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Published: 10 December 2022

Last updated: 28 January 2023

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1

Archer, Deborah. "The New Housing Segregation: The Jim Crow Effects of Crime-Free Housing Ordinances." Michigan Law Review, no. 118.2 (2019): 173–231. http://dx.doi.org/10.36644/mlr.118.2.new.

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America is profoundly segregated along racial lines. We attend separate schools, live in separate neighborhoods, attend different churches, and shop at different stores. This rigid racial segregation results in social, economic, and resource inequality, with White communities of opportunity on the one hand and many communities of color without access to quality schools, jobs, transportation, or health care on the other. Many people view this as an unfortunate fact of life, or as a relic of legal systems long since overturned and beyond the reach of current legal process. But this is not true. On the contrary, the law continues to play a profound role in creating and legitimizing pat-terns of racial segregation all across America. Crime-free housing ordinances are one of the most salient examples of the role law plays in producing and sustaining racial segregation today. They are, in this respect, a critical mechanism for effectuating the new housing segregation. Crime-free housing ordinances are local laws that either encourage or require private landlords to evict or exclude tenants who have had varying levels of contact with the criminal legal system. Though formally race neutral, these laws facilitate racial segregation in a number of significant ways. This is the first article to explain precisely how they do so. The Article contends that crime-free housing ordinances enable racial segregation by importing the racial biases, racial logics, and racial disparities of the criminal legal system in-to private housing markets. While scholars have examined the important role local laws played in effectuating racial inequality, they have not paid attention to crime-free housing ordinances. In addition to foregrounding how crime-free housing ordinances reinforce and perpetuate racially segregated communities, this Article proposes an intervention: a “segregative effects” claim, an underutilized cause of action under the Fair Housing Act of 1968, to challenge this segregative impact. While this intervention would not end the pervasive nature of housing segregation across the United States, it could eliminate at least one of the causes of this persistent problem: a body of law whose formal race neutrality has obscured its racially segregative effects.

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2

Bwalya Lungu, Nancy, and Alice Dhliwayo. "African American Civil Rights Movements to End Slavery, Racism and Oppression in the Post Slavery Era: A Critique of Booker T. Washington’s Integration Ideology." EAST AFRICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION AND SOCIAL SCIENCES 2, Issue 3 (September 30, 2021): 62–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.46606/eajess2021v02i03.0104.

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The Transatlantic Slave trade began during the 15th century when Portugal and subsequently other European kingdoms were able to expand overseas and reach Africa. The Portuguese first began to kidnap people from the West Coast of Africa and took those that they enslaved to Europe. This saw a lot of African men and women transported to Europe and America to work on the huge plantations that the Whites owned. The transportation of these Africans exposed them to inhumane treatments which they faced even upon the arrival at their various destinations. The emancipation Proclamation signed on 1st January 1863 by the United States President Abraham Lincoln saw a legal stop to slave trade. However, the African Americans that had been taken to the United States and settled especially in the Southern region faced discrimination, segregation, violence and were denied civil rights through segregation laws such as the Jim Crow laws and lynching, based on the color of their skin. This forced them especially those that had acquired an education to rise up and speak against this treatment. They formed Civil Rights Movements to advocate for Black rights and equal treatment. These protracted movements, despite continued violence on Blacks, Culminated in Barack Obama being elected the first African American President of the United States of America. To cement the victory, he won a second term, which Donald Trump failed to obtain. This paper sought to critic the philosophies of Booker T. Washington in his civil rights movement, particularly his ideologies of integration, self-help, racial solidarity and accommodation as expressed in his speech, “the Atlanta Compromise,” and the impact this had on the political and civil rights arena for African Americans.

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3

Bwalya Lungu, Nancy, and Alice Dhliwayo. "African American Civil Rights Movements to End Slavery, Racism and Oppression in the Post Slavery Era: A Critique of Booker T. Washington’s Integration Ideology." EAST AFRICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION AND SOCIAL SCIENCES 2, Issue 3 (September 30, 2021): 62–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.46606/eajess2021v02i03.0104.

