirically investigate the hypothesis that the more explicit and hence bulkier variant occurs preferably in final position. The first variation context concerns semi-reflexive verbs that can take either an explicitself-pronoun or a zero variant. It turns out that the rapid decline of theself-pronoun is delayed in end position. The second case study focuses on Early Modern English affirmative declarative clauses, which may alternate between finite verb forms ordo-supported ones. This study reveals thatdo-support is favoured in end position. These findings ultimately contribute to an empirical validation of end-weight, the implications of which are discussed against the backdrop of processing-related support strategies.
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Cardinaletti, Anna, and Lori Repetti. "The Phonology and Syntax of Preverbal and Postverbal Subject Clitics in Northern Italian Dialects." Linguistic Inquiry 39, no. 4 (October 2008): 523–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/ling.2008.39.4.523.
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We argue that preverbal and postverbal subject clitics in northern Italian dialects are the same lexical items. The different forms of proclitics and enclitics can be explained phonologically (i.e., by phonological constraints ranked in a particular order) and by the hypothesis that morphologically neutral vowels may be inserted in final position (what we call morphological epenthesis). The distributional differences in the paradigm derive from a competition between overt clitics and null subjects that is resolved in an intricate way across sentence types and across dialects and that depends on the interaction of clitic and verb movement and on Minimize Structure.
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문창학. "The Contrastive Study on the Confirmation Requests in Japanese and Korean -Focusing on the Correspondence Relation of the Simple Sentence-Final Forms-." Journal of Japanese Studies ll, no. 59 (March 2014): 349–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.15733/jast.2014..59.349.
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Mrvic-Petrovic, Natasa, and Zdravko Petrovic. "State responsibility for damage caused by unfair sentence or unfounded arrest." Zbornik Matice srpske za drustvene nauke, no. 145 (2013): 653–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/zmsdn1345653m.
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The legal basis of state responsibility for damage caused by unfair sentence or unfounded arrest is the need to protect fundamental human rights and freedoms guaranteed by the Constitution and generally accepted international rules. The right to compensation on this basis (although subjective civil right) has a sui generis legal nature, because it is connected with the protection of human rights. Joint public-private legal nature of such a request is expressed in the legislation of the Republic of Serbia, because the circle of authorized persons and the conditions under which they may be entitled to compensation is determined by the criminal procedural rules, while the existence of a legally recognized forms of damage and the extent to which the damage may be reimbursed is estimated according to the general rules of Law of obligations. While the legislation is very progressive, it is observed that, in practice, the applications for compensation are usually submitted because of the most unreasonable detention of up to one month or three months, and the inefficiency of the criminal proceedings, suspended upon the expiration of the absolute limitation of prosecution. The state could easily affect these practices. Also, the priority of state must be meeting its financial obligations with regard to final adjustments, and the imposition of demands for compensation.
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TÜR, GÖKHAN, DILEK HAKKANI-TÜR, and KEMAL OFLAZER. "A statistical information extraction system for Turkish." Natural Language Engineering 9, no. 2 (June 2003): 181–210. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s135132490200284x.
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This paper presents the results of a study on information extraction from unrestricted Turkish text using statistical language processing methods. In languages like English, there is a very small number of possible word forms with a given root word. However, languages like Turkish have very productive agglutinative morphology. Thus, it is an issue to build statistical models for specific tasks using the surface forms of the words, mainly because of the data sparseness problem. In order to alleviate this problem, we used additional syntactic information, i.e. the morphological structure of the words. We have successfully applied statistical methods using both the lexical and morphological information to sentence segmentation, topic segmentation, and name tagging tasks. For sentence segmentation, we have modeled the final inflectional groups of the words and combined it with the lexical model, and decreased the error rate to 4.34%, which is 21% better than the result obtained using only the surface forms of the words. For topic segmentation, stems of the words (especially nouns) have been found to be more effective than using the surface forms of the words and we have achieved 10.90% segmentation error rate on our test set according to the weighted TDT-2 segmentation cost metric. This is 32% better than the word-based baseline model. For name tagging, we used four different information sources to model names. Our first information source is based on the surface forms of the words. Then we combined the contextual cues with the lexical model, and obtained some improvement. After this, we modeled the morphological analyses of the words, and finally we modeled the tag sequence, and reached an F-Measure of 91.56%, according to the MUC evaluation criteria. Our results are important in the sense that, using linguistic information, i.e. morphological analyses of the words, and a corpus large enough to train a statistical model significantly improves these basic information extraction tasks for Turkish.
