Journal articles on the topic 'Sculpture, Modern 20th century Australia'

The purpose of this article is to present sculpture parks at the modern stage of development, from the last third of the 20th century to our day. The relevance of this purpose is due to the relevance of these parks, which meets, firstly, on the challenges of culture, reproducing itself in the synthesis of landscape and monumental-decorative arts; secondly, on the demands of the population in artistically interpreted natural spaces; thirdly, on the life-building claims of modern art, which is looking for optimal ways of self-presentation. The representation of the sculpture parks is implied their systematization, which, in the course of the factual and visual material analysis, exhibits the most typical trends of formal and informative diversity and takes the form of a typology. To start building a typology, it was necessary to draw up a rather broad and spacious representative sample of objects and to select reference criteria in the trends of the manifold. Thus, a representative sample was made up of 90 Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia, and North and South America brightest objects, and following criteria were put forward: environmental involvement, authorship, the nature of specific forms and links between them. Typology showed that approximately two thirds of the sculpture parks are a product of the natural environment and one third of the architectural environment. In the natural environment, in authentic natural spaces, these are co-author full (independent and contextual) and special (by place, material, style, theme) formats, as well as mono-author formats. In an architectural environment, in integrated or interpreted natural spaces, these are, first of all, city formats that can be both co-authors and mono-authors: destinations, stops, transit zones. The implementation of the typology was facilitated by the attraction of a new material for the national art history. In the scientific circulation were introduced information about objects that were not mentioned before and unknown artists. Accounting for this information, along with known realities, allowed us to reach a higher understanding level of sculpture parks as a modern hypostasis of artistic synthesis.

Light, which is the main source in which plastic arts produce meaning by processing it, indirectly takes place in all works of art with its different colors and tones throughout the history of art. With the use of new materials and techniques in art with the modern period, it is seen that the light itself, that is, the light source, is also included in art works as a medium. This situation allowed the artists to create brand new perceptions and effects. With the second half of the 20th century, the use of artificial light source in sculpture as an element belonging to the sculpture is encountered. Some of the artists selected as examples in this study were chosen in terms of being the first example in terms of the material they used, the way they used the light source and the diversity of the content they produced with these materials. Light, which is one of the primary conditions for perception in sculpture; In this study, the material forming the sculpture, such as transparency and reflection, is not based on its interaction with its structure, but as an element that forms a part or whole of the sculpture. It is aimed to show the effect of using artificial light source in sculpture on expression and perception through selected examples.

In the early 20th century, modern school curricula and new-style schools mushroomed in the Chinese remittance landscape of southern China. Breaking away from the two-and-a-half millennia of Confucian tradition, their creation marked a pivotal point of departure between the nation’s past and future. Since overseas migration and modern education both provide a fruitful context for the circulation of new objects and a cross-fertilization of ideas, new schools serve as barometers of social-material change. Research in the present-day cities of Zhongshan and Zhuhai (formerly Heung San County) suggests that diaspora-funded schools were beacons of modern learning within the China–Australia corridor. Both their physical structures and material manifestations invited a new engagement with the modern world.

The greatness and harmony of ancient Greece has had an impact upon the development of the Western European culture to this day. The ancient Greek culture has influenced contemporary literature genres and systems of philosophy, principles of architecture, sculpture and drama and has formed basis for such sciences as astronomy and mathematics. The art of ancient Greece with its penchant for beauty and clarity has been the example of the humanity’s search for an aesthetic ideal. Despite only being preserved in its fragments, the dance of ancient Greece has become an example worthy of imitation in the development of classical dance as well as the 20th century modern dance, inspired by the notions of antique dance by Isadora Duncan. Research in antique dance helps sunderstand the historical relationships in dance ontology, axiology and anthropology.

A successful application of Er:YAG laser for the cleaning of a restored Assyrian relief sculpture from the British Museum collection is presented. Displayed in the gallery, the sculpture has darkened over time due to the natural deposition of dirt, in particular on restored parts. Since traditional cleaning methods have demonstrated to be unsuccessful, a scientific investigation was performed to identify the composition of the soiling and the materials used for the restoration. The analysis suggested the presence of gypsum, calcium oxalate, carbonates and alumino-silicates on the encrustation. The molded plaster, composed of lime and gypsum and pigmented aggregates, was likely prepared at the end of the 19th century to mimic the stone color. It was repainted with what was identified as a modern oil-based overpaint, applied to cover darkening during a second conservation treatment in the 20th century. Laser trials were first performed on small areas of the objects and on mock-ups to determine the critical fluence thresholds of the surface, investigated through visual examination and analyses using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and Pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (Py–GC–MS). The right parameters and conditions to be used during the cleaning process were, therefore, determined. The chemical selectivity of the cleaning process allowed us to complete the treatment safely while preserving the restoration.

Anorexia Nervosa is a mental health issue that has a history over many centuries, but has relatively recently been identified as a ‘real’ mental illness. A condition that predominantly afflicts young, middle class women it had long been subsumed among the ‘natural weaknesses’ of women, not unlike the manner in which ‘Hysteria’ was diagnosed within the Freudian understanding of women’s health. However, since the 1970s, and especially with the deaths of some high profile young women it has undergone a reassessment. While clinical understandings of Anorexia Nervosa remain contentious, there is an increasing recognition that the condition is also grounded within specific cultural understandings. The article presents a brief historical overview of the construction of ‘self-starvation’ as applied to ‘fasting saints’ and to modern anorexic women. However, the major focus of the paper is an examination of the cultural situation as exemplified in contemporary Australia. Drawing on the Foucaudian notions of self surveillance the article suggests that TV programs can be used as a vehicle for modern day ‘self surveillance ’and as guidelines for the construction of self. Briefly, TV programs, especially so called ‘reality TV,’ portray a mirror image of how we as consumers should behave. The programs I have chosen to highlight are the phenomenally popular cooking shows that are aired daily on Australian TV screens. Through an examination of the social meanings constructed around food with the TV programs as a primary carrier of these cultural references, the article seeks to address some of the contradictions with other images presented in different but contemporaneous media. While this can never be a definitive explanation of all anorectic behavior, the paper examines the images of womanhood as presented by these programs. These ‘competent and enthusiastic cooks’ are contrasted with the slim, athletic ideal as portrayed in the fashion magazines and many other ‘lifestyle’ TV programs such as holiday shows.

Semantic and spatial changes in the options for using daylight compared to tradition are presented, based on the analysis of the architectural solutions applied in a number of modern Christian churches. According to popular belief, sunlight is used in most modern temples only as an architectural technique proving the skill of an architect, and as a means of interior decoration. The study showed that behind the abstract modern methods of illumination a temple, there is a deep connection with the earlier cultural tradition. Sunlight was one of the key means used for decorating interiors of Christian churches. The light pouring from windows of the dome drum or cutting through the twilight of the extended naves, highlighting an apse with the altar, or emphasizing the beauty of the sculpture, was the conductor of the Divine on earth. The quintessence of the presentation of “divine light” in architecture, which clearly shows the connection between God and man, are the Gothic monuments. From the end of the 19th – the beginning of the 20th century, temple architecture was rapidly changing. Renowned innovator architects of the 20th century offered their own vision of a modern temple. The extreme degree of individualization of the new objects of cult was based on a common principle: the rejection of the symbolic language traditional for Christianity. The architects were not tied to metaphors and images of biblical subjects. They boldly changed both the external appearance of a temple and the construction of its internal space, hence, its system of daylighting. Traditionally, sunlight was the semantic filling of the temple space. As a result of the present study, it has been shown that in the newest Christian churches, daylighting techniques, in their essence, replace the pictorial filling of the temple space with religious content. At the same time, the same techniques function as a modern interpretation for a number of traditional architectural methods used for lighting design of the temple space. By the examples of the works by Studio Zermani e Associati, Mark Cavagnero Associates, Vicens + Ramos, Königs architekten, modern interpretation versions for the themes of retablo, glowing cross, highlighting the altar space, and illumination of gilded surfaces are shown, and the upper and side illumination features of the newest temples are revealed.

Abstract Lobsters are important resources throughout the world's oceans, providing food security, employment, and a trading commodity. Whereas marine biologists generally focus on modern impacts of fisheries, here we explore the deep history of lobster exploitation by prehistorical humans and ancient civilizations, through the first half of the 20th century. Evidence of lobster use comprises midden remains, artwork, artefacts, writings about lobsters, and written sources describing the fishing practices of indigenous peoples. Evidence from archaeological dig sites is potentially biased because lobster shells are relatively thin and easily degraded in most midden soils; in some cases, they may have been used as fertilizer for crops instead of being dumped in middens. Lobsters were a valuable food and economic resource for early coastal peoples, and ancient Greek and Roman Mediterranean civilizations amassed considerable knowledge of their biology and fisheries. Before European contact, lobsters were utilized by indigenous societies in the Americas, southern Africa, Australia, and New Zealand at seemingly sustainable levels, even while other fish and molluscan species may have been overfished. All written records suggest that coastal lobster populations were dense, even in the presence of abundant and large groundfish predators, and that lobsters were much larger than at present. Lobsters gained a reputation as “food for the poor” in 17th and 18th century Europe and parts of North America, but became a fashionable seafood commodity during the mid-19th century. High demand led to intensified fishing effort with improved fishing gear and boats, and advances in preservation and long-distance transport. By the early 20th century, coastal stocks were overfished in many places and average lobster size was significantly reduced. With overfishing came attempts to regulate fisheries, which have varied over time and have met with limited success.

The fine arts abound in images of the pierced, wounded, tortured, dismembered, crippled or decapitated body in all historical periods. The iconography of the wound is of long standing, and the passion for depicting open bodies can only be compared to the enthusiasm for the nude. In the history of painting and sculpture, the wounded body is most often represented in renditions of Christ’s Passion and Christian martyrs, as well as of Biblical stories about decapitation and slaughter. The topic of the wound has proved relevant to modern and contemporary art as well. In the second half of the 20th century, around 1965, when the Viennese Actionism appeared, as well as between 1968 and 1974, the two milestone dates of body art, artists engaged in performative practices, shattering the notions of the wounded or penetrable body which dominated at the time. What they exposed was the anxious image of the artist’s body. By analysing the art photos by Rudolf Schwarzkogler, the paper shows how the wound is materialised as a topic of visual art.

The ‘National Collections of Contemporary Art’ Programme run by the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage (MKiDN) in 2011–2019 constituted the most important since 1989 financing scheme for purchasing works of contemporary art to create and develop museum collections. Almost PLN 57 million from the MKiDN budget were allocated by means of a competition to purchasing works for such institutions as the Museum of Modern Art in Warsaw (MSN), Museum of Art in Lodz (MSŁ), Wroclaw Contemporary Museum (MNW), Museum of Contemporary Art in Cracow (MOCAK), or the Centre of Polish Sculpture in Orońsko (CRP). The programme in question and the one called ‘Signs of the Times’ that had preceded it were to fulfil the following overall goal: to create and develop contemporary art collections meant for the already existing museums in Poland, but particularly for newly-established autonomous museums of the 20th and 21st century. The analysis of respective editions of the programmes and financing of museums as part of their implementation confirms that the genuine purpose of the Ministry’s ‘National Contemporary Art Collections’ Programme has been fulfilled.

The article deals with the art competitions that appeared on the program of modern Olympic Games between 1912 and 1948. It reveals the philosophical background of their existence within the Summer Olympics and their relation to the idea of kalokagathia. The article describes the reasons for their origin and how the founder of the modern Olympic movement Pierre de Coubertin succeeded in pushing this idea forward. There were five artistic disciplines: fine arts, music, sculpture, literature, and architecture. I will briefly introduce the history of art competitions in chronological order, show how their popularity gradually increased but I will also reveal the reasons the art competitions were removed from the program of the Olympic Games in the 1950s of the 20th century. Czech and Czechoslovak artists were frequent participants in the competitions. Except for Antwerp 1920 and Amsterdam 1928, they represented Czechoslovakia in large numbers until the time of the first Olympic Games after World War II in London 1948. In total, works by more than 50 Czechoslovak artists were presented and some were remarkably successful. Two composers Josef Suk and Jaroslav Křička and a sculptor Jakub Obrovský were even awarded Olympic medals in the 1930s. We will take a closer look at these achievements and present their works. The article aims to present a lesser known but important place of art competitions in the history of the modern Olympic movement and to recall the achievements of Czech and Czechoslovak artists.