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The Transatlantic Slave trade began during the 15th century when Portugal and subsequently other European kingdoms were able to expand overseas and reach Africa. The Portuguese first began to kidnap people from the West Coast of Africa and took those that they enslaved to Europe. This saw a lot of African men and women transported to Europe and America to work on the huge plantations that the Whites owned. The transportation of these Africans exposed them to inhumane treatments which they faced even upon the arrival at their various destinations. The emancipation Proclamation signed on 1st January 1863 by the United States President Abraham Lincoln saw a legal stop to slave trade. However, the African Americans that had been taken to the United States and settled especially in the Southern region faced discrimination, segregation, violence and were denied civil rights through segregation laws such as the Jim Crow laws and lynching, based on the color of their skin. This forced them especially those that had acquired an education to rise up and speak against this treatment. They formed Civil Rights Movements to advocate for Black rights and equal treatment. These protracted movements, despite continued violence on Blacks, Culminated in Barack Obama being elected the first African American President of the United States of America. To cement the victory, he won a second term, which Donald Trump failed to obtain. This paper sought to critic the philosophies of Booker T. Washington in his civil rights movement, particularly his ideologies of integration, self-help, racial solidarity and accommodation as expressed in his speech, “the Atlanta Compromise,” and the impact this had on the political and civil rights arena for African Americans.

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4

Thomson, Jennifer. "Segregation and Sanitation in the United States." Reviews in American History 45, no. 2 (2017): 288–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/rah.2017.0041.

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5

Reid, L. Jan. "The Political Segregation of the United States." ATHENS JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES 3, no. 2 (March 31, 2016): 85–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.30958/ajss.3-2-1.

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6

Chen, Zhenhua, and Kingsley E. Haynes. "Transportation Capital in the United States." Public Works Management & Policy 19, no. 2 (November 21, 2013): 97–117. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1087724x13507899.

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7

Sproles, Claudene. "United States Department of Transportation homepage." Government Information Quarterly 23, no. 2 (January 2006): 327–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.giq.2005.11.009.

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8

Uslaner, Eric M. "Trust, Diversity, and Segregation in the United States and the United Kingdom1." Comparative Sociology 10, no. 2 (2011): 221–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156913311x566571.

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AbstractGeneralized trust is a value that leads to many positive outcomes for a society. Many analysts argue that trust is lower when we are surrounded by people who are different from ourselves. Residential segregation, not diversity is the culprit in lower levels of trust. Segregation is one of the key reasons why contact with people who are different from ourselves does not lead to greater trust. Diversity is a proxy for the minority share in a community and that: (1) segregation, especially in diverse communities, drives down trust more than diversity does; but (2) close personal ties in integrated diverse communities builds trust, but more so in the United States than in the United Kingdom, and more for majority white communities than for minorities.

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9

Winkler, Richelle, and Rozalynn Klaas. "Residential segregation by age in the United States." Journal of Maps 8, no. 4 (November 8, 2012): 374–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17445647.2012.739099.

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10

Zhou, Jiangping, and Lisa Schweitzer. "Transportation Planning Education in the United States." Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board 2109, no. 1 (January 2009): 1–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.3141/2109-01.

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11

Whitfield, Geoffrey P., Prabasaj Paul, and Arthur M. Wendel. "Active Transportation Surveillance — United States, 1999–2012." MMWR. Surveillance Summaries 64, no. 7 (August 28, 2015): 1–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.ss6407a1.

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12

Ross, M. "Energy and Transportation in the United States." Annual Review of Energy 14, no. 1 (November 1989): 131–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.eg.14.110189.001023.

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13

Tesfai, Rebbeca, and Kevin J. A. Thomas. "Dimensions of Inequality: Black Immigrants’ Occupational Segregation in the United States." Sociology of Race and Ethnicity 6, no. 1 (May 2, 2019): 1–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2332649219844799.

