Journal articles on the topic 'Second Republic of Austria'
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1
Binder, Dieter A. "The Second Republic: Austria Seen as a Continuum." Austrian History Yearbook 26 (January 1995): 17–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0067237800004227.
Abstract:
TheOldAustrofascists returned from the concentration camps and from their time of suffering and brought back with them some democratic convictions. That was the “Austrian miracle,” as Leopold Figl used to say. Those on the Left who had emigrated remained mostly wherever they were, for safety's sake. Only a few returned to their homeland, where, in the beginning, they were not very welcome. In the distressful postwar situation, the politicians, all of whose reputations had become somewhat tarnished since 1934, remembered an aging Social Democrat who was beyond suspicion, a politician who in 1918 had already founded a “Republic of German-Austria’ and who, because of his consistent call for the annexation (Anschluβ) of Austria by Germany, had lived through the Nazi period unmolested in Gloggnitz. That is how Karl Renner first became federal chancellor and later was elected president of Austria. Under pressure from the Allies he discarded his pet idea of Anschluβ, became an Austrian in his old age, and was eventually honored with a monument by Alfred Hrdlička that all of Austria mocked because it was created by a “Communist,” and because it portrayed the sovereign [Landesvater] the way he really looked.
2
Karner, Stefan. "The Austrian People's Party and the Creation of the Second Austrian Republic (1945—1955)." ISTORIYA 12, no. 11 (109) (2021): 0. http://dx.doi.org/10.18254/s207987840017598-6.
Abstract:
In this article, the reader is offered not just the history of the formation of the Austrian People's Party, but in a broader sense, the internal political development of the Republic of Austria after 1945. Based on a wide range of historical sources, the development of the political consensus in Austria in the post-war period, the peculiarities of the formation of the foreign policy course and the choice of the policy of neutrality by Austria are shown. Special attention is paid to major Austrian political figures and their vision of strengthening and further development of Austria after the war.
3
Uhl, Heidemarie. "Transformations of Austrian Memory:Politics of History and Monument Culture in the Second Republic." Austrian History Yearbook 32 (January 2001): 149–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0067237800011206.
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On what was the first visit of an Austrian president to Israel, Thomas Klestil spoke before the Knesset in November 1994 of “repression,” of a lack of “admission to the whole truth,” stating, “We know that we have too often spoken of the fact that Austria was the first state to lose its freedom and independence to National Socialism—but we have spoken far too rarely of the fact that some of the worst henchmen of the NS dictatorship were in fact Austrians.” With this, Klestil was reacting to the fundamental questioning of the victim theory in the Waldheim debate as had Chancellor Franz Vranitzky in his often cited declaration to the Austrian Parliament on July 8,1991, to the effect that Austria “must admit to the good and bad … sides” of its history: “We must [admit] … to our share of the responsibility for the suffering that Austria did not cause as a state but that was brought upon other people and other peoples by the citizens of this country” and “apologize to the survivors and the descendants of the dead”.
4
Scheuch, Hanno. "Austria 1918–55: from the First to the Second Republic." Historical Journal 32, no. 1 (March 1989): 177–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0018246x00015351.
5
Baber, Katherine. "“American First Aid”: Jerome Robbins and Leonard Bernstein at the Salzburg Festival, 1959." Journal of Austrian-American History 6, no. 1 (May 18, 2022): 74–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.5325/jaustamerhist.6.1.0074.
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Abstract This article examines the reception of two American artists during the Salzburg Festival of 1959 in the context of Cold War cultural diplomacy. While Austria had just become an independent republic again in 1955, the Salzburg Festival was experiencing a second American occupation, this time at Austrian invitation. The reasons for and the ways in which Austrian audiences and critics interpreted these performances and the idea of American music—through genre, personality, and politics—reveal the identity of the Festival, and by extension Austria, in a state of flux.
6
Martinets, Yuliya A. "SOVIET-AUSTRIAN ECONOMIC RELATIONS AS A PROBLEM OF RUSSIAN HISTORIOGRAPHY." RSUH/RGGU Bulletin. Series Political Sciences. History. International Relations, no. 4 (2021): 19–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.28995/2073-6339-2021-4-19-31.
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This article is devoted to the trade and economic relations between the USSR and the Austrian Republic, whose modern borders were drawn up only at the end of the Second World War. The author aims to give a brief overview of the main scientific results (dissertation studies, monographs, scientific articles) of domestic – Soviet and Russian – historians and economists. The article attempts to analyze the influence of the state ideology on the development of domestic Austrian studies and to trace the reflection of the ideological confrontation between the East and the West during the Cold War on the works devoted to the Soviet-Austrian relations. Analyzing the topics of key scientific works, the author identifies several large thematic layers in the study of the history of the modern Austrian Republic and its interaction with the USSR and the Russian Federation. Among them: the political life of Austria, its international interaction, the economic development of the Austrian Republic, as well as the Soviet-Austrian relations in the political sphere. Nevertheless, both in Soviet and Russian historiography, according to the author, there are still poorly studied areas – the least covered topic remains the trade and economic interaction of the modern Austrian Republic with the Soviet Union in the second half of the 20th century
7
Papenko, Natalia, and Yevgen Papenko. "The policy of the Austrian Republic concerning the constant neutrality (1945-1955)." European Historical Studies, no. 4 (2016): 192–208. http://dx.doi.org/10.17721/2524-048x.2016.04.192-208.
Abstract:
The article is devoted to the exploration of the constant neutrality status of the Second Austrian republic, to its political and legal research, its effectiveness as an instrument of the foreign policy of the state. The problem of the Austrian constant neutrality status is the post-war system of international relations was and is one of the main issues of Austrian internal and foreign policy, as long as it was directly connected with the discontinuance of occupation by the states of anti-Hitler coalition. Status of constant neutrality had to become a pledge of the existence of Austria as an independent and flourishing state, one of the elements of the peace, security and stability in Europe.
8
Kozyakova, Nataliya S. "The accession of the Second Republic of Austria to the UN after the end of World War II (1955)." Tambov University Review. Series: Humanities, no. 193 (2021): 254–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.20310/1810-0201-2021-26-193-254-261.
Abstract:
We examine the problems that occupied the main place in Austria’s foreign policy in the mid-1950s of 20th century and characterized its role in international relations during the specified period. The role of Austria in the international arena has increased the country’s entry into the path of neutrality. It also opened up wide opportunities for it to participate in the activities of vari-ous international organizations extensively. Using the method of source analysis, the active partic-ipation of Austria in the work of the UN is considered, its authority and support for the sufficient work of this organization, which allowed it to be elected for three years as a member of the main body of the UN – a member of the Economic and Social Council in 1963 and 1976, in 1973 and 1974 – a member of the UN security, and in 1972 it became a permanent member of the UN Security Council. According to Austria’s first statement to the Security Council, the country planned to provide the widest possible extent of its impartial services to the UN’s main political body, using the wide opportunities given to it by its independence and neutrality. Having analyzed the main directions and aspects of Austrian foreign policy in the second half of the twentieth century, we conclude that, having adopted a justified course in foreign policy in 1955, based on permanent neutrality, the Second Austrian Republic further has provided the guarantee and basis of its independence.
9
Kozyakova, Nataliya S. "THE POLITICAL BRAND OF PEOPLE'S CAPITALISM IN THE SECOND REPUBLIC OF AUSTRIA (1950-1960S)." Bulletin of the Moscow State Regional University (History and Political Science), no. 1 (2021): 125–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.18384/2310-676x-2021-1-125-132.