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Научитель, Олена Давидівна, and Юрій Іванович Гулий. "МЕХАНІЗМИ ПСИХОЛОГІЧНОГО ЗАХИСТУ ЯК ЗАСОБИ ПОДОЛАННЯ ПЕНІТЕНЦІАРНОГО СТРЕСУ ЮНАКАМИ, ЩО ВІДБУВАЮТЬ ПОКАРАННЯ В МІСЦЯХ ПОЗБАВЛЕННЯ ВОЛІ." Humanities journal, no. 4 (December 19, 2018): 75–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.32620/gch.2018.4.09.
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Problem formulation. Due to the problem of the role and place of psychological protection mechanisms as a way to overcome stress, the question remains as to how the initial or final stage of the youth’s stay in detention centres imprints on the manifestation of mechanisms of psychological protection and on the nature of the interconnections of ways to overcome penitentiary stress with forms of penitentiary stress. The purpose of the study is to identify the specifics of the impact of the first and last six months of serving a prison sentence on the manifestations of mechanisms of psychological protection as ways of overcoming penitentiary stress of the youth who are in detention centres. Research methods. Method of conversation and testing. Sample description. 50 young people serving the sentence for the first time in a correctional colony took part in the research. Results of the research. Summing up the research it is possible to state both similar tendencies and differences. Whether it comes to a stage of adaptation or the last six months of imprisonment, the most active ways of overcoming the penitentiary stress in young men are the mechanisms of psychological protection: compensation, negation and projection, although there are certain manifestations of all others. Consequently, the preservation of the positive assessment of oneself happens due to the attribution of real or diffused alternative successes to yourself in other spheres; the refusal to admit the existence of certain facts, the transformation of reality in order to adapt it to its behavior; an unconscious process in which a person attributes their feelings, desires and abilities to others, because they understand that they are socially inappropriate. The relationship between the indicators of mechanisms of psychological protection is also the same – close interweaving of most of them among themselves and the absence of any connection to the return to children’s forms of behavior, "falling into childhood" with other mechanisms of psychological protection. The beginning or almost completion of imprisonment provokes certain differences in manifestations of the mechanisms of psychological protection of personality from the consequences of penitentiary stress. During the first six months of serving sentences, boys often turn to childlike forms of behavior, as a means of eliminating the threat to physical and psychological well-being, in order to overcome penitentiary stress. In the last six months of serving sentences, boys often deny and compensate. These means contribute to displacement of depressing thoughts out of the mind, which are associated with staying behind bars. So, that makes it possible to compensate them for the protection of their «self» from anxiety, suffering, «inferiority complex». Only among boys who still need to adapt to their new role in detention centres, there is a direct relationship of the ways to overcome penitentiary stress through rationalization, projection, hypercompensation, compensation, denial of forms of penitentiary stress: memory impairment and concentration of attention, problems with sleeping. «Childish» reactions or forms of behavior, or the replacement of a goal that is inaccessible to another that is possible to achieve, conflicts with optimism as a form of penitentiary stress.
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Hall, Ralph G., and Steven M. Oberhelman. "Internal clausulae in Late Latin Prose as Evidence for the Displacement of Metre by Word-Stress." Classical Quarterly 36, no. 2 (December 1986): 508–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0009838800012258.