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The U.S. labor market is increasingly made up of immigrant workers, and considerable research has focused on occupational segregation as an indicator of their labor market incorporation. However, most studies focus on Hispanic populations, excluding one of the fastest growing immigrant groups: foreign-born blacks. Because of their shared race, African and Caribbean immigrants may experience the same structural barriers as U.S.-born blacks. However, researchers hypothesize that black immigrants are advantaged in the labor market relative to U.S.-born blacks because of social network hiring and less discrimination by employers. Using 2011–2015 pooled American Community Survey data, this study is among the first quantitative studies to examine black immigrants’ occupational segregation in the United States. The authors use the Duncan and Duncan Dissimilarity Index to estimate black immigrants’ segregation from U.S.-born whites and blacks and regression analyses to identify predictors of occupational segregation. Consistent with previous work focusing on Hispanic immigrants, foreign-born blacks are highly overrepresented in a few occupations. African and Caribbean immigrants experience more occupational segregation from whites than the U.S.-born, with African immigrants most segregated. Africans are also more segregated from U.S.-born blacks than Caribbean immigrants. Results of the regression analyses suggest that African immigrants are penalized rather than rewarded for educational attainment. The authors find that the size of the coethnic population and the share of coethnics who are self-employed are associated with a decline in occupational segregation. Future research is needed to determine the impact of lower occupational segregation on the income of self-employed black immigrants.

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14

Massey, Douglas S., and Jonathan Tannen. "Suburbanization and segregation in the United States: 1970–2010." Ethnic and Racial Studies 41, no. 9 (April 26, 2017): 1594–611. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2017.1312010.

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15

Saff, Grant. "Residential Segregation in South Africa and the United States." Safundi 3, no. 1 (February 2002): 1–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17533170200803108.

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16

Massey, Douglas S., Jonathan Rothwell, and Thurston Domina. "The Changing Bases of Segregation in the United States." ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 626, no. 1 (October 26, 2009): 74–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0002716209343558.

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17

Browne, Angela, Alissa Cambier, and Suzanne Agha. "Prisons Within Prisons: The Use of Segregation in the United States." Federal Sentencing Reporter 24, no. 1 (October 1, 2011): 46–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/fsr.2011.24.1.46.

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Since the 1980s, departments of corrections have sharply increased the use of segregation as a discipline and management tool. In effect, segregation is a secondary sentence imposed by the correctional facility—one that follows long after and usually is unrelated to the conviction for which the person is incarcerated. The consequences of holding an individual in these conditions over time may include new or exacerbated mental health disturbances, assaultive and other antisocial behaviors, and chronic and acute health disorders. In fact, studies show that prisoners who are released from segregation directly to the community reoffend at higher rates than general-population prisoners. Policy changes that will reduce the use and long-term impact of segregation will benefit not only the staff and prisoners in these units but also ultimately the well-being of facilities, systems, and the community.

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18

Adamson, Frank, and Meredith Galloway. "Education privatization in the United States: Increasing saturation and segregation." education policy analysis archives 27 (October 21, 2019): 129. http://dx.doi.org/10.14507/epaa.27.4857.

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This article outlines different forms of education privatization operating globally, examines their prevalence within the United States, and analyzes whether student marginalization and segregation occurs at the local level. We analyze six U.S. districts with higher saturation levels of charter schools, the most predominant type of privatization (Camden, NJ, Washington DC, Flint, MI, Detroit, MI, Natomas, CA, and Oakland, CA). We find education privatization increasing in the US, but unevenly dispersed, with charter schools concentrated primarily in urban areas serving students of color. Furthermore, segregation in education remains a major issue for all types of schools, with students of color in urban contexts often attending intensely segregated schools (over 90% students of color). Instead of mitigating the segregation problem, student selection by charter school appears to exacerbate it, specifically for special education students.

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19

Murphy, Alexandra K., Karina McDonald-Lopez, Natasha Pilkauskas, and Alix Gould-Werth. "Transportation Insecurity in the United States: A Descriptive Portrait." Socius: Sociological Research for a Dynamic World 8 (January 2022): 237802312211210. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/23780231221121060.