The article is devoted to the analysis of the 21st-century English-language historiography of the Communist International. Contemporary historians are showing increasing interest in the study of this international organization. Three available conceptual approaches to this topic (“traditionalist”, “revisionist”, and “post-revisionist”) are considered and characterized, the works of historians from Great Britain, the USA, Canada, Ireland, Australia, New Zealand are analyzed. The article demonstrates an increase in research interest in the Communist International. In a fairly large volume of studies, there are monographs and articles devoted to the organization both directly (the historiography of the Comintern, the activities of its sections around the world, etc.) and indirectly, i.e., to related issues such as the history of communism, in particular, and the left forces, in general, international relations of Soviet Russia, the communist movement in individual countries, etc. These studies touch on the period of the Comintern's activity from 1920 to the end of the 1930s, including several controversial issues: the impact on the policy of the national communist parties of the “The Twenty-one Conditions”, united front tactics, Bolshevization, Stalinization, and the Popular Front. The author believes that most of the studies (especially those published in the first decade of the 21st century) are based on studies published long before the 2000s, however, archival materials are being used in increasing volumes, which makes modern research more objective. This gives grounds for a conclusion about the revision of the historiographic tradition of the Comintern that existed in the 20th century: new approaches (“revisionist” and “post-revisionist”) entailed a change in emphasis and a revision of some established points of view. Authors adhering to these approaches rely mainly on modern literature (including Russian) and a wide source base represented by materials from both national archives and the Russian State Archives of Social-Political History.

In this paper – given as a lecture at Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study in the summer of 2003 – I survey the remarkable renaissance of museums – national and regional, public and private – in Britain in recent years, largely made possible with the financial support of the Heritage Lottery Fund. I look in detail at four non-national museum projects of particular interest: the Horniman Museum in South London, a remarkable and idiosyncratic collection of anthropological, natural history and musical material which has recently been re-housed and redisplayed; secondly, the nearby Dulwich Picture Gallery, famous for its 17th- and 18th-century Old Master paintings, a masterpiece of 19th-century architecture by Sir John Soane, which has been restored, and modern museum services provided. The third is the New Art Gallery, Walsall, where the Garman Ryan collection of early 20th-century painting and sculpture form the centrepiece of a new building with fine galleries and the forum is the Manchester Art Gallery, where the former City Art Gallery and the Athenaeum have been combined in a single building in which to display the city's rich art collections. The Ashmolean Museum in Oxford, of which I am Director, is the most important museum of art and archaeology in England outside London and the greatest University Museum in the world. Its astonishingly rich collections are introduced and the transformational plan for the museum is described. In July 2005 the Heritage Lottery Fund announced a grant of £15 million and the renovation of the Museum is now underway.

AbstractThis article is about a short moment in Chinese-Australian history at the turn of the 20th century when Chinese fruit and vegetable traders in Sydney were on the verge of major international success. The concerns of this new urban elite can be gleaned from their Chinese-language newspapers and civil societies which played an important role in the evolution of the diasporic identity of the Chinese in “White-Australia” — an experience involving more than merely a refinement of native kinship practices and inherited identities — in a process that invoked a distinctively modern sense of time, space, and the unfolding of history. This is an attempt to recount their experience chiefly by reference to the developments recorded in Chinese newspapers and the narratives related to the social institutions and networks associated with them in the Federation Era (1890s-1900s).

SUMMARYReconstructing the environmental history of protected areas permits an empirically-based assessment of the conservation values ascribed to these sites. Ideally, this long-term view can contribute to evidence-based management policy that is both ecologically ‘realistic’ and pragmatically feasible. Lachlan Nature Reserve, a protected wetland in Centennial Park, Sydney, is claimed to be the final remnant of early and pre-European swamplands that were once extensive in the area, and the site is thus considered to have indigenous cultural and natural conservation significance. This study uses palynological techniques to reconstruct vegetation communities at the Reserve from the late Holocene to the present in order to assess whether these values adequately reflect the history, character and development of the site. The findings indicate that the modern site flora is a modified Melaleuca quinquenervia low forest assemblage formed in response to aggregated anthropogenic disturbance since colonial settlement. This assemblage replaces an Epacris-dominated heath-swampland community that was extirpated in the mid-20th century. These results emphasize the value of long-term studies in contributing to a realistic management policy that explicitly reflects the normative basis of conservation, and values the influence of past land-uses on contemporary protected ecosystems.

Over the past 15 years, 47 Muslim Australians have been convicted for terrorism offences. Australian courts have determined that these acts were motivated by the offenders’ “Islamic” religious beliefs and that interpretations of Quranic verses concerning jihad, in relation to shariah, caliphate, will of God and religious duty contributed to the commission of these crimes. This paper argues that these ideas, derived from certain classical-era Islamic jurisprudence and modern Islamist thought, contradict other classical-era interpretations and, arguably, the original teachings of Islam in the time of the Prophet Muhammad. In response to the call for “cogent religious instruction” to combat the phenomenon of radical Islamist terrorism, this paper outlines a deradicalization program that addresses late 20th- and early 21st-century time-period effects: (1) ideological politicization associated with Islamist jihadism; (2) religious extremism associated with Salafism; and (3) radicalization associated with grievances arising from Western military interventions in Muslim-majority countries. The paper offers a counter narrative, based on a contextualized reading of the Quran and recent research on the authentication of the Covenants of the Prophet Muhammad. It further contends that cogent religious instruction must enhance critical-thinking skills and provide evidence-based knowledge in order to undermine radical Islamist extremism and promote peaceful coexistence.

At the turn of the 20th century, agricultural experts in several countries assembled a new agro-scientific field: dryland farming. Their agricultural research practices concomitantly fashioned a new agro-ecological zone—the drylands—as the site of agronomic intervention. As part of this effort, American scientists worked in concert with colleagues in the emerging Zionist movement to investigate agricultural practices and crops in Palestine and neighboring regions, where nonirrigated or rainfed agriculture had long been practiced. In my larger manuscript project, I consider how the reorganization of rainfed farming as dryfarming is central to the history of both the Middle East and North America, where it was closely related to modern forms of power, sovereignty, and territoriality. I suggest that American interest in dryfarming science emerged out of a practical need to propel and sustain colonization of the Great Plains, but later became a joint effort of researchers from several emerging settler enterprises, including Australia, Canada, and the Zionist movement. In contrast to a naturally ocurring bioregion, I argue that the drylands spatiality was engineered through, rather than outside, the territorialization of modern power.

Abstract. Closed basins, mainly located in subtropical and temperate drylands, have experienced alarming declines in water storage in recent years. An assessment of long-term hydroclimate change in those regions remains unquantified at a global scale as of yet. By integrating lake records, PMIP3–CMIP5 simulations and modern observations, we assess the wet–dry status of global closed basins during the Last Glacial Maximum, mid-Holocene, pre-industrial, and 20th and 21st century periods. Results show comparable patterns of general wetter climate during the mid-Holocene and near-future warm period, mainly attributed to the boreal summer and winter precipitation increasing, respectively. The long-term pattern of moisture change is highly related to the high-latitude ice sheets and low-latitude solar radiation, which leads to the poleward moving of westerlies and strengthening of monsoons during the interglacial period. However, modern moisture changes show correlations with El Niño–Southern Oscillation in most closed basins, such as the opposite significant correlations between North America and southern Africa and between central Eurasia and Australia, indicating strong connection with ocean oscillation. The strategy for combating future climate change should be more resilient to diversified hydroclimate responses in different closed basins.

Duplex stainless steels were first manufactured early in the 20th century, but it was the invention of argon oxygen decarburization melting and the addition of nitrogen that made the alloys stronger, more weldable, and more corrosion resistant. Today, there is a family of duplex stainless steels covering a range of compositions and properties, but they all share high strength and good corrosion resistance, especially to stress corrosion cracking, compared with similar austenitic stainless steels. This paper briefly reviews the range of modern duplex stainless steels and why they are widely used in many industries. They are the workhorse corrosion-resistant alloy in the oil and gas industry. In this paper, their use in three industries common in Australia and New Zealand is reviewed: oil and gas, mineral processing, and desalination. The corrosion resistance in the relevant fluids is reviewed and some case histories highlight both successes and potential problems with duplex alloys in these industries.

Protecting “wilderness” and removing human involvement in “nature” was a core pillar of the modern conservation movement through the 20th century. Conservation approaches and legislation informed by this narrative fail to recognise that Aboriginal people have long valued, used, and shaped most landscapes on Earth. Aboriginal people curated open and fire-safe Country for millennia with fire in what are now forested and fire-prone regions. Settler land holders recognised the importance of this and mimicked these practices. The Land Conservation Act of 1970 in Victoria, Australia, prohibited burning by settler land holders in an effort to protect natural landscapes. We present a 120-year record of vegetation and fire regime change from Gunaikurnai Country, southeast Australia. Our data demonstrate that catastrophic bushfires first impacted the local area immediately following the prohibition of settler burning in 1970, which allowed a rapid increase in flammable eucalypts that resulted in the onset of catastrophic bushfires. Our data corroborate local narratives on the root causes of the current bushfire crisis. Perpetuation of the wilderness myth in conservation may worsen this crisis, and it is time to listen to and learn from Indigenous and local people, and to empower these communities to drive research and management agendas.

This article traces the history of the establishment and development of the walrus ivory carving art of the Chukchi and Asian Eskimos through the lens of the question of “the far” and “the near”. This question is examined based on a range of sources used by A.L. Gorbunkov, the first art director of ivory carving workshops in Chukotka, during his interaction with local artists. The novelty of the research topic and the introduction of Gorbunkov’s diary entries into scientific circulation prove the relevance of the selected problem, which has not been sufficiently covered in the research literature before. Revealing the materials of the former Scientific Research Institute of Art Industry (NIIKhP), the author attempts to consider the process of the establishment and development of the walrus ivory carving arts and crafts of Chukotka in the first third of the 20th century not in isolation but holistically, taking into account the cultural and historical context and the experience gained by the experts of NIIKhP by the 1930s. The analysis of “the far” (pictures and ornaments on various ritual objects or household items, ancient petroglyphs on a site close to Pegtymel, drawings on walrus skins, materials of ethnographic expeditions, folklore of the peoples of the Far North) and “the near” (among which is the sculpture of American Eskimos and works by a number of American and European artists) origins of the walrus ivory carving art of Chukotka in the 1930s allows representing the genesis of the Chukchi and Asian Eskimo handicraft in the first third of the 20th century and demonstrating the correlation of traditions and innovations in the new phase of this craft. The complex tasks of the research condition the use of the historical, cultural, and chronological approach, the comparative method and formal stylistic analysis. The author comes to the conclusion about the important role of Gorbunkov in the successful combination of traditional and modern trends in the art form under research: based on national artistic practices, Gorbunkov updated the assortment and themes of ivory carving products in accordance with the new demands of the epoch.

Abstract The numerous plastic approaches of form in the 20th century are characterized by creativity and innovation. Form, as expression of an artistic language, is the cause and effect for the cultural evolution of a particular spatial-temporal area. The invention of forms depending on the factors which will impose them in a particular socio-cultural context and location environment is not everything. The challenges of the act of creation are far more complex. For the art of the 20th century, the role of the type of expression in visual or gestural language proved much more convincing and meaningful as to the data or phenomena occurring in immediate reality. The personality of the artist, his cultural character, his media coverage and exterior influences of his inner world, his preceding experiences and receiver’s contacts in a specific area are the factors that influence the relation between the work of art and the audience against a particular spatial-temporal background. The psychological and sensory processes in works of plastic art are spatially configured in structures, which leads to self-confession. The artist filters the information and the elements of exterior reality through the vision of his imagination and power of expression specific to his inner self, and turns them into values through the involvement of his state of mind. Constantin Brâncuşi is the sculptor whose role was considered exponential as he revolutionized modern artistic vision by integrating and creating space-form relations through symbol. Throughout his complex work - the Group of Monumental Sculptures of Tg. Jiu, the artist renewed the language of the sculpture-specific means of expression, though archaic forms, by restoring traditional art. Archetypes often make reference to the initial and ideal form and they represent the primitive and native models composing it. Form attracts, polarizes and integrates the energy of the matter outside the human body, and art acquires a unifying function for the senses of our spirit. We identify the forms developed by the junction between fantastic forms, the figments of the imagination of artists who communicate deep human meanings. They invite us in a world of constructive forms and mysteries, truly innovative and elaborate creations, by underlying different directions in the compositional space with symbolic value.

The article introduces the life of not well-known in Latvia Latvian born Lithuanian Karolis Reisonas (in Latvian: Kārlis Reisons; 1894–1981) and his professional activities in Šiauliai city, as well as highlights the main features of the architect’s creative work and the importance of his work in the history of Lithuanian architecture. K. Reisonas was one of the most prominent creators of modern architecture of the 20th century during interwar period in Lithuania. He is the author and co-author of representative buildings in the cities of Lithuania, as well as in Riga and Adelaide (Australia). K. Reisonas graduated from Riga Real School (1913) and St. Petersburg Institute of Civil Engineers (1920). He has worked as the Engineer of the Šiauliai city and Head of the Construction Department of the Municipality (1922–1930), the Director of the Tenth1 Courses of Šiauliai Construction (1925), later – the Director of the Šiauliai Vocational School (1926), and an Advisor of Lithuania Chamber of Agriculture (1927–1928). Fourteen building to his design in Kaunas and Šiauliai cities are included in the list of cultural values of Lithuania. K. Reisonas’ early projects are characterized by historicism, eclectic elements, of «brick style». Later projects have the features of aesthetic rationalism, functionalism, and adaptation to urban and cultural-historical context. After the Second World War, he and his family immigrated to Germany, later Adelaide in Australia, where he participated in the life of the Adelaide Lithuanian community.