10
Konrad, Helmut. "Austria on the Path to Western Europe: The Political Culture of the Second Republic." Austrian History Yearbook 26 (January 1995): 1–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0067237800004215.
Abstract:
LikeRobert A. Kann, I too am a historian by profession. Despite the close links between their subject and disciplines such as sociology land political science, historians on the whole avoid attempting to analyze contemporary politics. This lecture will therefore concentrate on the first twenty-five years of the Second Republic. Yet I am well aware that in the Kreisky era (notably as a result of the reforms introduced by Hertha Firnberg and Christian Broda) Austria's progress toward Western Europe took on a new character, and the country underwent what was, for the time being at least, its final major modernization. But it was an analysis of the wholly different steps taken toward the West between 1945 and 1970 that laid the foundation on which the single-party Social Democratic (SPÖ) government of the 1970s was able to build. It therefore seems legitimate to focus upon that first half of the history of the Second Republic, and to see the turning point marked by the student movement of 1968 and the election results of 1970 as a natural cutoff point for this discussion. Broadly speaking, the main concerns of the new state in its first two and a half decades were to provide a framework of order for the very disparate elements that it had inherited and to deal with the immense problems now confronting it. NaCenter for Austrian Studiestional Socialism, by its policies and the effects of all-out war, had left behind a country in ruins in every sense—not only materially through the destruction of housing, infrastructure, and industrial plant, but also intellectually and culturally. Most of the leading figures in Austria's cultural and intellectual life had been driven into exile or murdered.
11
Burri, Michael. "Austrian Festival Missions after 1918: The Vienna Music Festival and the Long Shadow of Salzburg." Austrian History Yearbook 47 (April 2016): 147–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0067237816000114.
Abstract:
Rising from the ruins of a post-1918 Austria shed of its monarchical leadership and much of its former territory, the Salzburg Festival acquired a symbolic authority during the First Austrian Republic that continues to ensure its privileged place in Austrian politics and culture to this day. At the core of this privileged place are two signature legacies that, while grounded in the festival's prewar history, fortified a particular agenda of the Second Austrian Republic in defining Austrian history and national identity in the decades following World War II. The first, as expressed in 1919 by the festival's most articulate cofounder, Hugo von Hofmannsthal, is that with its Salzburg setting, the festival should be understood as situated in the “heart of the heart of Europe,” a place where the antitheses of Central European geography (German and Slavic, German and Italian), social class (commoner and elite), and aesthetic genre (dramatic theater and opera) encounter one another only to be dissolved through transcendence in an “organic unity.”
12
Kozyakova, Natal’ya S. "The problem of disarmament and the attitude of austrian statesmen to it in the 1960s and 1970s." Bulletin of Nizhnevartovsk State University 55, no. 3 (September 27, 2021): 24–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.36906/2311-4444/21-3/03.
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The article is devoted to international security problems in the Second Austrian Republic in the 1960s and 1970s. The aim is to consider the policy of neutral Austria, which was an active struggle for the preservation and strengthening of peace in the international arena and not flight to isolation. The topic's relevance lies in the fact that Austria's leading interests during the period under review were to ensure that all European problems were resolved peacefully and, therefore, nuclear weapons were not placed near its borders. It has been very active in the international arena, based primarily on its own interests, and has supported the solution of such problems as ensuring European security and disarmament. The study is based on the Austrian Government's materials containing resolutions on the cessation of nuclear weapons testing. Austrian politicians recognized the importance of a peaceful solution to this problem. The author pays special attention to the German question. His decision was of great importance for Austria since the country's vital interests demanded that a new hotbed of danger should not arise on its borders in the center of Europe. Until 1966, the Austrian Government had not expressed its attitude to ensuring European security while referencing the country's neutrality. In conclusion, it is noted that Austria, as a neutral country, could not be isolated from the initiatives of the socialist camp countries on security and cooperation at the Pan-European conference in connection with the emerging trends in the second half of the 1960s to defuse tensions.
13
Molden, Berthold. "Decolonizing the Second Republic: Austria and the Global South from the 1950s to the 1970s." Journal of Austrian Studies 48, no. 3 (2015): 109–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/oas.2015.0051.
14
Kisztelińska-Węgrzyńska, Agnieszka. "Inwestycje austriackie w Polsce przed 1989 rokiem." Rocznik Polsko-Niemiecki, no. 29 (September 14, 2021): 63–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.35757/rpn.2021.29.04.
Abstract:
Austrian investments in Poland developed with varying intensity throughout the 20th century. The Second Austrian Republic exerted a visible influence on the eastern area in terms of entrepreneurship, the intensity of this process, the degree of generated changes and the effects in relation to Poland require clarification. Poland was treated by post-war Austria as an initiator of changes in the region and a partner in the exchange of goods and raw materials. The aim of the article is to assess the impact of Austrian economic stimuli, mainly direct investments, on the political situation in Poland. Their effectiveness is estimated on the basis of specific initiatives undertaken, not only for the sake of the national interest of the republic, but also responsibility for economic and political support for the area of Central and Eastern Europe. An important question remains how the Polish government reacted to the offers made by the Austrian authorities. The adopted hypothesis concerns integration in the region. The Austrians, through cooperation with Poland, sought to strengthen the economic and political position of the neighboring eastern countries.
15
Miecznikowska-Jerzak, Justyna. "Demokracja bezpośrednia w Austrii – praktyka i perspektywy rozwoju." Politeja 20, no. 1(82) (June 28, 2023): 59–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.12797/politeja.20.2023.82.04.
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DIRECT DEMOCRACY IN AUSTRIA – PRACTICE AND DEVELOPMENT PROSPECTS First, the article traces the historical development of and legal regulations related to the instruments of direct democracy in the Second Republic. It details such forms of direct democracy as: the obligatory and optional referendum (Volksabstimmung), consultative referendum (Volksbefragung) and popular legislative initiative (Volksbegehren), as well as provides historical examples of their use. The latter part of the article elaborates on the positions of the main political parties in Austria and federal coalition plans for the years 2003-2020 against the backdrop of popularisation of forms of direct democracy. The research hypothesis adopted assumes that there is no agreement among the Austrian establishment as to whether direct democracy should become a permanent and significant supplement to representative democracy. The scarce interest in referendums and non-binding (consultative) referendums in Austria results from institutional and legal barriers, which make it difficult to initiate any forms of direct democracy, as well as from the huge influence of political parties that support representative democracy.
16
Praher, Andreas. "Die Rückkehr der „Ehemaligen“: Belastete „Skihelden“ und das nationalsozialistische Erbe im österreichischen Skisport." STADION 47, no. 1 (2023): 57–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.5771/0172-4029-2023-1-57.
Abstract:
Alpine skiing played a central role in the nation-building process of the Second Austrian Republic. To this day skiing in Austria is a national affair of the highest rank. In post-war-narratives, celebrated stars became untouchable. They served as national heroes and role models for the tourism industry and media. Sport officials and state politicians made it their task to present skiing as the national sport and to emphasize Austria’s hegemonic role in it. In the wake of this operetta-like depiction, myths and male-dominated heroic stories have inscribed themselves in the seemingly innocent white of the snow. In this way, the illusion of a snow-covered idyllic parallel world has been powerfully feeding the “ski nation” Austria for decades – a nation with lost memory. The analysis focuses on the National Socialist legacy in Austrian skiing in the post-war-years and describes how mostly male athletes and sport officials used the victim myth to wash themselves clean. This article shows how the National Socialist past was repressed and reinterpreted.