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Transportation insecurity is a condition in which a person is unable to regularly move from place to place in a safe or timely manner and has important implications for the study of poverty and inequality. Drawing on nationally representative survey data and a new, validated measure of transportation insecurity, the Transportation Security Index, the authors provide the first descriptive portrait of transportation insecurity in the United States, offering national estimates, examining which demographic groups are most likely to experience this condition and considering what factors are correlated with it. The authors find that one in four adults experience transportation insecurity. Adults who live in poverty, do not own cars, live in urban areas, are younger, have less education, and are non-White experience the greatest transportation insecurity. Correlates analyses largely confirm these descriptive differences. Such high rates and large disparities suggest that greater investigation into this form of material hardship is warranted.

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20

Eastham, Tony R. "High-Speed Ground Transportation Development outside United States." Journal of Transportation Engineering 121, no. 5 (September 1995): 411–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/(asce)0733-947x(1995)121:5(411).

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21

Domina, Thurston. "Brain Drain and Brain Gain: Rising Educational Segregation in the United States, 1940–2000." City & Community 5, no. 4 (December 2006): 387–407. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6040.2006.00190.x.

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The post‐industrialization of the American economy, combined with the expansion of American higher education, has created a new form of residential segregation. This paper examines recent trends in residential segregation between college graduates and high school graduates, demonstrating that America's educational geography became increasingly uneven between 1940 and 2000. During this period, educational inequality between American census divisions, metropolitan areas, counties, and census tracts increased dramatically. This trend is independent of recent developments in racial and economic segregation. Segregation between the highly educated and the less educated increased dramatically in the late 20th century, even as racial segregation declined, and economic segregation changed very little.

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22

Kollmann, Trevor, Simone Marsiglio, and Sandy Suardi. "Racial segregation in the United States since the Great Depression: A dynamic segregation approach." Journal of Housing Economics 40 (June 2018): 95–116. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhe.2018.03.004.

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23

Eriksson, Katherine, and Zachary Ward. "The Residential Segregation of Immigrants in the United States from 1850 to 1940." Journal of Economic History 79, no. 4 (September 24, 2019): 989–1026. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022050719000536.

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We provide the first estimates of immigrant residential segregation between 1850 and 1940 that cover the entire United States and are consistent across time and space. To do so, we adapt the Logan–Parman method to immigrants by measuring segregation based on the nativity of the next-door neighbor. In addition to providing a consistent measure of segregation, we also document new patterns such as high levels of segregation in rural areas, in small factory towns and for non-European sources. Early twentieth-century immigrants spatially assimilated at a slow rate, leaving immigrants’ lived experience distinct from natives for decades after arrival.

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24

Ksaibati, Khaled, Michael Cole, and Michael Farrar. "Evaluation of Surface Treatment Practices in United States." Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board 1545, no. 1 (January 1996): 26–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0361198196154500104.

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The University of Wyoming and the Wyoming Department of Transportation are performing a comprehensive research study on the performance of surface treatments. A survey consisting of 16 questions about the maintenance, construction, agency policies, evaluation procedures, and testing equipment of surface treatments was distributed to all 50 state departments of transportation; 47 of these agencies responded. The responses were summarized and analyzed for trends.

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25

Hellerstein, Judith K., and David Neumark. "Workplace Segregation in the United States: Race, Ethnicity, and Skill." Review of Economics and Statistics 90, no. 3 (August 2008): 459–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/rest.90.3.459.

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26

Elliott, Jane. "Comparing occupational segregation in Great Britain and the United States." Work, Employment and Society 19, no. 1 (March 2005): 153–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0950017005051305.

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27

Hayanga, Awori J., Steven B. Zeliadt, and Leah M. Backhus. "Lung cancer mortality and residential segregation in the United States." Journal of the American College of Surgeons 213, no. 3 (September 2011): S117. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jamcollsurg.2011.06.278.

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28

Hayanga, Awori J., Steve B. Zeliadt, and Leah M. Backhus. "Residential Segregation and Lung Cancer Mortality in the United States." JAMA Surgery 148, no. 1 (January 1, 2013): 37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jamasurgery.2013.408.