For over a hundred years, the “river sharks” of the genus Glyphis were only known from the type specimens of species that had been collected in the 19th century. They were widely considered extinct until populations of Glyphis-like sharks were rediscovered in remote regions of Borneo and Northern Australia at the end of the 20th century. However, the genetic affinities between the newly discovered Glyphis-like populations and the poorly preserved, original museum-type specimens have never been established. Here, we present the first (to our knowledge) fully resolved, complete phylogeny of Glyphis that includes both archival-type specimens and modern material. We used a sensitive DNA hybridization capture method to obtain complete mitochondrial genomes from all of our samples and show that three of the five described river shark species are probably conspecific and widely distributed in Southeast Asia. Furthermore we show that there has been recent gene flow between locations that are separated by large oceanic expanses. Our data strongly suggest marine dispersal in these species, overturning the widely held notion that river sharks are restricted to freshwater. It seems that species in the genus Glyphis are euryhaline with an ecology similar to the bull shark, in which adult individuals live in the ocean while the young grow up in river habitats with reduced predation pressure. Finally, we discovered a previously unidentified species within the genus Glyphis that is deeply divergent from all other lineages, underscoring the current lack of knowledge about the biodiversity and ecology of these mysterious sharks.

The article introduces the professional activities of Latvian-born Lithuanian architect and engineer Karolis Reisonas (in Latvian: Kārlis Reisons; 1894–1981) in the second half of his life – from 1930 in Kaunas, Panevėžys and Adelaide cities – and his role in the history of Lithuanian architecture. K. Reisonas was one of the most prominent creators of modern 20th-century interwar Lithuanian architecture and together with other famous Lithuanian architects formed a special style of Kaunas modern architecture in interwar period. K. Reisonas is the author or co-author of representative buildings in Šiauliai, Kaunas and other Lithuanian cities, as well as in Riga and Adelaide cities. Architect and engineer K. Reisonas worked as Šiauliai City Engineer and Head of Municipal Construction Department (1922–1930), Director of Šiauliai Vocational School (1926), Consultant of Lithuanian Chamber of Agriculture (1927–1928), Head of Construction Department of Kaunas Municipality (1930– 1938), Panevėžys City Engineer (1940) and Burgomaster (1941–1944). From 1949, the Reisonas family lived in Adelaide city, Australia. To his projects three monuments of independence were built in Lithuania – Monument of Independence in Šiauliai city, Podium of the Freedom Monument of Kaunas city and Roman Catholic Christ’s Resurrection Church in Kaunas city. Fourteen of buildings in Lithuania (in Kaunas and Šiauliai cities) designed by him are included in the list of cultural values of Lithuania. Early K. Reisonas’ projects are characterized by historism, elements of eclecticism and «brick style», later projects are characterized by austere rationalism, functionalism, adaptation to urban construction and cultural and historical context.

The aim of the article is to present the remarkable changes in architecture that took place in the 20th century. They can easily be called a revolution regarding the architectural form and the color scheme. Progress was being made through the development of reinforced concrete production methods. In the German Empire (Deutsches Kaiserreich), this material quickly found applications in more and more interesting solutions in architectural structures. In Wrocław (formerly Breslau), then located in the eastern German Empire, exceptional architectural works were realized before and after the First World War using new technology. In 1913, an unusual building was erected—the Centennial Hall, designed by Max Berg (inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2006). Berg’s work was inspired by the works of both Hans Poelzig and Bruno Taut. On the one hand, it was a delight with the new material (the Upper Silesian Tower at the exhibition in Poznań, designed by H. Poelzig) and, on the other hand, with the colorful architecture of light and glass by B. Taut (a glass pavilion at the Werkbund exhibition in Cologne). Max Berg left the concrete in an almost “pure” form, not hiding the texture of the formwork under the plaster layer. However, stratigraphic studies of paint coatings and archival inquiries reveal a new face of this building. The research was carried out as part of the CMP (Conservation Management Plan—prepared by the authors of the article, among others) grant from The Getty Foundation Keeping It Modern program. According to the source materials, the architect intended to leave the exposed concrete outside of the building, while the interior was to be decorated with painting, stained glass, and sculpture. The stratigraphic tests showed that the external walls were covered with a translucent yellowish color coating. Thus, the Centennial Hall shows a different face of reinforced concrete architecture.

In the two decades since the establishment of the people’s Republic of China, the challenges facing porcelain production have changed significantly. Porcelain production is one of the most important and oldest traditions in China. In the 1950s, porcelain craftsmen became involved in the creation of new forms of interior plastics. Many of the pieces they created are now part of museum collections and represent the history of the development of Chinese interior porcelain. Using the example of three museums and three reference monuments, the article examines the key trends in the development of porcelain art and stylistic changes that occurred during this period. The following museums have been selected as examples to showcase the specifics of Chinese porcelain art from this period: the China Ceramic and Porcelain Museum located in Jingdezhen City, which is the country’s first major art museum specializing in ceramics; the Chinese Fine Arts Museum in Beijing, which specializes in collecting, researching and displaying works of Chinese artists of modern and contemporary eras; and the Guangdong Folk Art Museum, which specializes in collecting, researching and displaying Chinese folk art. All of these museums are engaged in collecting porcelain, including interior porcelain plastics from the mid-20th century. In the collections of the aforementioned museums, three works were selected for analysis. These are three paired compositions created in the second half of the 1950s: the sculpture “An Old Man and a Child with a Peach” by Zeng Longsheng, “Good Aunt from the Commune” by Zhou Guozhen and “Fifteen coins. The rat case” by Lin Hongxi. These porcelain compositions reveal close relations with Chinese national culture and not only reflect various scenes, but are also aimed at expanding the role of porcelain in decorating residential interiors.

The article focuses on the issue of creative freedom exercised by the self-educated folk carvers – the so-called dievdirbiai (literally, “god-makers”), discussing whether the “godmaker” was free to create or if his creative freedom was limited, and if so – by whom, to what extent and why.In the 19th – the first half of the 20th century, the “god-making” constituted a branch of the wood processing craft, and its practitioners were primarily artisans seeking to make their living from this trade or earn some additional income. No artisan worked without first receiving demand or requests. These people were exceptional individuals characterized by high creative capacities, outstanding mastership in various crafts, resourcefulness, sometimes also by peculiar ways of behavior, appearance or mode of life that deviated from the traditional established patterns, therefore frequently labelled as weirdos.In order to be in demand and enhance their selling rate, the “god-makers” sought recognition as renowned masters. The recognition chiefly rested on the opinion of the parish priest. Priests frequently denounced works characterized by primitive plastics, even declining to sanctify them. However, according to the popular opinion, sanctifying of the statuettes meant their positive recognition. Besides, the unsanctified “gods” were widely believed to have no power. Therefore, masters endeavored to comply with the customers’ wishes, also adhering to the demands that essentially involved following the standards of the Christian iconography and implied making easily recognizable saints. Another popular request was making the statuettes as realistic as possible.The masters usually complied with the above-mentioned demands, therefore adhering to the main schemes of iconographic composition. However, they exercised certain degree of freedom in terms of interpreting attributes, details and colors of clothing (particularly in case of female saints), and introducing certain motives related to the folk worldview or peculiarities of peasant daily life and clothing.Occasional connections of iconographic types occurring in folk sculpture can also be regarded as manifestations of creativity and rather liberal interpretation of plots. The “godmakers” were particularly prone to integrate several plots related to Virgin Mary, perhaps attempting to enhance the expressive qualities of the statuettes and highlight the importance of the God’s Mother in the human life. Especially Mary’s head used to be ingeniously adorned in an attempt to emphasize her image as the Heavenly Queen.Thus, some “god-makers” retained originality in their work: rather than mechanically copying prototype compositions, poses and details, they would reshape them in their own way, integrating into a harmonious whole, preserving their distinctive style of carving, enduing statuettes with certain emotional expression, varying the same plots in terms of poses, details, and clothing. However, others approached the produce of the church workshops, adding nearly no individual features and just closely reiterating the prototypes.In the traditional village community of the 19th – the first half of the 20th century, creativity and craft went hand in hand. The “god-maker” was both an artisan and an artist. The opposition between craft and creative work acquired distinct shape only in modern times. Previously, neither customers’ requests nor established notions regarding following of the prototypes seemed to the “god-maker” as limiting his creative freedom. He created interpreting things against the framework of specific rules at the time when object of art was not yet separate from the object of worship. Thus, requirement to adhere to the iconography seemed natural, since the prime concern for people of the time was the message conveyed by the statuette, i. e. the meaning of its plot rather than its artistic expression.From the modern point of view, we should discuss the question of relationship between creativity and craft in the “god-making” only in regard to the individual masters – by comparing their compositions, expressive means and details. In some cases, there would be ample creative features, while in others creativity would appear scant, or just an attempt at precise copying of the prototype would be spotted. However, an approach based on the recent scholarly discourse is also possible, suggesting transcending the typical modernist notion and promoting wider perception of creativity, that would diminish the gap between notions of original and its copy, art and craft, innovation and tradition in the daily life. Then the works of the “god-making” masters striving at precise copying of the prototypes may also be regarded as manifestations of creativity.

Introduction. Concerto for oboe and orchestra in the music of modern time (20th – early 21st centuries), on the one hand, is based on the traditions of past eras, on the other hand, it contains a number of new stylistic trends, among which the leading trend is the pluralism of composer’s decisions. Despite this, the works created during this period by the composers of different national schools can be divided into three groups – academic, experimental, and pastoral. The article gives the review of them. Objective. The main objective of the article is to identify the features of genre stylistics in oboe concertos by composers of the 20th – early 21st centuries. Methods. In order to realize this objective, the elements of a number of general scientific and special musicological research methods have been used – historical-and-genetic, deductive, comparative, organological, stylistic, genre and performing analysis. Results and Discussion. The article discusses and systematizes the features of the genre stylistics of modern time oboe concertos. Based on the analysis of the historical-and-stylistic context, the correlation of traditions and innovations in the oboe-concerto genre, as well as the nature of the relationship between concerto and chamber manners as its common features are revealed. The classification of oboe concertos of the specified period by three genre-and-style groups – academic, experimental, and pastoral, is proposed. The main development trends in each of these groups are analyzed, taking into account the genre, national and individual-author’s stylistics (more than 70 pieces are involved). For the first time, the generalizations are proposed regarding the oboe expressiveness and techniques, generally gravitating towards universalism as a style dominant in the concerto genre. It is noted that, in spite of this main trend, the oboe in the concertos by modern time masters retains its fundamental organological semantics – the aesthetics and poetics of pastoral mode. The music of modern time, the count of which starts from the last decade of the 19th century and to present, comes, on the one hand, as a unique encyclopedia of the previous genres and styles, and on the other hand, as a unique multicomponent artistic phenomenon of hypertext meaning. The first is embodied in the concept of the style pluralism which means the priority of the person’s (composer’s and performer’s) component in aesthetics and poetics of a musical work. The second involves an aspect of polystylistics that is understood in two meanings: 1) aesthetic, when different stylistic tendencies are represented in a particular artistic style; 2) purely “technological”, which is understood as the technique of composing, when different intonation patterns in the form of style quotations and allusions (according to Alfred Schnittke) constitute the compositional basis of the same work. It is noted that the oboe concertos of the modern time masters revive the traditions of solo music-making, which were partially lost in the second half of the 19th century. At the new stage of evolution, since the early 20th century (1910s), the concerto oboe combines solo virtuosity with chamber manner, which is realized in a special way by the authors of different styles. Most of them (especially in the period up to the 1970s–1980s of the previous century) adhere to the academic model which is characterized by a three-part composition with a tempo ratio “fast – slow – fast” with typical structures of each of the parts – sonata in the first, complex three-part in the second, rondo-sonata in the third, as well as traditional, previously tried and used means of articulation and stroke set (concertos by W. Alvin, J. Horovitz – Great Britain; E. T. Zwillich, Ch. Rouse – USA; O. Respighi – Italy; Lars-Erik Larrson – Switzerland, etc.). The signs of the oboe concertos of the experimental group are the freedom of structure both in the overall composition and at the level of individual parts or sections, the use of non-traditional methods of playing (J. Widmann, D. Bortz – Germany; C. Frances-Hoad, P. Patterson – England; E. Carter – USA; J. MacMillan – Scotland; O. Navarro – Spain; N. Westlake – Australia). The group of pastoral concertos is based on highlighting the key semantics of oboe sound image. This group includes concertos of two types – non-programmatic (G. Jacob, R. Vaughan Williams, M. Arnold – Great Britain; О. T. Raihala – Finland; M. Berkeley, Е. Carter – USA and other authors); programmatic of two types – with literary names (L’horloge de flore J. Françaix – France; Helios, Two’s Company T. Musgrave; Angel of Mons J. Bingham – Great Britain); based on the themes of the world classics or folklore (two concertos by J. Barbirolli – Great Britain – on the themes of G. Pergolesi and A. Corelli; Concerto by B. Martinu – Czechia – on the themes from Petrushka by I. Stravinsky, etc.). This group of concertos also includes the genre derivatives, such as suite (L’horloge de flore J. Françaix); fantasy (Concerto fantasy for oboe, English horn and orchestra by V. Gorbulskis); virtuoso piece (Pascaglia concertante S. Veress); concertino (Concertino by N. Scalcottas, R. Kram, A. Jacques); genre “hybrids” (Symphony-Concerto by J. Ibert; Symphony-Concerto by T. Smirnova; Chuvash Symphony-Concerto by T. Alekseyeva; Concerto-Romance by Zh. Matallidi; Concerto-Poem for English horn, oboe and orchestra by G. Raman). Conclusions. Thus, the oboe concerto in the works by modern time composers appears as a complex genre-and-intonation fusion of traditions and innovations, in which prevail the individual-author’s approaches to reproducing the specificity of the genre. At the same time, through the general tendency of stylistic pluralism, several lines-trends emerge, defined in this article as academic, experimental, and pastoral, and each of them can be considered in more detail in the framework of individual studies.