17
Howes, Geoffrey C. "Polemical Austria: The Rhetorics of National Identity: From Empire to the Second Republic by Anthony Bushell." Journal of Austrian Studies 47, no. 4 (2014): 145–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/oas.2014.0060.
18
Roháček, Jindřich, Miroslav Barták, and Jiří Preisler. "New records of Psilidae, Piophilidae, Lauxaniidae, Cremifaniidae and Sphaeroceridae (Diptera) from the Czech Republic and Slovakia." Acta Musei Silesiae, Scientiae Naturales 65, no. 1 (March 1, 2016): 51–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/cszma-2016-0005.
Abstract:
Abstract Records of eight rare species of the families Psilidae (4), Piophilidae (1), Lauxaniidae (1), Cremifaniidae (1) and Sphaeroceridae (1) from the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Austria are presented and their importance to the knowledge of the biodiversity of local faunas is discussed along with notes on their biology, distribution and identification. Psilidae: Chamaepsila tenebrica (Shatalkin, 1986) is a new addition to the West Palaearctic fauna (recorded from the Czech Republic and Slovakia); Ch. andreji (Shatalkin, 1991) and Ch. confusa Shatalkin & Merz, 2010 are recorded from the Czech Republic (both Bohemia and Moravia) and Ch. andreji also from Austria for the first time, and Ch. unilineata (Zetterstedt, 1847) is added to the fauna of Moravia. Also Homoneura lamellata (Becker, 1895) (Lauxaniidae) and Cremifania nigrocellulata Czerny, 1904 (Cremifaniidae) are first recorded from Moravia and Copromyza pseudostercoraria Papp, 1976 (Sphaeroceridae) is a new addition to faunas of both the Czech Republic (Moravia only) and Slovakia, and its record from Moravia represents a new northernmost limit of its distribution. Pseudoseps signata (Fallén, 1820) (Piophilidae), an endangered species in the Czech Republic, is reported from Bohemia for second time. Photographs of Chamaepsila tenebrica (male), Pseudoseps signata (living female), Homoneura lamellata (male), Cremifania lanceolata (male) and Copromyza pseudostercoraria (male) are presented to enable recognition of these species.
19
Tepavcevic, Sanja, Irina N. Molodikova, and Sergey V. Ryazantsev. "POST-SOVIET RUSSIAN-SPEAKING MIGRATION, INVESTMENT, ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN EASTERN AND CENTRAL EUROPE (ON THE EXAMPLE OF HUNGARY, AUSTRIA AND THE CZECH REPUBLIC)." TODAY AND TOMORROW OF THE RUSSIAN ECONOMY, no. 99-100 (2020): 5–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.26653/1993-4947-2020-99-100-01.
Abstract:
The object of this study is the migration of the Russian-speaking population from the former Soviet Union to three Central and Eastern European countries-Hungary, the Czech Republic and Austria. The subject of the study was the process of adaptation of Russian-speaking migrants from the former Soviet Union through the channel of entrepreneurship and investment in three countries. The stages of migration of the Russian-speaking population to Hungary, the Czech Republic and Austria from the 1960s to the present are highlighted. Interviews were conducted with post-Soviet migrant entrepreneurs, their acquaintances, and experts. The most illustrative examples of the relationship between business activity and the immigration process in the three host countries are analyzed. Based on in-depth interviews with Russian-speaking migrant entrepreneurs, the idea of post-Soviet investments in the EU economy as “spare airfields” in Hungary, the Czech Republic and Austria was confirmed. Foreign investments of citizens of the former Soviet Union in business abroad or its creation from scratch, often serve to protect the earned funds from the unstable economic and legal environment of sending countries. Post-Soviet Russian enterprise on the one hand, serves the purposes of obtaining documents for residence in the host EU countries and way of life support; and on the other hand, confirms the theory of investments of nationals of developing countries to the advanced economies with the aim of social integration in the host societies. Examples of post-Soviet Russian-language entrepreneurship have shown that entrepreneurship in the construction sector in Hungary and the Czech Republic, hotel business and human resources services in Austria, are the main focus of these countries ‘ economies rather than ethnic businesses. At the second stage, the legislation of the three countries concerning the grounds for obtaining long-term residence of migrants from the former Soviet Union was studied.
20
Kozińska-Witt, Hanna. "The Union of Polish Cities in the Second Polish Republic, 1918–1939: Discourses of Local Government in a Divided Land." Contemporary European History 11, no. 4 (October 28, 2002): 549–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0960777302004034.
Abstract:
The new Polish state was founded more than 100 years after Poland's partition by Prussia, Russia and Austria. The partitioned Polish lands had been included one way or another in the administrative structure of the ocupying powers, and the individuals who became active in urban issues in the new state were socialised by associations established by the partitioners. Poland became not only a arena for a meeting of Prussian, Russian and Austrian imaginations about local government but also a place with a great variety of municipal praxises as well. The author analyses different meanings of local government with special attention to those employed by municipal officers from Warsaw and Cracow within the Union of Polish Cities. There were strong regional cleavages in the Union, but the political development of the Polish state strengthened centralisation and the Union itself remained united.
21
Dementyeva, Тamara М. "German as a Second Foreign Language for Russian Students – A Dilemma of Choice: Classical or Pluricentric German?" Vestnik Tomskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta, no. 464 (2021): 181–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.17223/15617793/464/21.
Abstract:
The article raises the problem of teaching German as a second foreign language within the framework of a pluricentric approach. Its relevance for the Russian undergraduate and graduate students is dictated by the modern needs and opportunities to obtain further education in the Common European higher institutions of Germany (D), Austria (A), the German-speaking part of Switzerland (CH), as well as the opportunity to participate in various international student exchange support programs of these countries. The aim of this article is to assess the willingness of the bachelor’s and master’s students undertaking the Foreign Languages and Intercultural Communication course not only to study the classical German language but also to get familiar with the features of the standard German language in Austria and Switzerland. The pluricentric approach is based on the generally recognized theory of pluricentrism, according to which the German language is considered as a single language incorporating the national linguistic specifics in the Federal Republic of Germany, Austria, and the German-speaking part of Switzerland. The article conveys the main ideas of the pluricentric theoretical research studies and covers the linguodidactic and methodological foundations in teaching pluricentric German developed by a special research group and described in the so-called ABCB theses. The readiness of students to learn German in the diversity of the linguistic and cultural national specifics of the DACH-Länder is one of the basic requirements of the pluricentric approach. The conducted research allowed assessing the readiness of the bachelor’s and master’s students to study the classical German language, taking into account the existing distinctive linguistic features of the standard German language in Austria and Switzerland. The research was based on the questionnaire method in the form of a written poll. Given the results of the research, students of the bachelor’s and master’s programs are equally willing to learn the standard Austrian and Swiss German vocabulary in the German language classes. Among bachelors, 70% prefer the vocabulary of the Austrian version and 65% of the Swiss version of German; among master’s students, 75% want to learn the vocabulary of both the Austrian and the Swiss versions of German. Besides, knowledge of the features of the standard German language DACH-Länder is considered as a prerequisite for traveling and further education in these countries. These statistics confirm the high motivation of the bachelor’s and master’s students to study German applying the pluricentric approach. The students also demonstrated the thoughtful choice of the Second Language Country Studies as a discipline for studying German, taking into account the diversity of the linguistic and cultural national specifics of DACH-Länder.