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29

Gradín, Carlos, Coral Del Río, and Olga Alonso-Villar. "Occupational Segregation by Race and Ethnicity in the United States: Differences Across States." Regional Studies 49, no. 10 (January 9, 2014): 1621–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00343404.2013.864384.

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30

Bai, Yun, Xiang Liu, Christian Higgins, YuPo Chiu, and Jihong Chen. "Transportation Cost Modeling of Containerized Soybean Exports in the United States." Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board 2611, no. 1 (January 2017): 19–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.3141/2611-03.

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Intermodal container transportation is a growing market for soybean exports in the United States. In an effort to understand the optimal strategies for improving the United States’ economic competitiveness in this emerging market, this research developed a detailed, multi-modal transportation cost analysis model focusing on U.S. soybean container shipments. By using mode-specific transportation network and cost information, the model estimated and compared the “point-to-point” supply chain costs of alternative shipment routes from a domestic production site to a foreign port. For each candidate route, the analysis estimated the transportation time, distance, and cost of each modal segment. This cost analysis model is a building block for a larger research effort that aims to develop strategies to improve freight transportation infrastructure and operations in the context of existing and potential changes in the transportation industry and global market.

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31

Glickenstein, Harvey. "High-speed rail for the United States? [Transportation systems." IEEE Vehicular Technology Magazine 4, no. 3 (September 2009): 16–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/mvt.2009.933467.

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32

Small, Kenneth A. "Economics and urban transportation policy in the United States." Regional Science and Urban Economics 27, no. 6 (November 1997): 671–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0166-0462(96)02166-7.

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33

Andress, David, T. Dean Nguyen, and Sujit Das. "Reducing GHG emissions in the United States' transportation sector." Energy for Sustainable Development 15, no. 2 (June 2011): 117–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.esd.2011.03.002.

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34

Pajunas, Anthony, Edward J. Matto, Michael Trick, and Luis F. Zuluaga. "Optimizing Highway Transportation at the United States Postal Service." Interfaces 37, no. 6 (December 2007): 515–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1287/inte.1070.0322.

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35

Buerglener, Robert. "Motive Powers: Transportation and Culture in the United States." American Quarterly 60, no. 4 (2008): 1113–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/aq.0.0054.

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36

Arcaya, Mariana C., Gabriel Schwartz, and SV Subramanian. "A multi-level modeling approach to understanding residential segregation in the United States." Environment and Planning B: Urban Analytics and City Science 45, no. 6 (March 14, 2018): 1090–105. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2399808318760858.

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A well-known limitation of commonly used segregation measures is their inability to describe patterns at multiple scales. Multi-level modeling approaches can describe how different levels of geography contribute to segregation, but may be difficult to interpret for non-technical audiences and have rarely been applied in the US context. This paper provides a readily interpretable description of multi-scale Black–non-Black segregation in the United States using a multi-level modeling approach and the most recent Census data available. We fit a three-level random intercept multi-level logistic regression model predicting the proportion of the population that is Black (Hispanic and non-Hispanic) at the block group level, with block groups nested in tracts and tracts nested in Metropolitan Statistical Areas (MSAs). For the 102 largest MSAs in the United States, we then estimated the extent to which micro- versus meso-level variability drives overall racial residential patterning within the MSA. Finally, we created a typology of racial residential patterning within MSAs based on the total proportion of the MSA population that is Black and the relative contribution of block groups (micro) versus tracts (meso) in driving variation. We find that nearly 80% of the national variation in the geographic concentration of Black residents is driven by within-MSA, tract-level processes. However, the relative contribution of small versus larger scales to within-MSA segregation varies substantially across metropolitan areas. We detect five meaningfully different types of metropolitan segregation across the largest MSAs. Multi-level descriptions of segregation may help planners and policymakers understand how and why segregated residential patterns are evolving in different places and could provide important insights into interventions that could improve integration at multiple scales.

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37

King, Mary C. "Black Women's Labor Market Status: Occupational Segregation in the United States and Great Britain." Review of Black Political Economy 24, no. 1 (June 1995): 23–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02911826.