Abstract The Land-Art was integrated to Postmodernism by the most art historians, having as arguments the important affinities presented by the two artistic phenomena, both at the expressing modalities level but, especially, at the level of principles and, of the ideological sphere. The Postmodernism intended, as it is well-known, to parody or to interpret, in a proper way, a cultural tradition whose authority had become disturbing the Land-Art also started an innovating programme in the 60s -70s of the 20th century, through which the millenary art of the landscape was questionable, trying this way, a new and radical art-like approach of nature. The Art-Land was given various other names, syntagms which points out the work modalities or the materials used in the creation art: “Sociological Art”, “Earth Art”, “Works Art”, “Environmental Art”, “Earthworks”, “The Art of Landscape”, “The Sculpture of Landscape”, “The Walking Art”. The Land Art borrowed, in a great measure, the own means of expression of other tendencies which were performing on the artistic stage in the same time, such as the technique of installation, some of the principles experienced by Process-Art, by the Environmental Art or by Happening. The most representative land artists knew to integrate all the borrowings to a new vision, an original one, which, for the first time, was turning the nature into the support of the artistic creation. Apart from the point of view through which the Land Art is understood as an integral part of Postmodernism, there are also opinions, supported by well-known specialists, through which the Modernism of the 60s from the past century is seen as a possible origin of the Land-Art, especially if we have in mind the works of some great modern artists, such as Henry Moore, Robert Morris, Anthony Caro, Yves Klein and Tony Smith. Land Art presents two different ways of demonstration, hostile from the point of view of attitude towards nature and public: on the one hand some of the land artists look for the privacy of the act of artistic creation in the natural environment (one example this way is Richard Long), others, on the contrary, are guided by an art with clear social implications (e.g. the typical case of Christo). The ecological position of the tendency is underlined by the artists ' spokesman, Robert Smithson, who thinks that it should be adopted a committed, fighting attitude, pragmatically sheltered itself towards future.

Surrealistic art is one of the most engaging and intriguing art genres. Surrealism itself is considered to have been the most influential art movement of the 20th century. Started in the 1920s as a literary movement that eventually took on a visual dimension, its foundational principles have continued to influence the thought process and style of many modern artists in the realm of self-expression. In their studies of many disciplines in the art including genres of painting, drawing and sculpture, students of art at the University usually find the concept of surrealism initially difficult to decipher mainly because of the uniqueness of its own description. The dream-like imageries of surrealism are derived from dreams and the unconscious mind; hence, the students have to contend with the derivation of subject matter from an unusual source. This is challenging for most of them since they are used to formulating subject matter from a purely academic perspective and from themes that they ordinarily relate to in their environment or can easily reference. Although students embark on drawing from their first year of study, they are introduced to surrealistic drawing as a unit in their final year. With their drawing background, it is presumed that by their final year, they have attained adequate levels of drawing skills for application in any artistic challenge. This study examines, through analysis of selected works, firstly, the extent to which students are able to internalise the concept of surrealism and apply it in the construction of the artistic composition, and secondly whether their drawings demonstrate an individual capacity for self-expression and the derivation of meaning, through dream-like imageries drawn from the unconscious mind. The students were exposed to preliminary studies and examination of surrealistic work, discussions of subject matter, origination, style and technique in the course of their unit programme. For the purpose of uniformity of medium, they were instructed to work only in pencil. They were subsequently accorded adequate time and space to embark on their work with class presentations and discussions at prescribed intervals. The resultant drawings were many and varied and the ones selected are those that displayed good artistic execution and/or displayed a certain profoundness of meaning or interpretation.

Purpose of the study: This article is a brief history of development of water sanitation systems in European countries. One of the aims is educating people about importance of water treatment in today’s world. Methodology: Bellow article briefly discuss some history of drinking water supply and municipal wastewater sanitation, i.e., construction of historical water engineering system like water wells, first flush toilets, indoor plumbing and simple pressurized showers, sewage farms and irrigation, in China, ancient Greece, Roman Empire, Asia minor, India, by Mayans in America and in Australia. Main Findings: By the 1840s the luxury of indoor plumbing, which mixes human waste with water and flushes it away, eliminated the need for cesspools. As Britain was the first country to industrialize, it was also the first to experience the consequences of major urbanization and outbreaks of diseases like typhoid and cholera from contaminated water and was the first to construct a modern sewerage system. Most cities in the Western world added more expensive systems for sewage treatment in the early 20th century, after scientists at the University of Manchester Ardern and Lockett discovered the sewage treatment process of activated sludge in 1912. Implications of the study: More than 100 years have been passed since the activated sludge process was explored, since the time when the mankind started to realize how important is the water sanitation in diseases prevention. However, the water treatment technology is permanently improving and enriched with new innovative solutions, the basic principle from the year 1912 i.e., activated sludge process remains as the main process of all conventional wastewater treatment plants.

The article “Unforgotten Names. Mikhail Belashov and Georgy Kranz” is the first in the cycle “VKHUTEIN, VKHUTEMAS. Sculptors. Teachers and Students”, dedicated to the unique creative and educational project, VKHUTEMAS - VKHUTEIN, which laid the foundation and within the framework of which a galaxy of outstanding Russian sculptors, who brought fame to our Fatherland in the fine arts immediately after the end of the Civil War in the country, was prepared. The author analyzes the work of outstanding sculptors. These masters of plastic art had a profound positive impact on the development of Russian and Soviet sculpture both through their creativity and their purposeful teaching activities. A start was made by some sculptors who were then students still studying at the Russe Studio in Paris in 1909. The VKHUTEMAS and VKHUTEIN sculptors-teachers’ pedagogical range was measured by the highest level of knowledge, teaching methods, laid down by the Russian Imperial Academy by taking into account relevant at that time new trends in art, sometimes extremely radical. Fortunately, this basic, main fundamental practice of studying sculptural craft was not interrupted but only improved. The invisible connection of generations of sculptural craft masters did not dissapear completely; it moved forward. The students who studied with the VKHUTEMAS and VKHUTEIN artist-teacher developed the methodology with their followers and students; in their own creative search, they addressed their teacher for advice in moments of artistic searches and doubts. The author of the article points out that such bright teachers-sculptors were the founders of the Russian, Soviet school of sculpture. They were masters and teachers of a whole galaxy of remarkable Russian sculptors who, by their example, their method and creativity, made a huge impact on the development of modern Russian plastic art not only in the USSR but throughout the world. They were organizers and ideological inspirers, active participants in many creative associations of the first third of the 20th century. The author notes that the works of sculptors-teachers and their talented students give us the opportunity to get an idea of their views, worldview, attitude to the creative process and, in general, to the profession of an artist-sculptor. This article presents the dialogues with teachers preserved in the notes and memoirs of students, their statements, which the Author believes is of exceptional relevance not only to the tasks of teaching in the field of sculptural craft, but also to the formation of the worldview of master sculptors and the concept of the school. The author analyzes and convincingly proves by concrete examples that the school of Vkhutein and Vkhutemas is a logically competently built pedagogical system based on the experience and skill of previous generations of artists, going from antiquity and Byzantium and related to classicism to Western European aesthetics and traditions and foundations of the Russian plastic school, its basic foundations and principles, ascending to the geniuses of the Quatrechento era. In this work, the author highlights the creative and pedagogical activities of these teachers and students of I.Efimov, S.Bulakovskiy, B.Korolev, V.Favorskiy, I.Tchaikov, V.Mukhina, N.Nisse-Goldman, M.Aisenstadt, N.Slobodinskaya, D.Schwartz, M.Belashov, A.Zelenskiy, E.Herzenstein, A.Grigoriev, G.Krantz, E.Belashova, I.Slonim, L.Pisarevskiy, A.Arendt, E.Abalakov. The author analyzes the learning processes of teachers-sculptors, names the main dates of their work, reveals the details of sculptural craft, talks about the variety of moves in plastic methods and principles of work in sculpture, shows the attitude of students to their teachers, and highlights the whole course of historical milestones in the creative biography of the sculptor. Today, the article is dedicated to two remarkable sculptors, classmates, peers, sculptors Mikhail Belashov and Georgy Krantz who went missing in the war.

The Dance Collection at Arts Centre Melbourne traces the history of dance in Australia from the late nineteenth century to today. The collection encompasses the work of many of Australia's major dance companies and individual performers whilst spanning a range of genres, from contemporary dance and ballet, to theatrical, modern, folk and social dance styles. The Dance Collection is part of the broader Australian Performing Arts Collection, which covers the five key areas of circus, dance, opera, music and theatre. In my overview of Arts Centre Melbourne's (ACM) Dance Collection, I will outline how the collection has grown and highlight the strengths and weaknesses associated with different methods of collecting. I will also identify major gaps in the archive and how we aim to fill these gaps and create a well-balanced and dynamic view of Australian dance history. Material relating to international touring artists and companies including Lola Montez, Adeline Genée, Anna Pavlova and the Ballet Russes de Monte Carlo provide an understanding of how early trends in dance performance have influenced our own traditions. Scrapbooks, photographs and items of costume provide glimpses into performances of some of the world's most famous dance performers and productions. As many of these scrapbooks were compiled by enthusiastic and appreciative audience members, they also record the emerging audience for dance, which placed Australia firmly on the touring schedule of many international performers in the early decades of the 20th century. The personal stories and early ambitions that led to the formation of our national companies are captured in collections relating to the history of the Borovansky Ballet, Ballet Guild, Bodenwieser Ballet, and the National Theatre Ballet. Costume and design are a predominant strength of these collections. Through them, we discover and appreciate the colour, texture and creative industry behind pivotal works that were among the first to explore Australian narratives through dance. These collections also tell stories of migration and reveal the diverse cultural roots that have helped shape the training of Australian dancers, choreographers and designers in both classical and contemporary dance styles. The development of an Australian repertoire and the role this has played in the growth of our dance culture is particularly well documented in collections assembled collaboratively with companies such as The Australian Ballet, Sydney Dance Company, and Chunky Move. These companies are at the forefront of dance in Australia and as they evolve and mature under respective artistic directors, we work closely with them to capture each era and the body of work that best illustrates their output through costumes, designs, photographs, programmes, posters and flyers. The stories that link these large, professional companies to a thriving local, contemporary dance community of small to medium professional artists here in Melbourne will also be told. In order to develop a well-balanced and dynamic view of Australian dance history, we are building the archive through meaningful collecting relationships with contemporary choreographers, dancers, designers, costume makers and audiences. I will conclude my overview with a discussion of the challenges of active collecting with limited physical storage and digital space and the difficulties we face when making this archive accessible through exhibitions and online in a dynamic, immersive and theatrical way.