22
Muzyka, Iryna. "Formation of the idea and legalization of the sovereignty of the Western Ukrainian People’s Republic." Yearly journal of scientific articles “Pravova derzhava”, no. 33 (September 2022): 216–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.33663/1563-3349-2022-33-216-226.
Abstract:
The aim of the article is to cover the process of formation of the idea and determine the stages of legalization of the sovereignty of the Western Ukrainian People’s Republic, and to prevent falsifi cation of history, mythmaking and manipulation of facts that are means of Russia’s information war against Ukraine. According to Jackson’s concept, sovereignty is an objective reality that does not require anyone’s approval, but involves its use as the basis of other state and legal phenomena. Therefore, it is reasonable to conclude that in October-November 1918 the sovereignty of the Western Ukrainian People’s Republic (ZUNR) was legalized in the western Ukrainian lands that were part of Austria-Hungary, which was the result of development and self-determination of the Ukrainian people of Eastern Galicia. Transcarpathia. We can distinguish the main stages of the legalization of the sovereignty of the Western Ukrainian People’s Republic: the fi rst - the conclusion of a secret Brest agreement of the Ukrainian Central Council with Austria-Hungary from February 9 (January 27), 1918; the second - the National Chamber on October 19, 1918 in Lviv, which proclaimed an independent Ukrainian state in the lands of Austria-Hungary; third – the transfer of all power by the representatives of the Austro-Hungarian government by the governors of Galicia to the Ukrainian National Council in accordance with the imperial manifesto of Charles I and the rules of international law; fourth - the adoption by the Ukrainian National Council at a meeting on November 13, 1918 of the Constitution of the Western Ukrainian People’s Republic - «Temporary Basic Law on State Independence of the Ukrainian lands of the former Austro-Hungarian monarchy.» Key words: history of law, sovereignty, legalization of sovereignty, Western Ukrainian People’s Republic, people’s sovereignty, state sovereignty.
23
Pohl, Walter. "Ostarrîchi Revisited: The 1946 Anniversary, the Millennium, and the Medieval Roots of Austrian Identity." Austrian History Yearbook 27 (January 1996): 21–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0067237800005804.
Abstract:
In1996,Austriawill celebrate its millennium. As in many other cases, the chronological justifications for the anniversary are open to question. Austria has never been “founded,” and certainly not one thousand years ago; its independence is the result of a process that took centuries and cannot be symbolized by a date like July 4 in the United States. Austria's national holiday, October 26, marks the date in 1955 when the Austrian parliament voted permanent neutrality and the last of the Allied occupation troops left the country. Nobody, it is true, would doubt that Austria's history stretches back considerably before 1955, 1945 (the foundation of the Second Republic), 1918 (the birth of the First), or even 1804 (when the Habsburg emperor Francis I declared himself emperor of Austria after the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire). Nothing comparable happened in 996. In a charter dated November 1, 996, Emperor Otto III granted some land at Neuhofen, in the west of the modern province of Lower Austria, to the bishop of Freising. Even the exact date of the charter—whose original has survived—has not always been accepted, for the seal it carries was Henry II's, whose reign began in 1002. Recently, some scholars have even tried to prove, although not very successfully, that it was a forgery.
24
Fink, Maria, Sandra Revilla Fernández, Hermann Schobesberger, and Josef Koefer. "Geographical Spread of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Virus H5N1 during the 2006 Outbreak in Austria." Journal of Virology 84, no. 11 (March 24, 2010): 5815–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/jvi.01642-09.
Abstract:
ABSTRACT In spring 2006, highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (HPAIV) of subtype H5N1 was detected in Austria in 119 dead wild birds. The hemagglutinin cleavage site showed that the amino acid sequence motif was identical to that of the Qinghai lineage. For detailed analysis, the hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) genes of 27 selected Austrian H5N1 viruses originating from different regions and wild bird species were analyzed phylogenetically, which revealed two clearly separated Austrian subclusters, both belonging to European cluster EMA-1. Subcluster South (SCS) contains virus isolates from the south of Austria as well as from Slovenia, Turkey, Egypt, and Nigeria. The second subcluster, Northwest (SCN), covered a larger group of viruses originating from different locations and wild bird species in the northern and very western parts of Austria, as well as from Bavaria and Switzerland. Surprisingly, virus isolates originating from two mute swans and one wild duck found on the north side of the Alps did not cluster with SCN but with SCS. Together with isolates from Bavarian, the Czech Republic, Italy, and Slovakia, they form a genuine subgroup, named subgroup Bavaria (SGB). This subgroup forms a link to SCN, indicating a spread of the virus from south to north. There has been a general assumption that the generic HPAI introduction route into Europe was from Russia to north Germany, introducing cluster EMA-2 into Europe. Interestingly, our findings support the assumption of an alternative introduction of the HPAI H5N1 virus from Turkey to central Europe, where it spread as cluster EMA-1 during the outbreak of 2006.
25
Kozyakova, Nataliya S. "COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE NEO-FASCISM ESSENCEIN THE MID-TWENTIETH CENTURY IN GERMANYAND THE SECOND REPUBLIC OF AUSTRIA." Bulletin of the Moscow State Regional University (History and Political Science), no. 1 (2019): 63–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.18384/2310-676x-2019-1-63-72.
26
Koredczuk, Józef. "Military Testaments in the Second Polish Republic." Annales Universitatis Mariae Curie-Skłodowska, sectio G (Ius) 70, no. 3 (January 11, 2023): 79–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.17951/g.2023.70.3.79-86.
Abstract:
Military testaments in the Second Polish Republic gained particular practical significance due to the unique circumstances resulting from Poland’s existence in the short interwar period. Their regulation was based on post-partition legal provisions, including the 1811 Austrian Civil Code with the Military Service Regulations, the 1874 Military Law of the Reich (Reichsmilitärgesetz), and in the case of Russia the provisions of Volume 10 Part I of the Digest of Laws of the Russian Empire. It wasn’t until 1933 that Poland passed its own Law regarding the last wills of military personnel. Military testaments were treated as a privileged form of last will and testament, characterized by certain simplifications compared to the ordinary form.
27
Hafez, Farid, and Reinhard Heinisch. "Breaking with Austrian Consociationalism: How the Rise of Rightwing Populism and Party Competition Have Changed Austria's Islam Politics." Politics and Religion 11, no. 3 (May 7, 2018): 649–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1755048318000172.
Abstract:
AbstractThis paper seeks to explain Austria's Islam-related politics by first suggesting that it can be best understood in terms of neo-institutionalist path-dependency and consociationalist policy-making. This is due to the fact that Austria gave Islam full legal recognition in 1912. Important institutional patterns and policies grew out of this law in the Second Republic, whose persistence we want to examine. The Islamic Religious Community constituted itself under public law as a neo-corporatist interest group for Muslims in Austria in 1979. More recently, the government's approach toward Islam has shifted. This change can be best accounted for by party competition in which the far-right Freedom Party of Austria has sought to monopolize this issue. Consequently, this paper explores the contradictions between, on the one hand, the long-established principle of state neutrality and evenhandedness when dealing with various legally recognized religious communities and, on the other hand, discriminatory Islam-related politics.