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An initial exploration of the comparative labor market situation of black women in the United States and Great Britain reveals that race and gender play similar roles in allocating people among broad occupations in both nations despite differences in historical circumstances. However, a closer examination based upon measures of occupational segregation shows that labor market dynamics are quite different. Public employment and education do not reduce racial segregation in Britain as they do in the United States, and the immigrant status of many black Britons does not explain these differences. Only youth is associated with reduced segregation in both countries.

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Reardon, Sean F., John T. Yun, and Michal Kurlaender. "Implications of Income-Based School Assignment Policies for Racial School Segregation." Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 28, no. 1 (March 2006): 49–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.3102/01623737028001049.

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A number of public school districts in the United States have adopted income-based integration policies—policies that use measures of family income or socioeconomic status—in determining school assignment. Some scholars and policymakers contend that such policies will also reduce racial segregation. In this article this assumption is explored by computing upper and lower bounds on the possible and probable levels of racial segregation that would result from race-neutral income-based school assignment policies. The article finds that, in general, income integration is no guarantee of even modest racial desegregation. In particular, the extent of ancillary racial integration produced by an income-integration policy will depend on the size of racial income disparities within a given district, the specifics of an income-integration policy, and the patterns of racial and socioeconomic residential segregation in a school district. Data on racial income inequality and income segregation in urban districts throughout the United States indicate that very high levels of racial segregation are possible under any practical income-integration policy. The authors conclude that, given the extent of residential racial segregation in the United States, it is unlikely that race-neutral income-integration policies will significantly reduce school racial segregation, although there is reason to believe that such policies are likely to have other beneficial effects on schooling.

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39

Finnigan, Ryan. "Rainbow-Collar Jobs? Occupational Segregation by Sexual Orientation in the United States." Socius: Sociological Research for a Dynamic World 6 (January 2020): 237802312095479. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2378023120954795.

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Lesbian and gay workers hold different occupations than straight workers, partly reflecting lesbian and gay workers’ tendency to avoid same-gender-dominated occupations. Previous studies have grappled with significant data limitations, obscuring patterns for bisexual workers and potentially biasing estimates of occupational segregation by sexual orientation. In this study the author addresses these limitations using large-scale, nationally representative data from the 2013–2018 National Health Interview Survey. Occupational segregation by sexual orientation is stronger among men than women. Within gender, lesbian/gay and bisexual workers are as segregated from each other as they are from straight workers. These differences are structured by both occupational gender composition and education: occupational segregation by sexual orientation is greatest among less educated workers and when correlated with occupational gender composition. These findings contribute to a more detailed empirical description of labor market inequalities by sexual orientation and offer some empirical puzzles for further theoretical development.

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40

Chetty, Raj, John N. Friedman, Emmanuel Saez, Nicholas Turner, and Danny Yagan. "Income Segregation and Intergenerational Mobility Across Colleges in the United States*." Quarterly Journal of Economics 135, no. 3 (February 2, 2020): 1567–633. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjaa005.

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Abstract We construct publicly available statistics on parents’ incomes and students’ earnings outcomes for each college in the United States using deidentified data from tax records. These statistics reveal that the degree of parental income segregation across colleges is very high, similar to that across neighborhoods. Differences in postcollege earnings between children from low- and high-income families are much smaller among students who attend the same college than across colleges. Colleges with the best earnings outcomes predominantly enroll students from high-income families, although a few mid-tier public colleges have both low parent income levels and high student earnings. Linking these income data to SAT and ACT scores, we simulate how changes in the allocation of students to colleges affect segregation and intergenerational mobility. Equalizing application, admission, and matriculation rates across parental income groups conditional on test scores would reduce segregation substantially, primarily by increasing the representation of middle-class students at more selective colleges. However, it would have little effect on the fraction of low-income students at elite private colleges because there are relatively few students from low-income families with sufficiently high SAT/ACT scores. Differences in parental income distributions across colleges could be eliminated by giving low- and middle-income students a sliding-scale preference in the application and admissions process similar to that implicitly given to legacy students at elite private colleges. Assuming that 80% of observational differences in students’ earnings conditional on test scores, race, and parental income are due to colleges’ causal effects—a strong assumption, but one consistent with prior work—such changes could reduce intergenerational income persistence among college students by about 25%. We conclude that changing how students are allocated to colleges could substantially reduce segregation and increase intergenerational mobility, even without changing colleges’ educational programs.