Femi Oyebode graduated from University of Ibadan with distinction in Medicine in 1977 &amp trained as a psychiatrist in Newcastle-Upon-Tyne. He has been Consultant Psychiatrist in Birmingham since 1986 &amp retired in 2021. He has been Honorary Professor of Psychiatry at the University of Birmingham since 1999. He was Head of Department of Psychiatry from 2003–2009. He is Honorary Professor, Department of Anthropology & African Studies University of Birmingham. He is Associate Editor the British Journal of Psychiatry, & on the Editorial Boards of BJPsych Bulletin and BJPsych Advances. He was Chief Examiner of the Royal College of Psychiatrists from 2002 to 2005. He has been ASB Visiting Professor at University of Auckland, Raine Visiting Professor at University of Western Australia, & Visiting Professor University of Ibadan. His research interests include clinical psychopathology, delusional misidentification syndromes, medical humanities and medical ethics. He is author of Sims’ Symptoms in the Mind (4–6th editions), Psychopathology of Rare and Unusual Syndromes, Madness and the Theatre and edited Mindreadings: Literature and Psychiatry. He is also a poet and literary critic. His volumes of poetry include Naked to your softness & other dreams, Master of the Leopard Hunt and Adagio for Oblong Mirrors. He contributed critical essays to the Oxford Companion to 20th century Poetry and Oxford Companion to Modern Poetry. He received the Royal College of Psychiatrists’ Lifetime Achievement Award in 2016 and the highest award of the Royal College of Psychiatrists, the Honorary FRCPsych., in 2019.AbstractPsychopathology is the systematic study of abnormal psychological experience and includes the precise description, definition and categorisation of abnormal phenomena. In this lecture I will focus on the potential role of psychopathology as a means of revealing the underlying brain processes that make possible our experience of reality. I will examine phantom limb phenomenon, Charles Bonnet Syndrome, musical hallucinations and autoscopy to illustrate and develop my thesis. My ultimate aim is to demonstrate that the value of psychopathology is over and above the merely descriptive and that its value includes theorising about neural mechanisms.

Raksts iepazīstina ar Latvijā mazzināma latviešu izcelsmes Lietuvas arhitekta un inženiera Kārļa Reisona (Karolis Reisonas; 1894–1981) dzīvi un profesionālo darbību Šauļos, kā arī aktualizē svarīgākās arhitekta daiļrades mantojuma iezīmes un viņa darbu nozīmi Lietuvas arhitektūras vēsturē. K. Reisons bija viens no spilgtākajiem 20. gadsimta starp-karu perioda Lietuvas modernās arhitektūras radītājiem. K. Reisons ir reprezentatīvu celtņu Lietuvas pilsētās, kā arī Rīgā un Adelaidā (Austrālija) autors vai līdzautors. Rīgas reālskolas (1913) un Sanktpēterburgas civilinženieru institūta (1920) absolvents K. Reisons strādāja par Šauļu pilsētas inženieri un pašvaldības Būvniecības nodaļas vadītāju (1922–1930), Šauļu būvniecības desmitnieku1 kursu (1925), vēlāk arī Šauļu arodskolas direktoru (1926), Lietuvas Lauksaimniecības kameras konsultantu (1927–1928). 14 no viņa projektētām celtnēm Kauņā un Šauļos ir iekļautas Lietuvas Kultūras vērtību reģistrā. Agrīniem K. Reisona projektiem raksturīgs historisms ar eklektisma elementiem un tā sauktais «ķieģeļu stils». Vēlākie projekti iezīmējas ar modernajai arhitektūrai raksturīgu askētisko racionālismu, funkcionālismu un piemērošanos pilsētbūvniecības un kultūrvēsturiskajam kontekstam. Pēc Otrā pasaules kara viņš ar ģimeni emigrēja uz Vāciju, vēlāk – uz Adelaidu, piedalījies Adelaidas lietuviešu kopienas dzīvē. The article introduces the professional activities of Latvian-born Lithuanian architect and engineer Karolis Reisonas (in Latvian: Kārlis Reisons; 1894–1981) in the second half of his life – from 1930 in Kaunas, Panevėžys and Adelaide cities – and his role in the history of Lithuanian architecture. K. Reisonas was one of the most prominent creators of modern 20th-century interwar Lithuanian architecture and together with other famous Lithuanian architects formed a special style of Kaunas modern architecture in interwar period. K. Reisonas is the author or co-author of representative buildings in Šiauliai, Kaunas and other Lithuanian cities, as well as in Riga and Adelaide cities. Architect and engineer K. Reisonas worked as Šiauliai City Engineer and Head of Municipal Construction Department (1922–1930), Director of Šiauliai Vocational School (1926), Consultant of Lithuanian Chamber of Agriculture (1927–1928), Head of Construction Department of Kaunas Municipality (1930–1938), Panevėžys City Engineer (1940) and Burgomaster (1941–1944). From 1949, the Reisonas family lived in Adelaide city, Australia. To his projects three monuments of independence were built in Lithuania – Monument of Independence in Šiauliai city, Podium of the Freedom Monument of Kaunas city and Roman Catholic Christ’s Resurrection Church in Kaunas city. Fourteen of buildings in Lithuania (in Kaunas and Šiauliai cities) designed by him are included in the list of cultural values of Lithuania. Early K. Reisonas’ projects are characterized by historism, elements of eclecticism and «brick style», later projects are characterized by austere rationalism, functionalism, adaptation to urban construction and cultural and historical context.

Введение. Представлены рассказы о Харбине русских реэмигрантов из Китая в Австралию в речевом жанре воспоминание. Необходимость анализа данных текстов обусловлена интересом современной лингвистики к говорящей личности и воплощаемым ею текстам, которые отражают уникальность личного и исторического опыта, в данном случае – опыта представителей русской реэмиграции из Китая в Австралию. Цель – описать жанр воспоминание и особенности его лингвистической реализации в речи русских реэмигрантов из Китая в Австралию в ХХ в. Материал и методы. Материалом исследования послужили записи интервью с русскими реэмигрантами из Китая в Австралию (10 интервью). В качестве основного метода был выбран метод лингвистического описания жанра воспоминание в речи с точки зрения его тематического и языкового своеобразия. Результаты и обсуждение. Показано тематическое своеобразие рассказов о Харбине, обусловленное особенностями жизни русских эмигрантов в восточном зарубежье. В соответствии с этим выделены микротемы: русский облик Харбина, переселение в Харбин, русские и китайцы, японская оккупация в Харбине. Установлены жанровые особенности и языковая специфика. При анализе специфики рассказов о Харбине русских реэмигрантов из Китая в Австралию обнаружены типичные и специфичные признаки. Среди типичных отмечены следующие особенности: употребление глаголов прошедшего времени, использование в речи разговорной и нейтральной лексики и метатекстовых лексических единиц. Установлены специфичные языковые особенности рассказов о Харбине, воплощенные в жанре воспоминание, к которым относятся использование синтаксических средств и конструкций, свойственных письменной речи, употребление книжной, высокой, устаревшей лексики, а также собственно харбинской лексики и заимствований из китайского языка. Заключение. Анализ рассказов о Харбине русских реэмигрантов из Китая в Австралию, воплощенных в речевом жанре воспоминание, позволил выявить их тематическое своеобразие, обусловленное особенностями жизни русских эмигрантов в восточном зарубежье, жанровую и языковую специфику. Introduction. The paper presents the stories about Harbin told by Russian re-emigrants from China to Australia in the speech genre “Reminiscences”. The need to analyse these texts arises from the interest of modern linguistics in the speaking personality and the texts this personality produces. The texts reflect the unique personal and historical experience. In this case study they reflect the experiences of Russian re-emigrants from China to Australia. The purpose of the article is to describe the reminiscence genre and its linguistic implementation in the speech of Russian re-emigrants, who came from China to Australia in the 20th century. Material and methods. The research is based on the study of the recorded interviews with Russian re-emigrants from China to Australia (10 interviews). The method of linguistic description of the «Reminiscences» genre was used as the main method to analyse their speech from the point of view of its thematic and linguistic distinctiveness. Results and discussion. The paper presents the thematic originality of stories about Harbin, determined by the particular lifestyle of Russian eastern emigration. A number of micro-themes have been identified in the framework of the study: The Russian appearance of Harbin, resettlement to Harbin, Russians and Chinese, Japanese occupation of Harbin. Genre features and linguistic specificities have been determined. The analysis of the Russian re-emigrants’ stories about Harbin made it possible to identify some typical and specific features. Among the typical features are: the use of past-tense verbs, the use of spoken and neutral vocabulary and metatext lexical units. The specific features of the stories about Harbin, embodied in the «Reminiscences» genre, have been determined. They include the use of syntactic means and structures characteristic of written speech, the use of bookish, high-flown and obsolete vocabulary, as well as Harbin vocabulary and borrowings from the Chinese language. Conclusion. Recorded reminiscence-stories of Russian re-emigrants about Harbin, demonstrate thematic originality, determined by the particular lifestyle of Russian eastern emigration, genre features and linguistic specifics.

Raksts iepazīstina ar latviešu izcelsmes Lietuvas arhitekta un inženiera Kārļa Reisona (Karolis Reisonas; 1894–1981) profesionālo darbību mūža otrajā pusē – no 1930. gada Kauņā, Panevēžā un Adelaidā – un viņa darbu nozīmi Lietuvas arhitektūras vēsturē. K. Reisons bija viens no spilgtākajiem 20. gadsimta starpkaru perioda Lietuvas modernās arhitektūras radītājiem, kopā ar citiem slaveniem Lietuvas arhitektiem veidoja īpašo starpkaru perioda Kauņas modernās arhitektūras stilu. K. Reisons ir reprezentatīvu celtņu Šauļos, Kauņā un citās Lietuvas pilsētās, kā arī Rīgā un Adelaidā autors vai līdzautors. Arhitekts un inženieris K. Reisons strādāja par Šauļu pilsētas inženieri un pašvaldības Būvniecības nodaļas vadītāju (1922–1930), Šauļu arodskolas direktoru (1926), Lietuvas Lauksaimniecības kameras konsultantu (1927–1928), Kauņas pašvaldības Būvniecības nodaļas vadītāju (1930–1938), Panevēžas inženieri (1940) un birģermeistaru (1941–1944). No 1949. gada Reisonu ģimene dzīvoja Adelaidā, Austrālijā. Pēc viņa projektiem Lietuvā uzcelti trīs neatkarības pieminekļi – Šauļu Neatkarības piemineklis, Kauņas Brīvības pieminekļa postaments un Kauņas Romas katoļu Kristus Augšāmcelšanās baznīca. 14 no viņa projektētām celtnēm Kauņā un Šauļos ir iekļautas Lietuvas nekustamo kultūras vērtību sarakstā. Agrīniem K. Reisona projektiem raksturīgs historisms, eklektisma elementi, «ķieģeļu stils», vēlākie projekti iezīmējas ar modernismam raksturīgu askētisko racionālismu, funkcionālismu, piemērošanos pie pilsētbūvnieciskā un kultūrvēsturiskā konteksta. The article introduces the professional activities of Latvian-born Lithuanian architect and engineer Karolis Reisonas (in Latvian: Kārlis Reisons; 1894–1981) in the second half of his life – from 1930 in Kaunas, Panevėžys and Adelaide cities – and his role in the history of Lithuanian architecture. K. Reisonas was one of the most prominent creators of modern 20th-century interwar Lithuanian architecture and together with other famous Lithuanian architects formed a special style of Kaunas modern architecture in interwar period. K. Reisonas is the author or co-author of representative buildings in Šiauliai, Kaunas and other Lithuanian cities, as well as in Riga and Adelaide cities. Architect and engineer K. Reisonas worked as Šiauliai City Engineer and Head of Municipal Construction Department (1922–1930), Director of Šiauliai Vocational School (1926), Consultant of Lithuanian Chamber of Agriculture (1927–1928), Head of Construction Department of Kaunas Municipality (1930–1938), Panevėžys City Engineer (1940) and Burgomaster (1941–1944). From 1949, the Reisonas family lived in Adelaide city, Australia. To his projects three monuments of independence were built in Lithuania – Monument of Independence in Šiauliai city, Podium of the Freedom Monument of Kaunas city and Roman Catholic Christ’s Resurrection Church in Kaunas city. Fourteen of buildings in Lithuania (in Kaunas and Šiauliai cities) designed by him are included in the list of cultural values of Lithuania. Early K. Reisonas’ projects are characterized by historism, elements of eclecticism and «brick style», later projects are characterized by austere rationalism, functionalism, adaptation to urban construction and cultural and historical context.