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In several recent studies we have developed precise statistical methodologies which have demonstrated that the cursus mixtus was the dominant rhythmical system for final clausulae in Latin prose from the third century a.d. to the fifth. The cursus mixtus consisted of four standard metrical forms derived from the richer variety of Cicero's Asiatic tradition – cretic-spondee, dicretic, cretic-tribrach and ditrochee –, which were structured according to three accentual patterns – planus, tardus and velox. The latter are differentiated by the number of unstressed syllables intervening between and following two accented syllables. The planus has two unaccented syllables between two word accents and one after the last accent. The tardus has two between two accents and two after the last accent. The velox has four between two accents and one after the last accent. The four metrical forms are contained within the parameters of the accentual cadences. The planus contains either the cretic-spondee (epistulae nostrae) or the ditrochee (manu ferire); the tardus either the dicretic (carcer includeret) or the cretic-tribrach (estis indigenae); the velox either the ditrochee (experientiam singulorum) or the cretic-spondee (nimium videbatur. Authors who used the cursus mixtus, however, preferred to effect an exact coincidence between the accent and ictus, and as a result evinced primarily the following standard rhythmical forms: planus/cretic-spondee; tardus/dicretic or cretic-tribrach; and velox/ditrochee.So far now we have examined only the rhythmical properties of final clausulae, but it is appropriate also to investigate for rhythm at internal positions within the sentence.
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Hsiao, Pei-Yi, and One-Soon Her. "Taxonomy of questions in TaiwanSouthern Min." Concentric. Studies in Linguistics 47, no. 2 (November 17, 2021): 253–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/consl.00029.her.
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Abstract Contra the conventional four-way distinction of syntactically-formed questions in Taiwan Southern Min (TSM): (i) yes-no, (ii) A-not-A, (iii) disjunctive, and (iv) wh-questions (e.g., Lau 2010a), we justify a more revealing dichotomy of confirmation-seeking (CS) polar questions and information-seeking (IS) constituent questions, based on a suite of semantic and syntactic tests proposed in extensive literature for Mandarin and adapted further for TSM, where A-not-A belongs to the disjunctive type, which is in turn a subcategory of IS constituent questions. Controversies over the proper status of some sentence-final question particles and kám questions are also deliberated. Dismissing some alleged polar question particles as polar or A-not-A tags, we recognize nih and honnh as interrogative polar particles. We also show that kám has two underlying forms. One is a portmanteau word of the modal kánn and the negator m̄ and thus forms a whether-or-not disjunctive question (Huang 1988a, 1991). However, when kám is short for kámkong ‘don’t tell me’, similar to the Mandarin nandao, it appears in a polar question.
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Kras, Paweł. "Public Penance of Heretics: its Forms and Functions." Roczniki Humanistyczne 66, no. 2 SELECTED PAPERS IN ENGLISH (October 23, 2019): 57–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.18290/rh.2018.66.2-4se.
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The Polish version of the article was published in “Roczniki Humanistyczne,” vol. 59 (2011), issue 2.
The article discusses the origins of public penance for heresy in the early Christian tradition as well as examining its application in the penitential practice of the medieval Church. It demonstrates how public penance for mortal sins, which took shape in Late Antiquity, was later adopted and developed within the system of Medieval Inquisition. In the medieval collections of canon law, heresy was qualified as a religious crime which required special public penance. Following the guidelines set up in the ancient Church, any heretic who declared his or her intention to renounce their wrongs was to be interrogated by a bishop, who would grant them absolution of sins and prescribed due penance. An important aspect of penance for heresy was public solemn penitence, which took place on Sundays and feast days and included a number of rituals. The penitent heretic had to appear in a special garment with his or her hair cut off and barefoot. The ritual of solemn public penitence for mortal sins was formed in Late Antiquity and as such was later incorporated into medieval pontificals.
The rise of Medieval Inquisition, which was used as an efficient weapon against popular heresy, stimulated the development of penitential discipline for heretics. Papal Inquisitors, who came to be appointed as extraordinary judges in heresy trials since the 1230s, were particularly inventive in the way how public penance might be employed to fight heretics. Medieval registers of heresy trials, carried out by Papal Inquisitors and bishops, are still the main source of information about penalties imposed on heretics who were sentenced for their errors. The public announcement of a sentence and penalty was the final act of the inquisitorial procedure. The charter of penalties (littera penitentialis), which was first read publicly and later handed over to the penitent heretic, listed various forms of penitence which he had to fulfil. In the inquisitorial strategy of penance, which started to be used in the first half of the thirteenth century, a solemn public penitence of heretics became commonplace. The inquisitorial registers and manuals for inquisitors described in detail the ritual of public penance and its functions. The penance imposed on heretics offered them a chance to repent publicly for their public crimes and to give satisfaction to society which had been disturbed by their deeds. That is why solemn public penance usually took place in a cathedral or central market square on feast days to be attended and witnessed by the local community. Through his special appearance and penitential garment with two cross signs, the heretic was highly visible and could not be anonymous. The whole society was responsible for supervising the penance of heretics and controlling their religious and moral conduct. Any act of religious transgression or misconduct was to be reported to the ecclesiastical authorities. Of course, public penitence was aimed at teaching a lesson to all the faithful and preventing them from falling into heresy.