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41

Zimran, Ariell. "Transportation and Health in the Antebellum United States, 1820–1847." Journal of Economic History 80, no. 3 (June 23, 2020): 670–709. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022050720000315.

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I study the impact of transportation on health in the rural United States, 1820–1847. Measuring health by average stature, I find that greater transportation linkage, as measured by market access, in a cohort’s county-year of birth had an adverse impact on its health. A one-standard-deviation increase in market access reduced average stature by 0.14 inches, and rising market access over the study period can explain 37 percent of the contemporaneous decline in average stature, known as the Antebellum Puzzle. I find evidence that transportation affected health by increasing population density, leading to a worse epidemiological environment.

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42

Bellman, Benjamin, Seth E. Spielman, and Rachel S. Franklin. "Local Population Change and Variations in Racial Integration in the United States, 2000–2010." International Regional Science Review 41, no. 2 (September 9, 2016): 233–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0160017616665669.

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While population growth has been consistently tied to decreasing racial segregation at the metropolitan level in the United States, little work has been done to relate small-scale changes in population size to integration. We address this question through a novel technique that tracks population changes by race and ethnicity for comparable geographies in both 2000 and 2010. Using the Theil index, we analyze the fifty most populous metropolitan statistical areas in 2010 for changes in multigroup segregation. We classify local areas by their net population change between 2000 and 2010 using a unique unit of analysis based on aggregating census blocks. We find strong evidence that growing parts of rapidly growing metropolitan areas of the United States are crucial to understanding regional differences in segregation that have emerged in past decades. Multigroup segregation declined the most in growing parts of growing metropolitan areas. Comparatively, growing parts of shrinking or stagnant metropolitan areas were less diverse and had smaller declines in segregation. We also find that local areas with shrinking populations had disproportionately high minority representation in 2000 before population loss took place. We conclude that the regional context of population growth or decline has important consequences for the residential mixing of racial groups.

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Nehme, Eileen K., Adriana Pérez, Nalini Ranjit, Benjamin C. Amick, and Harold W. Kohl. "Sociodemographic Factors, Population Density, and Bicycling for Transportation in the United States." Journal of Physical Activity and Health 13, no. 1 (January 2016): 36–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jpah.2014-0469.

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Background:Transportation bicycling is a behavior with demonstrated health benefits. Population-representative studies of transportation bicycling in United States are lacking. This study examined associations between sociodemographic factors, population density, and transportation bicycling and described transportation bicyclists by trip purposes, using a US-representative sample.Methods:This cross-sectional study used 2009 National Household Travel Survey datasets. Associations among study variables were assessed using weighted multivariable logistic regression.Results:On a typical day in 2009, 1% of Americans older than 5 years of age reported a transportation bicycling trip. Transportation cycling was inversely associated with age and directly with being male, with being white, and with population density (≥ 10,000 vs < 500 people/square mile: odd ratio, 2.78, 95% confidence interval, 1.54–5.05). Those whose highest level of education was a high school diploma or some college were least likely to bicycle for transportation. Twenty-one percent of transportation bicyclists reported trips to work, whereas 67% reported trips to social or other activities.Conclusions:Transportation bicycling in the United States is associated with sociodemographic characteristics and population density. Bicycles are used for a variety of trip purposes, which has implications for transportation bicycling research based on commuter data and for developing interventions to promote this behavior.

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Bowen, John T. "An Analysis of Amazon Air's Network in the United States." Transportation Journal 61, no. 1 (January 1, 2022): 103–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.5325/transportationj.61.1.0103.