- Martin Baier, Sri Kuhnt-Saptodewo, Zum Seelengeliet bei den Ngaju am Kahayan; Auswertung eines Sakraltextes zur Manarung-Zeremonie beim totenfest. München: Akademischer Verlag,1993 (PhD thesis, Ludwig-Maximilian-Universitiy München). - H.J.M. Claessen, Annette B. Weiner, Inalienable Possessions; The paradox of keeping-while-giving. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992, 232 pp. Bibl. Index - Charles A. Coppel, Wang Gungwu, Community and Nation; China, Southeast Asia and Australia. Sydney: Asian studies of Australia in association with Allen & Unwin, 1992 (2nd revised edition), viii + 359 pp - Heleen Gall, W. J. Mommsen, European expansion and Law; the encounter of European and Indigenous Law in 19th- and 20th- century Africa and Asia. Oxford; Berg publishers, 1992, vi + 339 pp, J.A. de Moor (eds.) - Beatriz van der Goes, C. W. Watson, Kinship, Property and inheritance in Kerinci, Central Sumatra. Canterbury:University of Kent, Centre for Social Anthropology and computing Monographs no: 4. South-East Asian Series, 1992, ix + 255 pp - Kees Groeneboer, Tom van der Berge, Van Kenis tot kunst; Soendanese poezie in de koloniale tijd. Proefschrift Rijksuniversiteit Lieden, November 1993, 220 pp - Kees Groeneboer, J.E.A.M. Lelyveld, ‘... waarlijk geen overdaad, doch een dringende eisch..’’; Koloniaal onderwijs en onderwijsbeleid in Nederlands-Indië 1893-1942. Proefschrift Rijksuniversiteit Utrecht, 1992. - Marleen Heins, R. Anderson Sutton, Variation in Central Javanese gamelan music; Dynamics of a steady state. Northern Illinois University: Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Monograph series on Southeast Asia, (Special Report 28 ),1993. - Marleen Heins, E. Heins, Jaap Kunst, Indonesian music and dance; Traditional music and its interaction with the West. Amsterdam: Royal Tropical Institute/Tropenmuseum, University of Amsterdam, Ethnomusicology Centre `Jaap Junst’, 1994, E. den Otter, F. van Lamsweerde (eds.) - David Henley, Harold Brookfield, South-East Asia’s environmental future; The search for sustainability. Tokyo: United Nations University Press, Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1993, xxxii + 422 pp., maps, tables, figures, index., Yvonne Byron (eds.) - Antje van der Hoek, Keebet von Benda-Beckmann, De emancipatie van Molukse vrouwen in Nederland. Utrecht: Van Arkel,1992, Francy Leatemia-Toma-tala (eds.) - Michael Hitchcock, Brita L. Miklouho-Maklai, Exposing Society’s Wounds; Some aspects of Indonesian Art since 1966. Adelaide: Flinders University Asian studies Monograph No.5, illustrations, 1991, iii + 125 pp - Nico Kaptein, Fred R. von der Mehden, Two Worlds of Islam; Interaction between Southeast Asia and the Middle East.Gainesville etc: University Press of Florida 1993, xiii + 128 pp - Nico Kaptein, Karel Steenbrink, Dutch Colonialism and Indonesian Islam; Contacts and Conflicts 1596-1950. Amsterdam-Atlanta, GA: Rodopi, 1993. - Harry A. Poeze, Rudolf Mrázek, Sjahrir; Politics and exile in Indonesia. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University, Southeast Asia Program, 1994. - W.G.J. Remmelink, Takao Fusayama, A Japanese memoir of Sumatra 1945-1946; Love and hatred in the liberation war. Ithaca: Cornell University (Cornell Modern Indonesia Project Monograph series 71), 1993, 151 pp., maps, illustrations. - Ratna Saptari, Diana Wolf, Factory Daughters; Gender, Household Dynamics, and Rural Industrialization in Java. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992. - Ignatius Supriyanto, Ward Keeler, Javanese Shadow Puppets. Singapore (etc.): Oxford University Press, 1992, vii + 72 pp.,bibl., ills. (Images of Asia). - Brian Z. Tamanaha,S.J.D., Juliana Flinn, Review of diplomas and thatch houses; Asserting tradition in a changing Micronesia. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992. - Gerard Termorshuizen, Dorothée Buur, Indische jeugdliteratuur; Geannoteerde bibliografie van jeugdboeken over Nederlands-Indië en Indonesië, 1825-1991. Leiden, KITLV Uitgeverij, 1992, 470 pp., - Barbara Watson Andaya, Reinout Vos, Gentle Janus, merchant prince; The VOC and the tightrope of diplomacy in the Malay world, 1740-1800. Leiden: KITLV Press, 1994, xii + 252 pp.

Dear readers, We are pleased to present to you Issue 4, 2022, of the scientific and analytical journal Burganov House. The Space of Culture. Upon the recommendation of the Expert Council of the Higher Attestation Commission, the journal is included in the List of Leading Peer-reviewed Scientific Journals and Publications in which the main scientific results of theses for the academic degrees of doctor and candidate of science must be published. The journal publishes scientific articles by leading specialists in various humanitarian fields, doctoral students, and graduate students. Research areas concern topical problems in multiple areas of culture, art, philology, and linguistics. This versatility of the review reveals the main specificity of the journal, which represents the current state of the cultural space. The journal opens with articles by Chinese researchers devoted to the art of Ancient China. In the article "The Heaven-and-Man Oneness Concept and the Style of Funerary Plastic Art During the Han Dynasty", Xiang Wu analyses the idea of heaven-and-man oneness, which was important for the art of this period. It was based on the Confucian view, the rituals of a strict social hierarchy and Taoist metaphysics. Qiu Mubing’s scientific research topic is “Objects of the Funerary Cult in the Han Dynasty. Gold and Silver Items. Aesthetics of Gold and Silver in the Han Dynasty”. Examining archaeological sources, the author concludes the high achievements of Chinese artisans during the Han Dynasty on examples of works of arts and crafts made of precious metals. In the article “Aesthetics of the Song Dynasty. The Origins of the New Style of Furniture Design in China", N.Kazakova and Qiu Qi analyse the vector of development of the furniture industry through the prism of the industrial design evolution. The reasons for the emergence of the New style in furniture design in China are studied. They are analysed in detail against the background of changing economic, political and cultural realities. The issues of the influence of Ancient China aesthetics on the formation and development of a new language in furniture design are touched upon. In the article "Problems of Colour Harmonisation of Composition and Development of Associative and Imaginative Thinking in the Environmental Design", N.Bogatova reveals the potential of colouristic graphic two-dimensional modelling in artistic and imaginative thematic compositions. On the example of the compositional laws of colouristics, the author traces the path of ascent from the concrete to the abstract, pictorial to the expressive, and emotional to the figurative. P.Dobrolyubov presents the text “Sculptor Alexander Matveev’s School and His Students”, which includes many archival documents and photographs. The author describes the process of learning from teacher and sculptor A.Matveev, names the main dates in his creative work, reveals the details of the sculptural craft, talks about the variety of moves in the master’s plasticity, analyses the methods and principles of work in sculpture, shows the attitude of students to their teacher, and highlights the entire course of historical milestones in the sculptor’s creative biography. In the article "The Golden Age of PRC History Painting (1949–1966): Origins, Searches, Achievements”, K.Gavrilin and L.Xiaonan consider the issues of the formation of the modern Chinese art school. Its foundation was laid in the framework of the creative and educational dialogue between China and the Soviet Union at the beginning of the second half of the 20th century. The authors believe that the characteristic features of the golden age of Chinese historical painting were, on the one hand, the popularisation of painting as an art form and, on the other hand, the predominance of the dominant position of realism over the traditional styles of Chinese painting. It is noted that during this period, two main plots became widespread: scenes of socialist construction and historical events of the revolution. S.Zubarev considers theoretical and practical aspects of the activities of military musicians in the article "Academic Music in the Practice of Russian Military Bands of the 19th - early 21st Centuries". In the process of studying military bands, special attention is paid to the study of the features of military band service development in the 19th and 20th centuries. Factors revealing the role of Russian composers in the history of military musical culture are highlighted, and several works of academic music performed by military bands are analysed. In conclusion, the author notes that in the national culture, unique conditions for the development of military musicians’ arranging activity were created. They made it possible to preserve the traditions of the military band service and form the value principles of academic art. The publication is addressed to professionals specialising in the theory and practice of the fine arts and philology and all those interested in the arts and culture.