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Taguchi, Naoko, and Shuai Li. "Introduction to a thematic review: Pragmatics research in Chinese as a second language." Chinese as a Second Language Research 6, no. 1 (June 27, 2017): 1–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/caslar-2017-0001.
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AbstractAs Chinese is quickly becoming the language for intercultural communication, rules and norms of interaction in Chinese – how to speak with the level of politeness and formality required in a situation, or to understand another person’s intention communicated indirectly – are critical aspects of learning Chinese. Despite this growing interest in Chinese teaching and research, most studies have focused on formal aspects of Chinese competence (e.g., grammar and character knowledge), and little research has addressed pragmatic aspects of Chinese learning (Taguchi, 2015). To fill this gap, this thematic review presents four empirical studies on pragmatics in Chinese as a second language. Four studies deal with a variety of pragmatic features in Chinese (e.g., sentence final particles, formulaic expressions, request-making forms, mitigation strategies, stance markers) to illustrate how those features can inform us about L2 Chinese learners’ pragmatic competence and development.
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Zholobov, Oleg F. "Notes on the Word Form Je ‘Is’ in Old Russian and Old Church Slavonic Literature." Slovene 5, no. 1 (2016): 114–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.31168/2305-6754.2016.5.1.3.
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A study of the so-called zero-forms of the present tense 3rd person singular and plural (without inflectional -tь) in the birch bark manuscripts has once again attracted the attention of researchers to this grammatical phenomenon. Andrey Zaliznyak established the zero-forms usage positions and their range and functions, and he arrived at the conclusion that they are Novgorod dialectisms. Analysis of the Old Slavonic and written sources of the Russian Southwest found similarities with the Novgorod birch bark manuscripts, so the zero-forms should be considered Proto-Slavic dialectisms, inherited by different Old Russian dialects and tracing back to the injunctive and the conjunctive, its later substitute. At the same time, data correlation showed the narrowness of the birch bark manuscripts’ discursive range. A. Zaliznyak discovered several jе ‘is’ word forms in a supposedly enclitic function. He noted, however, that there was a lack of material for drawing final conclusions. The present paper provides evidence of the jе word form usage in the function of Wackernagel enclitics in different sources, especially in the 11th century Sinaiskii Paterik (Pratum spiritual), where, as it turns out, this type of enclitic was closely related with an interrogative sentence type, not always functioning as a link-verb and meaning a non-factive action of supposition. The jе word form is also used widely in a non-enclitic position, where it has a non-actual, primarily gnomic, present tense meaning.
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Sari, Endah. "TOPIKALISASI DAN BENTUK WACANA KESEHATAN PADA KORAN SURYA JANUARI 2019." SASTRANESIA: Jurnal Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa dan Sastra Indonesia 7, no. 3 (September 30, 2019): 42. http://dx.doi.org/10.32682/sastranesia.v7i3.1276.
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This research focuses on topicalisation and forms of discourse contained in the health discourse in the January 2019 edition of Surya newspaper. The description underlying the researcher conducted this study is using discourse analysis as the main theoretical basis and the basis of research, beside topicalisation and discourse form as the subjects in research. The objectives of this study are to describe the topics between sentences and to know health discourse form. Descriptive approach is used in this research. The type of data examined at the focus of the first problem is sentence in each the health discourse’s paragraph in the January 2019 edition of Surya newspaper and the type of data examined at the focus of the first problem is the paragraphs in the discourse. The data collection techniques are observation, deciding the object, identifying data and coding data. Based on the problem, to have a data validity test, the researcher uses triangulation theory which compares the final result as information with relevant theory perspective to avoid researcher’s individual biases of the finding produced. The result of the study shows that not all paragraphs in the discourse have the topic. However, whole discourses have each main topic. In the research of discourse form, the result of analysis shows that expository discourse is the most frequent delivered in the health discourse in the January 2019 edition of Surya newspaper. There are hortatory discourse forms in the health discourse in the January 2019 edition of Surya newspaper, but not as much as expository discourse. Narrative discourse form is a most rarely delivered. Procedural discourse form, dramatic discourse, epistolary discourse and ceremonial discourse are not found in the health discourse in the January 2019 edition of Surya newspaper.