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Miecznikowska-Jerzak, Justyna. "Mechanizmy kontroli władzy ustawodawczej nad rządem federalnym w Austrii. Rola i funkcje komisji śledczych Rady Narodowej." Studia Politologiczne, no. 4/2023(70) (December 20, 2023): 331–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.33896/spolit.2023.70.17.
Abstract:
The paper aims to present the legal tools used by the Austrian legislature to exert control over the federal government and its members, particularly the role of the commission of inquiry and its position in the system. The assumed research hypothesis is that the scope and efficiency of legislative oversight of the executive in Austria have increased due to the strengthened position of the parliamentary minority. The key factor was the 2014 Constitutional Amendment allowing the opposition to propose issuing a commission of inquiry at the National Council. The paper consists of four parts. First, it describes the instruments of political control the Austrian parliament has at its disposal. Next, it analyses the application of the individual supervisory tools at the National Council in the years 2006–2021. The third part presents the procedure for issuing a commission of inquiry and its powers. The reflections are concluded by an analysis of the hitherto existing commissions of inquiry in the Second Republic in terms of their frequency, the scope of inquiry, proponents, and the duration and intensity of their work. The paper also seeks to answer the questions of the scrutiny potential of the National Council, the importance of commissions of inquiry in system practice in Austria and the possible political consequences of the changes to how the parliamentary commissions of inquiry are issued and how they function.
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John, Michael. "“We Do Not Even Possess Our Selves”: On Identity and Ethnicity in Austria, 1880–1937." Austrian History Yearbook 30 (January 1999): 17–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0067237800015952.
Abstract:
Two Brothers Were born in Budapest before the turn of the century and grew up in that city speaking Hungarian. After they had left Hungary for good, they became assimilated in Austria and Germany. Later, one of them Attila Hörbiger, went on to become one of Nazi Germany's top movie stars, as did his wife Paula Wessely. During the Austrian Second Republic, the two brothers achieved cult figure status in the theater. Fifteen years ago, as Paul Hörbiger lay close to death, he expressed the wish to speak with Attila once again, after so many years, in Hungarian, the language of their childhood. In the final hour of Paul's life, that is what te brothers did.1Regardless of the extent to which this story is, in fact, true, it can nevertheless serve as the leitmotiv for a discussion of ethnic and cultural identity in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, providing an indication of the way many Austrians dealt with their ethnic origins or cultural background.
30
Berg, Matthew Paul. "Challenging Political Culture in Postwar Austria: Veterans' Associations, Identity, and the Problem of Contemporary History." Central European History 30, no. 4 (December 1997): 513–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0008938900015648.
Abstract:
This observation, registered by Marianne Enigl and Herbert Lackner, points to an incontestable and compelling feature of contemporary Austrian political culture: during the 1980s and 1990s, the first meaningful steps toward an Austrian Vergangenheitsbewältigung developed out of a discussion of Austrians' military service during the Nazi era and its highly problematic association with wartime atrocities and genocide. Exploration of this important theme had been avoided throughout the period of the Second Republic by a carefully cultivated expression of public memory. The inherent tension between the internationally sanctioned notion of Austrian victimization during the Nazi years and the pride of many Austrian veterans in having performed their soldierly duties (Wehrpflichterfüllung) had been a taboo subject.
31
Strémy, Ja. "Law and safety in liquidation and dissolution of companies." Law and Safety 84, no. 1 (March 24, 2022): 22–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.32631/pb.2022.1.02.
Abstract:
The purpose of this article is to clarify the process of liquidation and dissolution of companies. The research below defines the rules that must be followed when approaching those procedures in the Kingdom of Spain and Republic of Austria. In those countries there are two types of liquidation. First of them is liquidation of company which is solvent, the second one is liquidation of company that cannot pay its debt. In both cases, there are specific duties which must be obeyed to dissolve the company in legal and safe way.
32
Belova, M. V., and I. E. Peresh. "Peculiarities of state-church relations in the First Czechoslovak Republic." Uzhhorod National University Herald. Series: Law 1, no. 82 (May 16, 2024): 19–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.24144/2307-3322.2024.82.1.2.
Abstract:
It is indicated that the relationship between the Church and the state went through various stages in its formation both in Ukraine and in the world as a whole. In addition, the state’s relations with religious organizations in various countries still have their own specifics. Models of these relationships are usually built depending on the political, religious, cultural and other traditions of each region. Therefore, today in Europe, despite the presence of a number of common trends, there is still no unity of approaches in building a system of state-church relations. It is quite obvious that in order to solve this problem, it is necessary to study the existing historical experience of Czechoslovakia. Regarding this, the confessional policy of the Czechoslovak state in the 20th century has a special value. Back in the interwar twentieth century (1918–1938), an attempt was made here to build such a model of the relationship between the state and religious organizations, which, on the one hand, provided for the secular nature of the state and the maximum limitation of the role of the church in public life, and on the other hand, the preservation of the main elements of the system of state-church relations that developed in Austria-Hungary. We can say that in a slightly modified form this model continued to exist in Czechoslovakia and in the second half of the 20th century. Even during the years of state atheism, the church here was not separated from the state. Thus, in the 20th century, Czechoslovakia accumulated rich experience in adapting traditional elements of the state church to new historical conditions. Based on the study of domestic and foreign sources, the article analyzes the legal regulation of state-church relations in the First Czechoslovak Republic. The study attempted to analyze the country’s relationship with the Vatican, which consisted primarily of the need to conclude a concordat agreement. The legal nature of Modus vivendi is analyzed. It was determined that the model of state-church relations in the first Czechoslovak Republic became an organic development of the model that existed in Austria-Hungary. It can be said that the process of equalizing the rights of all state-recognized denominations came to a certain logical conclusion in the first Czechoslovak Republic. At the same time, one of the fundamental principles of Austrian religious policy was preserved in the Czechoslovak Republic — the desire to limit the ties of local denominations with foreign administrative centers as much as possible.
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Dragašek, Jozef, and Alexander Nawka. "Mental healthcare in the Slovak Republic: current situation and future challenges." International Psychiatry 7, no. 4 (October 2010): 88–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/s1749367600006019.
Abstract:
The Slovak Republic is a landlocked country in central Europe with a population of over 5 million. The Czech Republic and Austria lie to the west, Poland to the north, Ukraine to the east and Hungary to the south. The largest city is the capital, Bratislava; the second largest city is Košnice. Slovakia is a member of the European Union, the United Nations, the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and the World Trade Organization, among other international organisations. The majority of the inhabitants of Slovakia are ethnically Slovak (85.8%). Hungarians are the largest ethnic minority (9.5%). With a gross domestic product (GDP) of €63.3 billion in 2009, Slovakia is classified as a middle-income country. In that year total health expenditure represented 6.7% of GDP (Pažitny, 2008), 34% of which went on pharmaceuticals, the highest share among all OECD countries (World Health Organization, 2010).
34
Zelenov, Dmitrii Aleksandrovich. "Specifics of Austrian military-political course after the end of the cold war." Международные отношения, no. 2 (February 2024): 42–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.7256/2454-0641.2024.2.70569.