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Dr. Akira Mizuta Lippit, author of Electric Animal: Toward a Rhetoric of Wildlife, explores, in the context of the development of cinema, how the concept of “the animal” has become central to modern understandings of human subjectivity. Lippit considers the disappearance of real animals and their concurrent appearance in various conceptual and material uses, particularly noting the ways in which the conjoined notions of humanity and animality figure into and through cinema. The animal, he argues, haunts the foundation of western logical systems. Yet, despite the fact that humans and animals suffer under the discursive weight of the signifier, Lippit is careful to note the increasing instability of the human-animal boundary and what might be done to realize more just relationships among both humans and other animals. On February 12, 2008, Lauren Corman spoke with Lippit as part of the “Animal Voices” radio program, a weekly show dedicated to animal advocacy and cultural critique. They discussed how Lippit developed his thesis and the ramifications of his theoretical work. Electric Animal: Toward a Rhetoric of Wildlife was published in 2000 by the University of Minnesota Press. “Animal Voices” can be heard weekly on CIUT 89.5 FM in Toronto, or online at animalvoices.ca.Full TextLauren Corman: How have questions regarding animals and animality figured into your film scholarship? When did you bring these themes into your work, and why? Akira Mizuta Lippit: That is its own story in a way. The book that you refer to, Electric Animal, was written initially as my doctoral dissertation, and at the time, I was thinking in particular about the moment at which cinema appeared in the late 19th century. There are all kinds of phantasmatic and imaginary birthdays of cinema, but generally people agree that 1895, or thereabouts, was when cinema appeared as a set of technological, aesthetic, and cultural features, and as an economic mode of exchange. People sold and bought tickets and attended screenings. And I was thinking about what it must have felt like at that moment to experience this uncanny medium. There are various reports of early film performances and screenings, some of them apocryphal and inventive and embellished and so forth, but I think the fascination, the kind of wonder that cinema evoked among many early viewers had to do with this uncanny reproduction of life, of living movement, and the strange tension that it created between this new technology (and we are in the middle of the industrial revolution and seeing the advent of all sorts of technologies and devices and apparatuses), and its proximity to, in a simple way, life: the movements of bodies. And I began to think that the principle of animation, here was critical. To make something move, and in thinking about the term animation and all of its roots, to make something breathe, to make something live. What struck me, in this Frankensteinian moment was the sense that something had come to life, and the key seemed to be about how people understood, conceived of, and practiced this notion of animating life through a technology. I started to hear a resonance between animals and animation. I started to think about the way in which animals also played a role, not only in early cinema and in animation and the practice of the genre but leading up to it in the famous photographs of Edward Muybridge and Étienne-Jules Marey, the moving images of animals that were produced serially, as well as the “chronophotographs” that rendered animal motion. And it occurred to me that there was a reason to pause and think about what role animals were playing at that moment in history. As I began to read, and as I began to collect materials and to think through this question of the status and function of the animal, what animality meant, it took on its own set of values, and essentially Electric Animal ended up being a kind of preamble, or an introduction to a book that I haven’t yet written, because I only reach at the end of the book, and in a very perfunctory manner, the advent of cinema. So in a sense, this book, and this question, about what an animal meant for generations before, at that moment and in successive generations, became its own subject, one I still think is critically linked to the question of cinema, and the arrival of cinema, and the force of cinema throughout the 20th century. LC: Let’s return to that piece that you mentioned about life, and that cinema could show or play this Frankensteinian role; of course, a parallel stream is around death, and some of the work that I have read about early cinema shows that people were quite afraid, initially, of what it meant. Could you comment on that theme of death and the animal in cinema? AML: This emerged as a major issue during the course of my study. The discourse on death and the uncanny, the idea that something appears to be there, in the form of a ghost or a phantom, already existed in discussions of photography throughout the 19th century. The sense that photography forges a material connection to the object, that the photograph establishes a material connection to the photographed object, and as such when you look at a photograph you are not simply looking at a rendering, like an artist’s interpretation in a painting or sculpture, but you are actually looking at, experiencing a kind of carnal, physical contact with the persons themselves, or with an object, reappears frequently in the discourses on photography. This creates a real excitement, and also fear. I think that effect, the photographic effect of somehow being in the presence of the thing itself, is enhanced by the addition of movement, because with movement you have the feeling that this being is not just there, looking at you perhaps, but also moving in its element, in its time, whether (and this is very important to the discussions of photography) that person is still alive or not. I think that gap is produced at the moment of any photograph and perhaps in any film: the person who appears before you, who appears to be alive, who at that moment is alive, may or may not still be alive. So it produces, among those who have thought in this way, a sense of uncanniness, something is there and isn’t there at once. Where I think that this is particularly important in this discussion of “the animal,” and as I began to discover in doing the reading (I should add that I am not a philosopher, I don’t teach philosophy, but I am a reader of philosophy; I read it sporadically, I read here and there wherever my interests are) is that with very few but important exceptions, there is a line of western philosophy that says animals are incapable of dying. On the most intuitive level this seems nonsensical. Of course animals die. We know that animals die. We kill animals; we kill them andwe see them die. No question that animals die. But the philosophical axiom here—which begins with Epicurus, but is repeated over and over, by Descartes perhaps most forcefully, and in the 20th century by Martin Heidegger—is that death is not simply a perishing, the end of life, but it is a experience that one has within life, a relationship with one’s own end. The claim that is made over and over again, which has been disputed by many people – and it is certainly not my claim – but the claim that one finds repeatedly in philosophy is that animals don’t die – they don’t have death in the way human beings have, and carry with them, death. Animals know fear, they know things like instinctual preservation, they seek to survive, but they don’t have death as an experience. Heidegger will say in the most callous way, they simply perish. It struck me that this problem was not a problem of animals, but rather a problem for human beings. If human beings don’t concede the capacity of animals to die, then what does it mean that animals are disappearing at this very moment, in the various developments of industry, in human population, in urbanization, environmental destruction, that animals are increasingly disappearing from the material and everyday world? And where do they go, if we don’t, as human beings, concede or allow them death? (Of course this is only in a very specific, and one might argue, very small, discursive space in western philosophy. Many people have pointed out that this is not the case in religious discourses, in a variety of cultural practices, and in various ethnic and cultural communities. This is a certain kind of western ideology that has been produced through a long history of western philosophy.) So the question of death, the particular form of suspended death that photography and cinema introduced appeared in response to perhaps a crisis in western critical and philosophical discourse that denied to the animal, to animals, the same kind of death that human beings experience. You have this convergence of two death-related, life-anddeath related, problems at a time when I think that these issues were particularly important. LC: So from there, the question that comes to mind is what purpose does it serve and the word that is coming to mind is identity, and the idea of human identity and subjectivity. There must be some reason that western thought keeps going back to this denial of animal death. You tie it in, as others have, to language. AML: Two key features of human subjectivity, in the tradition of western philosophy, have been language and death, and the relationship between language and death. This goes back to Plato, to Socrates, and before. The point at which I was writing Electric Animal, at the end of the 20th century, gave me the ability to look back at developments in critical theory, philosophy, and the history of ideas throughout the 20th century, and it became clear with the significant interventions of the late 1960s that from at least one century earlier, the question of human subjectivity, its stability, its absoluteness, had already been in question. This question is slowly working its way toward a radical re-evaluation of the status of, the value of, and ultimately the confidence that human beings place in their own subjectivity, and there are many, many influences: around questions of gender and sexuality, questions of race and identity, and in crimes like genocide, for example, during World War II, but before and after as well. All of these developments contribute to this reevaluation, but one could argue that at this moment, in the late 19th century already, there was a certain sense that what had been insisted upon as absolutely unique, as an absolute form in itself – the human subject – required a whole series of constant exclusions and negations for it to survive. One such exclusion is to claim as properly human, language; what makes the human being human, is the capacity for language, and through this capacity, the capacity for death. As many philosophers argue, only human beings can name death as such, because language gives us the capacity to names those things, not just objects around us, but to name those things that do not appear before us, and these would be the traditional philosophical objects: love, death, fear, life, forgiveness, friendship, and so on. And it will be assumed that animals have communication, they communicate various things within their own groups and between groups, they signal of course, but that animals don’t have language as such, which means they can’t name those things that are not before them or around them. And it is very clear that there is an effort among human beings to maintain the survival of this precious concept of human subjectivity, as absolutely distinct and absolutely unique. So you find in those long discourses on human subjectivity, this return to questions of language and death. I would suggest that at this time, with the appearance of Charles Darwin and his theory of evolution, and with other disruptive thinkers like Sigmund Freud and the advent of psychoanalysis, there is a great sense of uncertainty regarding these edifices of human subjectivity, language and death. In Electric Animal this moment is particularly rich with such shifts and instabilities, and the sense that language is not exclusive to human beings, as many people thought, but also that language is not as self-assured in human beings as people thought. Here psychoanalysis plays an important role in indicating, at least speculatively, that we are not as in control of the language that we use to the extent that we would like to believe. LC: What are the consequences of this process in western thought, where the subject is conceived through an exclusion or a negation of the animal? What are the implications for humans, and also what are the implications for animals? I know that is a huge question. AML: It is a huge question; It is a very important question. One could argue that the consequences of a certain practice, let’s say, of the politics of the subject have been disastrous, certainly for animals, but also for human beings. If you take one of the places where the form of the human subject is created, it would be Descartes’ Discourse on Method, his attempt to figure out what, when everything that can be doubted and has been doubted, is left to form the core. And this is his famous quote: “Je pense donc je suis”, I think therefore I am, I am thinking therefore I am. If you read the Discourse on Method, this is a process of exclusion: I exclude everything that I am not to arrive at the central core of what I am. The process he follows leads him to believe that it is his consciousness, it is his presence, his selfpresence with his own consciousness that establishes for him, beyond any doubt, his existence. This is somewhat heretical, it is a break from theological discourses of the soul; it represents a form of self-creation through one’s consciousness. But consciousness is a very complicated thing, a very deceptive thing, because what I believe, what I feel, is not always exactly the way things are. Looking at a series of important shifts that have taken place during what we might call generally the modern period, which extends further back than the recent past, one finds a number of assaults on the primacy of consciousness. Freud names one as the Copernican revolution, which suggested that the earth was not the centre of the universe and that human beings were not at the centre of the universe; the Darwinian revolution, which suggested that humans beings were not created apart from other forms, all other forms of organic life, and that human beings shared with other animate beings, organic beings a common history, a pre-history. And Freud (he names himself as the third of these revolutionaries), is the one who suggested that consciousness itself is not a given at any moment, or available at any moment, to us as human beings. What constitutes our sense of self, our consciousness, is drawn from experiences that we no longer have access to—interactions with others, the desires of others, the kinds of influences and wishes that were passed into us through others, our parents, other influential figures early in our life— and that what we believe to be our conscious state, our wishes, desires, dreams and so forth, are not always known to us, and in fact can’t be known because they might be devastating and horrifying, in some cases. They will tell us things about ourselves that we couldn’t properly accept or continue to live with. I think that what is happening, certainly by the time that we enter the 20th century, around this discourse of the subject is that it is no longer holding, it is no longer serving its original purpose; it is generating more anxiety than comfort. Key historical events, World War I, for example, are producing enormous blows to the idea of western progress, humanism, and Enlightenment values, to the cultural achievements of the West— Hegel, for example, a 19th century philosopher, is very explicit about this—to those values that helped to shape the world, and ultimately were supposed to have created a better world for human beings: the Enlightenment, the pursuit of knowledge, science, medicine, religion and so forth. And yet, by the mid-twentieth century many of these beliefs were exposed as illusions, especially after the advent of death camps, camps created for the sole purpose of producing, as Heidegger himself says, producing corpses, a factory for corpses. It’s not a place where people happen to die. This is an entire apparatus designed in order to expeditiously, efficiently, and economically, create corpses out of living human beings. Similarly, with the first use of the atomic bomb, on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, on human beings. This was a machine, a science, a technology, a weapon devised for maximizing, efficiently and economically, the destruction of human beings. I think what this created for many thinkers, philosophers, writers, artists, activists, citizens around the world was a sense that in fact what had helped to create this situation and these catastrophic results was not a matter of totalitarian regimes and bad politics, but something more fundamental: a certain belief that I have the right to destroy or take life from others. And how is that achieved? By first denying that those others are like me. So the discourse on Jews practiced throughout Nazi Germany is in fact even more extreme than that of the discourse on animals; in fact, as many people have pointed out, that many Nazis were famous for their love of animal, some were practicing vegetarians; they outlawed animal experimentation. In a sense animals were more like Aryan Germans, than Jews were. You have a series here of rhetorics that allow you to cast the enemy, the Other, at a distance from your own subjectivity, and in order to achieve this you have to deny them any form of subjectivity. Not just that they are just culturally different, or that they engage in different practices: They are radically and absolutely unlike me. And I believe that as many people began to think about this condition (Adorno has a very famous passage in which he talks about this), it became clear that one of the sources of this, is in fact the very ideology of the subject, which insists on an absolute autonomy, singularity, and distinct mode of existence from that which is not the subject, not any subject, the Other. Adorno, in a passage he wrote in a book titled Minima Moralia, which is a collection of aphorisms and observations he wrote during and after World War II, offers an observation I quote in Electric Animal. He titles it “People are looking at you”, and he says there is a moment in a typical scene of hunting where a wounded animal looks into the eyes of the hunter, or the killer as it dies. It produces at that moment, an effect that is undeniable: This thing, that is alive, that I have wounded and which is now dying, is looking at me. How can I deny that it is alive, that it is there, that it exists in the world, with its own consciousness, its own life, its own dreams, and desires? Adorno says the way you shake this off is you say to yourself, “It’s only an animal.” He will then link that gesture to the history of racism, and what he calls the pogrom, or genocide, against other human beings. You transfer this logic. So the ability to say to an animal, toward an animal that you have killed, whose death you’ve brought about, “It’s only an animal”, becomes the same logic you apply to other human beings when you harm or kill them. It’s a very profound observation because it suggests that in fact there is no line that separates the killing of animals from the killing of human beings. And in fact already at the moment when we kill an animal, we recognize something immediately that we have to erase from our consciousness with this phrase, “It’s only an animal.” LC: It seems to me then, too, that it’s this kind of perpetual haunting, because in that erasure, in that statement, “It’s only an animal,” there’s the animal itself that you had to assert yourself against and its living beingness. Do you think in that moment that he’s talking about—because it seems like kind of a struggle, or a narrative that you have to tell yourself—do you think that is also a moment potentially of agency, or resistance, in terms of an assertion of an animal subjectivity, or umwelt, or however you want to describe it? AML: Absolutely, and I think that Adorno’s phrase and that passage in which he is writing about this scene, an arbitrary, perhaps imaginary but typical scene of the hunt written shortly after the end of World War II, as well as all of Adorno’s pessimistic observations about the state of human culture, are written in a state of deep anguish. As he says in this very brief aphorism, we never believe this, even of the animal. When we tell ourselves, “It’s only an animal”, we in fact never believe it. Why? Because we are there and we see in the presence of an Other, a life that is there. For him it is important that the gaze, as he says, of the wounded animal, falls on the person who has perpetrated the crime. You seek to exclude it, to erase it, to dismiss it by saying that it is only an animal, but it allows you to transfer that very logic into the destruction of other human beings. Your phrase “haunting” is really important because I think that it suggests that a phantom animal becomes the crucial site not only for an animal rights, but for human ethics as well. The ability to kill another, is something in fact we—we, human beings—never properly achieve; we never truly believe this, “It’s only an animal” at that moment, Adorno says. We tell ourselves this, we insist upon it, try to protect ourselves through this mantric repetition of a phrase, “It’s only an animal,” “It’s only an animal,” yet we never believe it. And as such, we are haunted by it. I think the crisis in human subjectivity, in discourses on the human subject that arrive in the late 1950s, has everything to do with this kind of haunted presence. Human subjectivity is now a haunted subjectivity, haunted by animals, by everyone that has been excluded, by women, by people of different races, different ethnicities, different sexual preferences. And in fact the convergence of civil rights, critical theory, animal rights, feminism, the gay and lesbian movements, all of these things really shape—to use Foucault’s term—the episteme in which the primary political focus for many philosophers and theorists erupts in a critique of the subject. LC: Without getting you to offer something prescriptive [both laugh] about where to go from here, I do, I guess, want to ask about where to go from here. Because our audience is sort of the average person, turning on their car radio, or the animal rights activist, what does this mean then for… It just seems like a huge juggernaut, this huge weight, of Western history for people who want to shift, or people talk about blurring the boundaries between humans and animals (and this, of course, is very anxiety-provoking considering the legacy of Western thought), where is the turn now? Or where do you think there are potentials for (I think your phrase is) “remembering animals”? Is that the best can we can do? AML: Again, it’s an important question in so many ways. There are so many things I would like to speak to in response to that question. I would say that I don’t know if I am, by nature, an optimist or a pessimist. I do think, however, that a lot of things have been turning away from this condition, let’s say, or a certain kind of assumption, about the longevity of the human subject. I think that human subjectivity practiced honestly and ethically will continue to re-evaluate the terms of its own existence in relationship to Others, defined in the modern sense. And I do think that a certain ability to exist with an Other—an Other that may not share the same language that I speak, but certainly exists in a world that is as valuable, authentic, legitimate, as my own—will be the goal. I’ll introduce a phrase by Jacques Derrida. Somebody asked him, what does justice mean? What would justice be? He says justice is speaking to the Other in the language of the Other. I find this to be a very beautiful and very optimistic expression. It is not my task to exclude from my world those that I don’t understand; but it is my responsibility, or it is the practice or task of justice, to learn the Other’s language, which is to give the Other that capacity for language, to assume that there is in the Other, language. Language is, according to that earlier part of our conversation, language is that which is traditionally denied to the Other. “I don’t know what you mean when you speak”;, “women speak emotionally”; “ animals don’t have any language”; “the language that less developed cultures speak is not as articulate or precise as the language that I speak”, and so on and so forth. I think this pursuit of justice, defined as Derrida does, is very important. The other thing I will add is that the development of a field that some have called, perhaps temporarily, provisionally “Animal Studies”, is absolutely critical. I think there was a time when Animal Studies would have meant zoology, or in a very focused and direct manner, the pursuit of animal rights. What has been really been exciting for me to observe in this field of animal studies— and it’s not merely a community of scholars and academics; they are artists and performers, who engage in expressive and creative actions, activists who are committed politically, activists who are engaged in their daily lives and daily practices, and also a wide range of scholars in a variety of fields (feminists, literary scholars, historians, historians of ideas, philosophers, and so forth)—there is a certain understanding that “the question of the animal”, as it’s been called, or “of animals” or “of animality”, is not something that is restricted in the end just to the well-being of animals: it affects everybody in fact in ways that are obvious and perhaps less obvious. I think this kind of realization and this kind of community, let’s say, ex-community of people, who are in the field but also outside of their fields but in contact with one another is another way in which, much of what has been established can being critiqued, rethought, unthought, reformulated, toward a viable existence for all forms of life on this earth, and elsewhere. LC: It seems to me that it’s a difficult but important place to be, working in Animal Studies, in these divergent fields. My own experience was coming from Women’s Studies. It’s interesting how you point to these different groups, marginalized groups, and I think that one of the saddest things for me has been also that there’s this incredible moment of optimism, and potential to be thinking about “the animal” in different ways, (and thus us in different ways) but also in those moments of marginalization there has been a scrambling, a push towards a reinforcement of that human subject to say, “Ah, we are just like that, though. We are not like animals.” I think that this is very classic, in terms of an older feminism: liberation is about inclusion into a human culture that is necessarily exclusionary of animals. I think that’s still happening, that while there’s a kind of opening up of what this question means, “the question of the animal”, there’s also a concern, my concern anyway, that a simultaneous reinforcement as marginalized groups fight, using language, using the discourse of rights, etc., to become a part of what they were always excluded from. AML: That’s right. That’s a very difficult situation that traditionally marginalized groups have had to address. When you have been denied very basic civil rights, for example, one of the immediate and legitimate goals of any movement is to make sure that one secures those rights for one’s constituencies, for one’s members, and at the same time to make sure that the pursuit or achievement of that right does not reproduce the exclusion of others that one was fighting against initially. That’s why I think the role of animal rights is so important, because the animal is perhaps the place where life as such has been most excluded in the history of human cultures. And as such it is the place, perhaps, where this rethinking has to begin. There will be all sorts of differences, and all sorts of different objectives and agendas, but when this discussion is practiced rigorously and in good faith, I think ultimately it will be productive. Remember that most of those whom we now think of as the great thinkers were often marginalized in their time; many endured this marginalization, ridicule, hostility. It’s part of the task, and I think one of the comforts we can draw in these situations is that the process is ongoing and one makes a contribution where one can, one engages where one can, and it continues forward hopefully toward some better formulation of life for all beings. LC: Thank you very much. I hope you can join us again on the program sometime. It was really a great honour, and a great pleasure, to speak with you today. AML: It was a great pleasure for me today. And I really appreciate the work you’re doing. The questions were just fantastic. I enjoyed every moment of it. LC: Thank you so much. Today we’ve been speaking with Dr. Akira Mizuta Lippit.