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Hsieh, Shelley Ching-yu, Mei-Rong Wang, and Meg Ching-yi Wang. "The interaction between Mandarin Chinese and English." Journal of Asian Pacific Communication 24, no. 1 (April 18, 2014): 113–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/japc.24.1.07she.
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This paper explores the linguistic and interactional properties of computer-mediated communication in Taiwan. We collected data from messages posted asynchronously on Internet websites. The three primary sources of messages were, in volume order, online Bulletin Board Systems (BBSs), chatrooms, and MSN messenger. We identify innovative uses of English and Mandarin Chinese hybrids, examine their function, and examine the online interlocutors’ ideologies when using them. Because of computer hardware and software, English plays an essential role even in a Mandarin-dominant online discourse by offering English expressions, words, pronunciations, and Roman letters to give loanwords, euphemisms, abbreviations, sentence-final particles, and emoticons in unique ways. The resultant hybrid language forms are easier to type, playful, funny, friendly, and trendy. The writer’s personality and cultural mentality are disclosed in such communication. Many speakers are alarmed about the effects of this language practice — the online interaction between English and Mandarin Chinese — on the development of Chinese in Taiwan.
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GEFFEN, SUSAN, and TOBEN H. MINTZ. "Prosodic differences between declaratives and interrogatives in infant-directed speech." Journal of Child Language 44, no. 4 (July 18, 2016): 968–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0305000916000349.
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AbstractIn many languages, declaratives and interrogatives differ in word order properties, and in syntactic organization more broadly. Thus, in order to learn the distinct syntactic properties of the two sentence types, learners must first be able to distinguish them using non-syntactic information. Prosodic information is often assumed to be a useful basis for this type of discrimination, although no systematic studies of the prosodic cues available to infants have been reported. Analysis of maternal speech in three Standard American English-speaking mother–infant dyads found that polar interrogatives differed from declaratives on the patterning of pitch and duration on the final two syllables, butwh-questions did not. Thus, while prosody is unlikely to aid discrimination of declaratives fromwh-questions, infant-directed speech provides prosodic information that infants could use to distinguish declaratives and polar interrogatives. We discuss how learners could leverage this information to identify all question forms, in the context of syntax acquisition.
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Shahril Ismail, Robe'ah Yusuf, Pooveneswaran Nadarajan, and Jamal Rizal Razali. "REPRESENTATION OF MENTAL PROCESSES AND THE USE OF ARTEFACTS IN STRUCTURING SPANISH LANGUAGE SENTENCES." International Journal of Humanities Technology and Civilization 7, no. 1 (June 23, 2022): 66–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.15282/ijhtc.v7i1.7695.
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According to Sociocultural Theory (Vygotsky, 1978), the mental function can be enhanced through the process of mediation of language or cultural artefacts. This theory was based on the field of study that focuses on the concept of ‘collaboration’ with experts, peers or those who are more knowledgeable in the Proximal Development Zone (ZPD) to improve students' abilities. Most studies that involve the concept of ZPD are more focused on collaboration/effectiveness of interaction with experts or peers. The effectiveness of these collaborations is also often measured by pre-post test research designs. However, the mental activity within the ZPD that displays the use of artefacts during the writing process to result in the final text resulting from this collaboration is rarely demonstrated. Even in scenarios where students are learning a foreign language in Malaysia (especially Spanish), most of the time they were able to perform written assignments at their convenience and without the help of an expert or teacher. How students solve lexical and syntactic problems while structuring Spanish sentences without the presence of an expert during the sentence structuring process is a matter that is rarely studied. This study focuses on mental processes that display the use of artefacts that occur in ZPD during the Spanish writing process. Using the TAP (Think Aloud Protocol) method, the findings not only was able to display the ways to use the artefacts but also able to show representations of the mental process of lexical and syntactic acquiring activities. This study displays several forms of the use of language artefacts and social artefacts to solve lexical and syntactic problems encountered while structuring Spanish sentences. These findings also provide pedagogical implications in the teaching of foreign languages such as Spanish.