Abstract:
Since the end of 1980th Austria has significantly been changing the model of its military-political course and taking into consideration neutral status of the State concentrates major efforts on activity in special international organizations including their military actions. In this regard the object of research is the military-political model of Austrian Republic in postbipolar epoch. Consequently, the subject of the article is changes and crucial determinations of Alpine Republic military-political line at the end of 1980th – 2020th. To cover this object-subject area problems and ways of neutrality transformation in 1990th – beginning of 2000th are analyzed. Along with that special attention is focused on Official Vienna’s activity in special international organizations in security sphere (UN, OSCE, EU, NATO) mostly diplomatic and legislative issues in first two cases and participation in military and training missions. The historical-genetic and comparative methods which allow to notice historic backgrounds and to compare Austrian efforts in security field are used. The scientific novelty of the research implies wide set of sources in German and an attempt to unite concrete Austrian steps in integral system. Crucial conclusions are determination of motives and features of Austrian policy transformation in security field. Its first characteristic is narrowing the interpretations of the neutral status with the subsequent opportunity to use national armed forces in the settlement of armed conflicts outside Austrian borders. The second consequence is description of interaction and two-component model of the UN, OSCE, EU and NATO instruments use. The first two are applied for promotion initiatives in regional conflicts settlement and foundation of legislative base for disarmament and avoiding militarization of other spaces. The last two provide the use of military measures for stabilization of conflict regions with avoiding of direct use of bundesheer.
35
Kozyakova, N. S. "Political situation of the Second Austrian Republic after the liberation in 1945." Bulletin of the Moscow State Regional University (History and Political Science), no. 1 (2023): 96–106. http://dx.doi.org/10.18384/2310-676x-2023-1-96-106.
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Osmaev, A. D. "Current State of the Muslim Ummah of the Chechen Republic." Islam in the modern world 18, no. 4 (February 14, 2023): 133–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.22311/2074-1529-2022-18-4-133-147.
Abstract:
Chechens are the largest population in the North Caucasus and the sixth largest in the Russian Federation (right after Russians, Ukrainians, Tatars, Bashkirs, Chuvashs). According to official data, there are currently 1,516,387 people living in the republic, of whom 1,206,551 are Chechens. A large number of Chechens live in European countries. Although there are no exact official figures, various researchers place the figure between 150,000 and 300,000, with most Chechens living in France, Belgium, Norway, Austria, Poland, and Germany. The Middle Eastern and Turkish diasporas of Chechens are not so numerous, but they have a longer period of residence there, as they mostly consist of the descendants of immigrants from the second half of the 19th century. Chechens are Sunni of Shafi‘i Madhab, adhere to the Naqshbandi and Qadiri tariqats, which are divided into fraternities called virds, and according to various estimates, there are up to 34 of them in the republic. The Nogays and Kumyks living in the Chechen Republic belong to the Hanafi madhab, while the Avars (Chamalals) of the mountain village of Kenkhi (population over 1500) belong to the Shafi‘i madhab.
37
Loewenberg, Peter. "Karl Renner and the Politics of Accommodation: Moderation versus Revenge." Austrian History Yearbook 22 (January 1991): 35–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s006723780001986x.
Abstract:
Karl Renner's political life encompasses the history of Austria's empire and her two twentieth-century republics, making him the foremost leader of Austrian democratic politics. Renner was also the most innovative theoretician on the nationalities question which plagued the Habsburg monarchy and the twentieth-century world. He was chancellor of Austria's first republic, leader of the right-wing Social Democrats, and president of the post-World War II Second Republic. A study of his life and politics offers a perspective on the origins of the moderate, adaptive, political personality and on the tension between ideology and accommodation to the point where it is difficult to determine what core of principle remained.
38
Zouhar, M., P. Rysanek, and V. Gaar. "First Report of the Potato Cyst Nematode (Globodera pallida) in the Czech Republic." Plant Disease 87, no. 1 (January 2003): 98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/pdis.2003.87.1.98a.
Abstract:
Potato cyst nematode, Globodera pallida, was detected in several soil samples collected from various areas of the Czech Republic. Globodera rostochiensis pathotype Ro1 is known to be widespread in the Czech Republic. G. pallida was reported from the neighboring countries of Austria, Germany, and Poland, and also was suspected to be present in the Czech Republic, but it has never been unambiguously proved (1). Recently, nematode isolates have been recovered that multiply readily on Ro1 resistant potato cultivars. These isolates were identified on the basis of three tests: (i) microscopic observations of cyst vulval area morphology and stylets of second-stage larvae; (ii) enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay using a commercial kit; and (iii) a polymerase chain reaction method (2). A complete series of G. pallida and G. rostochiensis pathotypes from Scotland and Germany served as controls. Results were identical for all three methods used. One sample contained G. pallida only, five samples contained mixtures of G. rostochiensis and G. pallida, and one sample contained G. rostochiensis only. The origin of G. pallida contamination is unknown. Strict quarantine measures have been taken to prevent G. pallida from spreading into neighboring areas. To our knowledge, this is the first evidence of the occurrence of G. pallida in the Czech Republic. References: (1) J. Potocek et al. EPPO Bull. 21:81, 1991. (2) M. Zouhar et al. Plant Prot. Sci. 36:81, 2000.
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Baltyzar, Dawid Patryk, and Ilona Maria Łukasik. "Basic principles of criminal procedure in the Second Polish Republic." Ars Iuridica 23, no. 1 (May 19, 2023): 23–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.17951/szn.2023.23.1.23-33.
Abstract:
After Poland gained independence, it was necessary to unify many areas of law. There were three legislations in force in the area of criminal procedure at that time, i.e. the Russian Criminal Procedure Act of 1864, the Austrian Criminal Procedure Code of 1873, and the German Criminal Procedure Code of 1874. The Codification Commission, which was established in 1919, was responsible for the creation of the Polish codification. Its work resulted in the Code of Criminal Procedure issued in the form of a regulation, which came into force on 1 July 1929. The Code represented a mixed form of trial, with liberal tendencies manifesting themselves in it. It was based on the principles set out not only in the general provisions but also in the further parts. The principles of the criminal proceedings did not remain in a hierarchical relationship with each other. Conciseness, synthesis and a high level of legislative technique are the characteristic features of this very innovative codification.
40
Isea, Raúl. "Dynamics of Infections and Number of Vaccines Needed to Avoid Covid-19 in Europe." International Journal of Coronaviruses 2, no. 1 (October 22, 2020): 14–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.14302/issn.2692-1537.ijcv-20-3587.
Abstract:
The work analyzes the dynamics of transmission of infections by the new coronavirus in twelve European countries, including France, Germany, Italy, Spain, UK, Austria, Croatia, Denmark, Greece, Romania, Czech Republic, and Portugal, whose data from contagion were obtained by Johns Hopkins University until September 24, 2020. The study confirmed that this new coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) surprised all the countries of the world that had to improve their public health policies to confront this disease according to the results obtained from the calculation of the mantissa. Although the countries were able to improve their policies after the first wave of contagion, Spain and France have the highest proportion of cases that stand out significantly with the rest of the countries in the second wave of infections that the world faces again. Likewise, the beginning of the epidemic outbreak was determined, which could help to track the spread of the disease through European countries (not the first case registered in each country), from which it can be inferred that the outbreak begins in Italy and later the rebound begins in Germany, France, and Spain. Within days, it significantly affects Greece and Austria, reaching Denmark, the Czech Republic, Romania, and Croatia. Finally, the number of people who must be vaccinated to counteract the advance of Covid-19 in these European countries was determined based on the calculation of the Basic Reproductive Number, R0. The number of people that would have to be vaccinated in all these countries to counteract this disease sums up to 206.830.361.