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Abstract Using data on 12 months of operations, Amazon Air's network is contrasted to the domestic networks of FedEx Express and UPS Airlines. Amazon Air has a lower network density than the other two airlines, and its geography is more strongly related to Amazon's distribution centers. Like UPS and FedEx, Amazon has placed its main hub at a location in the central United States: first Wilmington, Ohio and more recently Cincinnati. The acceleration of online retail trade since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic may encourage other digitally native or incumbent retail firms to develop their own air distribution networks. The criteria that distinguish Amazon Air's gateway airports are identified and then those criteria are applied to all public US airports to detect others that might be suitable for incorporation into a retail distribution air network.

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Sokov, Il'ya A. "Justice, Power and Policy towards the Ethnics in the Sunbelt region of the USA. Review of the collective monograph: Chase, R.T., ed. Caging Borders and Carceral States: Incarcerations, Immigration Detentions, and Resistance. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2019." Historia provinciae – the journal of regional history 4, no. 4 (2020): 1419–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.23859/2587-8344-2020-4-3-11.

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The work is devoted to the analysis of a collection prepared by a group of American researchers on the historical past and present of the situation of Hispanic population in the United States of America, which raises the problem of segregation of Hispanics at the federal level. In the 21st century, ethnic Hispanics are becoming one of the largest population groups in the United States, and Spanish is the second most widely used language after English in this country, which makes the issue raised in the monograph under review very relevant. The authors of the collection focused their research on the features of segregation of Latin Americans in the states of the Sunbelt, thereby clearly limiting the regional scope of their research. By their publications, they prove that the southern states of the United States have turned into carceral states for Latin Americans.

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Daggett, John, and Richard Gutkowski. "University Transportation Survey: Transportation in University Communities." Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board 1835, no. 1 (January 2003): 42–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.3141/1835-06.

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Universities and transit agencies across the United States have been finding innovative ways of providing and financing mobility services on and around university campuses. Many transit agencies are providing substantially more service and moving substantially more riders than their counterparts in nonuniversity environments. Determining what types of relationships exist between transit performance and university policies or practices is the research premise. To that end, the purpose is to document the types of transportation policies, demographics, and land use characteristics that exist on university campuses, and to examine the relationship between transit performance, land use on university campuses, types of university communities, university transportation and parking policies, and student demographics. These characteristics of university transportation systems were examined through demographic data and a mailed questionnaire. The questionnaire was sent to 48 universities and transit agencies across the United States, with 23 responding with enough valid data and information to be included in the study. It has been demonstrated in a significant number of university communities across the country that transit performance is enhanced dramatically by certain fare policies. However, that enhancement differs from one community to the next. It is believed that the answer to maximizing transit performance can be found in a combination of factors and that the optimum mix can be identified empirically.

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Jr., Richard Lewis, Joanne Ford-Robertson, and Chandler Greenfield. "The Contemporary United States Workplace: An Analysis of Racial Segregation Perceptions." OALib 05, no. 11 (2018): 1–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1104965.

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Beach, Brian, John Parman, and Martin Saavedra. "Segregation and the Initial Provision of Water in the United States." AEA Papers and Proceedings 112 (May 1, 2022): 193–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/pandp.20221067.

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US cities invested heavily in water and sewer infrastructure throughout the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. These investments improved public health and quality of life by helping US cities control typhoid fever and other waterborne diseases. We show that segregated cities invested in water infrastructure earlier but were slower to reach universal access and slower to eliminate typhoid fever. We develop a theoretical model that illustrates how segregation, by facilitating the exclusion of Black households from water and sewer systems, explains these seemingly paradoxical findings.

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Moller, S., and H. Li. "Parties, Unions, Policies and Occupational Sex Segregation in the United States." Social Forces 87, no. 3 (March 1, 2009): 1529–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/sof.0.0174.

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Anacker, Katrin, Christopher Niedt, and Chang Kwon. "Analyzing segregation in mature and developing suburbs in the United States." Journal of Urban Affairs 39, no. 6 (May 8, 2017): 819–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07352166.2017.1305730.

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