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Mokhtari, Farzaneh, Yalda Kazemi, Awat Feizi, and Philip Dale. "Psychometric Properties of the MacArthur-Bates Communicative Development Inventories-III (CDI-III) in 30 to 37 Months Old Persian-Speaking Children." Journal of Rehabilitation 23, no. 3 (October 1, 2022): 372–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.32598/rj.23.3.3166.3.
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Objective Early language skills predict the child’s future language skills and literacy. So, screening and assessment of speech and language at an early age are important. One cost-effective way of assessing a child’s communication is through parents reporting tools. MacArthur-Bates Communicative Development Inventories (CDIs) are the most widely used forms by professionals in more than 70 live languages worldwide to screen children’s communication skills. The main purpose of this study was to provide the Persian version of the third form of CDI (CDI-III) and determine its psychometric properties, including face and content validity and internal consistency in 30 to 37 months old Iranian Persian-speaking children. Materials & Methods In a cross-sectional methodological study of instrument validation, a Persian-adapted form of CDI-III was developed. At first, the English form was adapted to Persian, and a Delphi method was used to provide the initial list of the items. The face and content validity rates were examined by asking the opinion of ten Persian-speaking speech and language pathologists with at least three years of clinical experience in the field of child speech/language development and disorders. The final form was compiled based on the results of the content validity ratio (CVR) and content validity index (CVI) of the items. The final form consisted of three sections, including vocabulary, sentences, and use of sentences. The parents of 356 Persian-speaking children aged 30 to 37 months recruited by multi-stage cluster random sampling from health centers in Isfahan City were asked to complete the form. The Kuder-Richardson coefficient assessed internal consistency, and the Spearman coefficient examined correlation. Results The items with CVIs≥0.7 and CVRs≥0.6 remained, and other items were reviewed or removed based on the suggestions of panelists and developers. The final form included 100 words, 22 pairs of sentences, and 16 questions about using sentences. A total of 356 children (mean±SD age: 34.03±2.12 months) were included in the study. According to the English CDI-III guidelines, the data were divided into four age groups with two-month intervals: 30-31, 32-33, 34-35, and 36-37. The internal consistency of the whole form was 0.97, and internal consistency values of vocabulary, sentences, and sentence usage were calculated as 0.98, 0.88, and 0.88, respectively. The Spearman correlation values between the scores of the form sections and each section with age indicated a significant positive correlation between all sections of the form. Also, the significant positive correlation between age and all three parts showed that the number of expressive words, the grammatical complexity of sentences, and the proper use of sentences increase with age. Conclusion The Persian CDI-III form possesses a good face and content validity and internal consistency to be used as a valid tool for screening language competence of 30-37 months old Persian-speaking children. The results of the mean and standard deviation of the current study can be used as a comparison for screening children suspected of being language deficient.
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Putri, Hikmah Zalifah, and Bambang Yudi Cahyono. "Indonesian EFL Students’ Tendencies in Writing Academic Essays." Celt: A Journal of Culture, English Language Teaching & Literature 20, no. 2 (December 30, 2020): 309–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2.2763.
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Abstract: This article aimed to find the tendencies exhibited by Indonesian students of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students in writing an academic essay in English. A content analysis method is employed as the method of the study. The data of the study were the final draft of the essays written by EFL students of the English Department of a reputable university in East Java, Indonesia. The essays were analyzed by looking for the shared properties in each part of the essay. The data were analyzed by extracting the most common properties in each essay which are (a) thesis statement, (b) coherency, and (c) concluding remark. The results showed that the students tended to forget to use definite and indefinite articles, misuse the definite and indefinite articles with plural forms, to use of nouns and pronouns inconsistently, to use an English sentence with an Indonesian rhetoric pattern, and to not include a summary of the subtopics discussed in their body paragraphs. The result may be use as reference for future writing classes in Indonesia.