41
Guzik-Makaruk, Ewa M., and Piotr Fiedorczyk. "The Achievements of the Codification Commission of the Second Republic of Poland — a Century After Regaining the Independence." Internal Security Special Issue (January 14, 2019): 15–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0012.8398.
Abstract:
Reborn in 1918, the Polish state inherited from the partition countries: Russia, Prussia and Austria their legal systems. The task of unifying the codification of the law was entrusted to the Codification Commission, established on the basis of the Act of 1919. The Commission was to prepare draft legislation in the field of civil and criminal law. It was a body of 44 lawyers and had a high degree of independence from political factors. As a result of the Commission’s work, more than 20 legal acts were created. In the area of civil law, these were laws mainly related to foreign legal transactions. These included, among others, bills of exchange and cheque law, copyright law, patent law, law on combating unfair competition. The two laws of 1926 were of particular importance: private international law and inter-district law. Three codes of private law were also created: the Code of Obligations (1933, considered the most outstanding civil work of the Commission), the Commercial Code and the Code of Civil Procedure. In the area of criminal law, a full codification was carried out, first by implementing the Code of Criminal Procedure (1928) and then the Criminal Code (1932). These two acts were based on different doctrinal bases, which made criminal law inconsistent. The Criminal Code of Juliusz Makarewicz in particular was an outstanding work, based on the findings of the School of Sociological Criminal Law. The Codification Commission did not finish its work until the outbreak of the war. However, present codes are largely based on the solutions developed within the Commission.
42
Pozorski, Kamil. "Oliwetanie w Lądzie nad Wartą 1919-1921." Polonia Maior Orientalis 7 (2020): 99–108. http://dx.doi.org/10.4467/27204006pmo.20.005.15491.
Abstract:
Zarys dziejów zakonu oliwetanów, jego początki, misja i rozwój na przestrzeni minionych 700 lat, a także jego duchowość, stanowią pierwszą część artykułu. W drugiej części skupiono się na XX-wiecznej ekspansji oliwetanów, w tym na utworzeniu opactwa w Tanzenberg (dzisiejsza Austria), z którego to grupa polskich mnichów wyruszyła na wyzwolone ziemie II Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, aby utworzyć tutaj nowy klasztor, w pocysterskich ruinach opactwa w Lądzie nad Wartą. Krótki okres obecności oliwetanów w Lądzie, 1919-1921, dopełnia jedynie dziejowego bogactwa i różnorodności tradycji, także tych zakonnych, charakteryzujących to szczególne miejsce na mapie Wielkopolski i historii życia zakonnego w naszej Ojczyźnie. The Oliwetans in Ląd on the Warta river (1919-1921) The outline of the history of the Oliwetans, its origin, mission and development over the past 700 years, as well as its spirituality, constitute the first part of the article. The second part focuses on the 20th century expansion of the Olivetans, including the establishment of the abbey in Tanzenberg (today’s Austria), from which a group of Polish monks went to the liberated lands of the Second Polish Republic to create a new monastery here, in the Cistercian ruins of the abbey in Lad (Polish: Ląd) on the Warta River. The short period of Olivetans’ presence in Lad, 1919-1921, complements the historical wealth and diversity of traditions, including those of monasticism, which characterize this special place on the map of Wielkpolska region and the history of monasticism in our homeland.
43
Середюк, В. Ю. "THE EVOLUTION OF THE "UKRAINIAN QUESTION" IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY." Juridical science, no. 3(105) (March 30, 2020): 103–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.32844/2222-5374-2020-105-3.13.
Abstract:
The relevance of the article is that the nineteenth century was a time of profound transformations of legal systems. The Romano-Germanic and Anglo-Saxon types of law were clearly distinguished. From the second half of the XIX century. on the European continent are beginning to form modern states for which were dominated by three main forms of statehood: empire, federation and confederation. The republican form, which was just being established, did not become widespread due to the colonial orientation of the world at that time. A republic based on the principles of democracy could not, in essence, be a metropolis and own colonies. The purpose of the article is a historical and legal analysis of the dynamics of the "Ukrainian question" in the second half of the nineteenth century. The article examines the historical and legal features of the evolution of the "Ukrainian question" in the second half of the nineteenth century. It is established that at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. The "Ukrainian question" became widespread within the framework of international legal doctrines. It is determined that the "Ukrainian question" aroused special interest in the conditions of relations between the Russian, Austro-Hungarian and German empires. It is emphasized that the essence of the "Ukrainian question" of the second half of the XIX century was that in the international arena it posed a greater threat to the Russian Empire than in the domestic one. The reason for this was that the Ukrainian national liberation movement focused on the ideas of autonomy and possible reform of Austria-Hungary and Russia on the basis of the federation. On the other hand, German pressure, which was associated with the declaration of the idea of the revival of a separate Ukrainian state, was aimed not so much at achieving a military conflict with Russia as at subordinating its political interests. It is concluded that at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. The "Ukrainian question" became widespread within the framework of international legal doctrines. It aroused special interest in the relations between the Russian, Austro-Hungarian and German empires. First, each of these countries made expansionary plans for Ukrainian territories. Secondly, German and Austrian politicians actively developed the idea of reviving a separate statehood in the Ukrainian lands, which was to provide Ukrainians with the historical right to their own state.
44
Mamojka, Mojmír, and Jacek Dworzecki. "Development of Commercial Law in the Slovak Republic - Outline of problems." Internal Security 8, no. 1 (January 30, 2016): 81–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.5604/20805268.1231517.
Abstract:
The article concerns the issue of trade law in the context of its evolution and the current realities of its being in force in Republic of Slovakia. In the paper the authors present an historical view of the creation of legal regulations about trade from ancient times to present days. In the first part of the paper the political system and its components are discussed. The reader will be able to acquaint themselves with the functioning of the apparatus of executive power (the government and ministries), legislative power (the parliament consisting of 150 members) and judiciary (independent courts and prosecutors) in the Republic of Slovakia. Moreover, this part of the article provides information about practical aspects of the creation of selected components of the constitutional legal order (e.g. parliamentary elections). In the second part, the paper covers the evolution of trade law over the centuries, approaches to regulations in Mesopotamia, based on, inter alia, the Code of Hammurabi, and also in ancient Egypt and Greece. Tracing the development of trade law over the centuries, the authors also present the evolution of legal regulations in this field in the XIX century, with particular reference to France, Germany and Austria-Hungary (especially the territory which today forms the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic). In the last part of the article, the forming of regulations of trade law in Czechoslovakia from 1918 and during subsequent periods which created the history of that country, to the overthrow communism and the peaceful division of the state in 1993 into two separate, independent state organisms – the Czech Republic and Slovakia - is approached.
45
MOMBAUER, ANNIKA. "FROM IMPERIAL ARMY TO BUNDESWEHR: CONTINUITY AND CHANGE IN THE ROLE OF THE MILITARY IN GERMAN HISTORY Willensmenschen: über deutsche Offiziere. Edited by Ursula Breymayer, Bernd Ulrich and Karin Wieland. Frankfurt am Main: Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, 1999. Pp. 239. ISBN 3-596-14438-8. DM 28.80. Die anderen Soldaten: Wehrkraftzersetzung, Gehorsamsverweigerung und Fahnenflucht im Zweiten Weltkrieg. Edited by Norbert Haase and Gerhard Paul. Frankfurt am Main: Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, 1995. Pp. 240. ISBN 3-596-12769-6. DM 19.90. Das Nationalkomitee ‘Freies Deutschland’ und der Bund Deutscher Offiziere. Edited by Gerd R. Ueberschär. Frankfurt am Main: Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, 1995. Pp. 304. ISBN 3-596-12633-9. DM 24.90." Historical Journal 47, no. 1 (March 2004): 187–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0018246x03003571.
Abstract:
Twentieth-century Germany's (military) history has been the subject of heated, sometimes acrimonious controversies in the Federal Republic. In recent years, historians and the German public have been engaged, for example, in debates over the relative merit of different kinds of German resistance against National Socialism, and over the place of deserters in German history of the Second World War. Such soul-searching has culminated in angry debates over the role of the Wehrmacht in crimes against humanity which followed in the wake of the exhibition ‘Verbrechen der Wehrmacht’ (crimes of the Wehrmacht) in Austria and Germany. The books under consideration here all have a contribution to make to our understanding of this troubled and contested past, and in particular to the question of the role of the military in German history.
46
Mateus, Céu, and Joana Coloma. "Health Economics and Cost of Illness in Parkinson's Disease." European Neurological Review 8, no. 1 (2012): 6. http://dx.doi.org/10.17925/enr.2013.08.01.6.
Abstract:
Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disorder worldwide. With a progressive course and no cure yet available, it is demanding for patients and their caregivers, but also for health and social support systems and ultimately for society as a whole. Everyday significant economic resources are spent due to PD, either directly on its treatment or in lost productivity. In this article, one tried to frame PD from an health economics' perspective and cost of illness studies conducted in 11 countries (Austria, Czech Republic, Finland, France, Germany, Italy, Portugal, Russia, Sweden, UK and US), published from 1998 to 2011, were reviewed. One main aspect subsists: costs associated with this disorder are high, disproportionately higher that its prevalence and PD poses a substantial economic burden on individuals and society.
47
Kropiunigg, Rafael Milan. "The Rehabilitated Austrians and the Borodajkewycz Affair." Austrian History Yearbook 46 (April 2015): 360–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0067237814000228.
Abstract:
Ladies and Gentlemen! Where are we living? What age are we living in? Is this the Democratic Republic of Austria or a part of the Third Reich? Have we got twenty years of reconstruction and new construction of our fatherland behind us, or do we stand before the year 1939, shortly before the outbreak of World War Two? Has all the terror, all fright, completely bypassed such educators of the youth? Has nothing made an impression on them that would have changed them? Just as a Socialist parliamentarian spoke these words on 31 March 1965, an affair surrounding the Viennese University Professor Taras (von) Borodajkewycz culminated in the Second Republic's most violent street fights and allegedly sole political death to date. In the course of the early 1960s, the professor's antidemocratic references and nostalgic statements on the Third Reich in his lectures had also come to the attention of the wider public. Clashes in March between Rightist and Leftist students ensued, and the Borodajkewycz Affair finally reached its height when on that last day in March the right-wing student Günther Kümel delivered a deadly blow to a 67-year-old Communist.
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Morgan, Julian, Florence Hubert, Dawn Holland, Dirk te Velde, and Véronique Genre. "Section III. Prospects for Europe." National Institute Economic Review 165 (July 1998): 54–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/002795019816500108.
Abstract:
Activity picked up markedly in the EU area last year; growth was estimated to have been 2.6 per cent compared with 1.8 per cent recorded in 1996. However the aggregate movement masks some significant divergences in economic performance. Growth was relatively modest, at between 2–2½ per cent in Germany, France and Austria, whilst Italy and Sweden recorded growth rates below 2 per cent for the second year running. The fastest growth was achieved in the Irish Republic where output expanded by over 10 per cent last year, following cumulative growth of 27 per cent in the previous three years. Finland also recorded rapid growth of nearly 6 per cent and nearly all the remaining EU countries enjoyed growth rates of 3 per cent or above. Outside the EU, activity remained robust in Norway, Poland and Hungary but was markedly weaker in the Czech Republic and Switzerland. Indeed real GDP has barely changed in Switzerland since 1990, partly reflecting the strength of the Swiss franc, although there are now signs that growth will be stronger in 1998 as the franc has depreciated since the end of 1995.
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ROHOZIN, Denys, and Tetiana KOMAROVA. "Features of the process of European integration of the Czech Republic." Economics. Finances. Law 11/3, no. - (November 26, 2021): 25–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.37634/efp.2021.11(3).6.
Abstract:
This paper is devoted to highlighting the stages through which the Czech Republic went on its way to full membership in the European Union. At the beginning of the work, attention is paid to the works of Ukrainian, Russian and Czech scientists analyzed in this context, on which the work is based. Further, an introduction to the historical discourse of events in the political and social spheres in the Czechoslovak Republic after the Second World War is carried out. Attention is drawn to the process of division of the Czech and Slovak Republics in the first half of the 90s. The article tells about the choice by the Czech Republic of the political and social vector for «returning to Europe». Other problems of the Czech Republic on the path of European integration are analyzed, among which one can note the conflict with the Federal Republic of Germany over the forced eviction of the German population from the country in the post-war period, based on the decrees of the President of the Czech Republic Edward Benesh, as well as the solution of this problem through diplomatic means. Attention is also drawn to another problem, which was expressed in the conflict with the government of the Austrian Republic regarding the construction of the Temelin nuclear power plant in the South Bohemian region, in the immediate vicinity of the Austrian borders. The Melk Protocol was analyzed, on the basis of which this conflict was resolved. The general conclusions on this work are summarized, in which the success of the Czech strategy for European and Euro-Atlantic integration is stated. Problems that may arise for Ukraine on the same path are predicted, taking into account the consolidation of the European and Euro-Atlantic vectors of development in the preamble of the Constitution of Ukraine.
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Novak, Marko. "Central European with a Post-Socialist Limp." Public Governance, Administration and Finances Law Review 8, no. 1 (June 30, 2023): 121–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.53116/pgaflr.6811.
Abstract:
According to David and Grasmann, the recognised comparative law scholars, there are basically three main criteria for differentiating between legal families and their subgroups: 1. meta-legal considerations; 2. legal sources; and 3. dogmatic legal structures. Concerning the last two criteria, which could also be designated as formal elements of a country’s legal identity, Slovenia has been deeply “immersed” in the civil law of a Central European type. Even after the decline of the Habsburg Empire, what remained to apply on the territory of nowadays Slovenia as part of the then Kingdom of Yugoslavia, was to an important extent Austrian law. Moreover, even the “decadent capitalist code” such as the Allgemeines bürgerliches Gesetzbuch (ABGB) more or less survived in spite of the communist “withering away of the state and law”, and can today still be applicable to some older cases. After one thousand years of Germanic dominance, the Slovenes turned to the East in trying to build their national identity, one hundred years ago when the Empire collapsed. Although that seemed to be a necessary move towards stronger national identity, it was their first step away from the rule of law. The second step away from that was the period of communism that endured almost half a century. Nevertheless, the formal part of the Central European legal identity somehow survived in Slovene law, with certain “injuries” of course, but it is mainly the meta-legal considerations, their sociological and psychological elements in particular, that nowadays make a difference between the situations of the rule of law in the Republic of Slovenia and, for example, in the Republic of Austria, both parts of the onetime joint Empire.