CairnsIn Denmark, the term stenkast (a ‘stone throw’) is used for cairns – stone heaps that have accumulated in places where it was the tradition to throw a stone. A kast (a ‘throw’) would actually be a more correct term, as sometimes the heaps consist of sticks, branches, heather, or peat, rather than stones – in short, whichever was at hand at that particular place. A kast could also consist of both sticks and stones.The majority of the known Danish cairns were presented by August F. Schmidt in 1929. Since then, numerous new ones have been discovered, and we now know of around 80 cairns, cf. the list on page 264 and map Fig. 3. It appears from the descriptions that the majority – a total of 65 – are actual cairns, 14 are heaps of branches, whereas two are described as either peat or heather heaps.Geographically, the majority – a total of 53 – are found in Jutland, with most in North and Central Jutland (Fig. 3). Fifteen are known from Zealand, four from Lolland, four from Funen, and five from Bornholm.Topographically, they are found – naturally – where people would normally be passing: next to roads and in connection with sacred springs, chapels, and places of execution. However, they also occur in less busy places, in woods, along the coast, on moors, and on small islands.A few cairns have been preserved because they are still “active” as reminiscences of customs and habits of past times. This is the case of the cairn called Røsen (“røse” being another Danish term for a cairn) on Trøstrup Moor (no. 45, Fig. 1-2), of Heksens Grav (“The Witch’s Grave”) (no. 27, Fig. 4), and of the branch heap in the wood of Slotved Skov (no. 14, Fig. 5), which was recently revived after having been almost forgotten. Other cairns are maintained as prehistoric relics, as is the case of the branch heap by the name of Stikhoben (“The Stick Heap;” no. 10, Fig. 6) and Kjelds Grav (“Kjeld’s Grave,” no. 59, Fig. 7). Although heaps of stones and branches are included in the Danish Protection of Nature Act as relics of the past worthy of protection, so far merely the two latter have been listed.Whereas the remaining ’throws’ of organic material have probably disintegrated, it is still possible under favourable conditions to retrieve those made from more enduring materials – unless they have been demolished – even if they have practically sunk into oblivion (Figs. 8-10).The oldest known cairn is almost 500 years old. It was situated by the ford Præstbjerg Vad in Vinding parish near the Holstebro-Ribe highroad. Tradition says that the stone heap came into existence as a memorial of a priest in Hanbjerg, who died in the first half of the 16th century following a fall with his horse.Such legends of origin are connected with most of the Danish cairns. They usually tell of some unhappy or alarming happening supposed to have occurred at the place in question. However, they are often so vague and stereotype that they can only rarely be dated or put into a historical context. Indeed, on closer examination several of them turn out to be travelling legends. Apart from the legend of the murdered tradesman, they comprise the legend of the exorcised farmhand and that of the three sisters, who were murdered by three robbers, who turned out to be their own brothers. The latter legend, which is also known from a folksong, is connected to the so-called Varper on the high moor in Pedersker parish on Bornholm (no. 7). Until the early 20th century, it was the custom to maintain these cairns by putting back stones that had fallen down and adorn them with green sprigs. Early folklorists interpreted this as a tradition going back to an old sacrificial ritual, although the custom also seems to have had a pure practical purpose, as these stone heaps were originally cairns marking the road across inland Bornholm.A special group of the Danish cairns are connected with the tradition that someone is buried underneath them, such as a body washed ashore, a murdered child from a clandestine childbirth, a murdered person, several persons killed in a fight, an exorcised farmhand, a suicide, a murderer buried on his scene of crime, or witches and murderers buried at the place of execution. In all these cases, the throwing of a stone was supposed to protect the passers-by against the dead, who was buried in unconsecrated grounds and thus, according to public belief, haunted the spot. Another far less frequent explanation was that the stone was thrown in order to achieve a good journey or luck at the market. In some places, the traveller would throw the stone while shouting a naughty word or in other ways showing his disgust with the dead witch, criminal, or infanticide buried in that particular place. In rather a lot of the cases, as explained by the context, the cairn was merely a memorial to some unhappy occurrence, and the stone was thrown in memory of the deceased.In an article on Norwegian cairns written by the folklorist Svale Solheim, the author attached importance to achieving a clear picture of the position of the cairns (kastrøysarne) in the landscape. A closer examination showed that almost all were situated by the side of old roads – between farms and settlements, through forests, or across mountains – in short, where people would often walk. “The cairns follow the road as the shadow follows the man,” Solheim writes and gives an example of an old road, which had been relocated, and where the cairns had been moved to the new road. Furthermore, the position of the cairns along the roads turned out to not be accidental; they were always found at places that were in one way or other interesting to the travellers. This is why Solheim thought that the stone heaps mostly had the character of cairns or road stones thrown together at certain places for a pure practical purpose. “For instance,” he writes, “we find stone heaps at places along the roads where there is access to fine drinking water. These would also be natural places for a rest, and numerous stone heaps are situated by old resting places. And so it came natural to mark these places by piling up a stone heap, and of course it would be in every traveller’s interest to maintain the heaps.”The older folklore saw the tradition as a relic of pagan rituals and conceptions. As a reaction to this, Solheim and others took a tradition-functionalistic view, according to which most folklore, as seen in the light of the cultural conditions, was considered rational and the rest could be explained as pseudo beliefs, for instance educational fiction and tomfoolery.However, if we turn to our other neighbouring country, Sweden, it becomes more difficult to explain away that we are dealing with sacrificial rites, as here, the most used dialectal term for the stone and branch piles were offerhög, offervål, or offerbål (“offer” is the Swedish word for sacrifice), and when someone threw stones, sticks, or money on the pile, it was called “sacrificing.” An article from 1929 by the anthropologist Sigurd Erixon is especially interesting. Here, he documents how – apart from the cairns with a death motive (largely corresponding to the Danish cases mentioned above), Sweden had both good luck and misfortune averting sacrificial stone throwing (Fig. 13).Whereas the sacrificial cairns connected to deaths were evenly distributed across the whole country, Erixon found that the “good luck cairns” occurred mainly in environments associated with mountain pasture farming or fishing. Based on this observation and desultory comparative studies, Erixon formed the hypothesis that the “good luck cairns” represented an older and more primitive culture than the cairns associated with sacrifices to the dead. “The first,” he writes, “belong rather more to the work area of hunting, fishing, and animal husbandry, roads, and environments, whereas the death sacrificial cairns seem to be closer related to the culture of agriculture.”The problem with the folkloristic material is that most of it is based on reminiscences. In order to study the living tradition, one must turn elsewhere. However, as demonstrated by James Frazer in “The Golden Bough,” this is no problem, as the custom of throwing stones in a pile is known from all over the world, from Africa, Europe, and Asia to Australia and America (Fig. 14).Customs last, their meanings perish – the explanation why, for instance, one must throw a stone onto a stone pile, may be forgotten, or reinterpreted, or get a completely new explanation. The custom probably goes back further than any known religion. However, these have all tried to tally the stone throwing with their “theology.” In Ancient Greece, the stone piles by the roadsides were furnished with statues of Hermes (in the shape of a post with a head and sometimes a phallus). As an escort for the dead, Hermes became the god of the travellers, and just as the gods had thrown stones after Hermes when he was accused of murdering Argus, people could now do the same.With the introduction of Christianity, the throwing of stones was denounced as superstition, and a standard question for the penitents in the so-called books of penance was: “Have you carried stones to a heap?” All across Europe, crosses were planted in the stone heaps – which must have caused problems as it was considered a deadly sin to throw stones after a cross. In the culture connected with pilgrimage, the cairns got a new meaning as markers of important places. For instance, enormous stone piles outside Santiago de Compostela mark the location where pilgrims first spotted the towers of the city’s cathedral (Fig. 15). At many places, the cairns were consecrated to saints, so that now people would carry stones to them as a sacrifice or a penance. The jews also adopted the custom. The Old Testament mentions stone heaps gathered over murdered persons or placed around a larger stone, as the “witness dolmen” built by Jacob and his people to commemmorate his pact with Laban, his father-in-law. However, there is no mention of throwing new stones onto these heaps. However, the latter occurs in the still practiced Jewish custom of placing stones on the gravestones when Jews visit the graves of their dead (Fig. 16).Stone throwing in a Muslim context is illustrated by Edward Westermarck’s large investigation of rituals and popular belief with the Berbers and the Arabs in Marocco in the early 20th century. Unfortunately, it only comprises cairns connected to Muslim saints, but even with this limitation, the investigation gives an idea of the variety of applications. If the stone heap is situated near the grave of a saint, it may mark the demarcation of the sacred area, or it may have come into existence because the wayfaring have a habit of throwing a stone when they pass the grave of a saint, which they do not have time to visit. If the heap is situated on a ridge, it is usually an indication of the spot on a certain pilgrim route where the sacred places become visible for the first time. Other stone heaps mark the places where a holy man or woman is supposed to have been buried, or rested, or camped some time. By a large crossroads outside Andira, Westermark was shown a stone heap, which indicated that this place was the gathering place for saints, who met there at nighttime. The sacred cairns in Marocco are often easily recognized by the fact that they are chalked white at intervals. At some places, the cairns may also be marked with a pole with a white flag symbolising the sacred character of the place.Even Buddhism struggled against the stone heaps, especially in the form of the oboo cult, which was repeatedly reformered and reinterpreted by Buddhist missionaries. And in early 17th-century South America, the converted aristocratic Inca, Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala, made sarcastic remarks about Indians, who “even now” had preserved the bad habit of [sacrificing to] stone heaps (apachitas).”Historically, the Danish cairns can be documented from the 16th century, but the tradition may well be older. Seen in a larger, comparative context, heaps of stones and branches represent an ancient tradition rooted in the deepest cultural layers of mankind. Thus, as cultural relics, they are certainly worthy of preservation, and we ought to put a lot of effort into preserving the few still existing.Whereas it will probably be difficult to establish possible prehistoric stone heaps using archaeology, the possibilities of documenting hitherto unknown stone piles from historical times is considerably higher, if special topographic conditions are taken into consideration. In connection with small mounds on tidal meadows or stone heaps along stretches of old roads and by fords, old places of execution, springs, and grave mounds used secondarily for gallows, one should pay attention to such structures, which may well prove to be covering a grave.In a folklore context, the Danish stone heaps must be characterized as mainly “death sacrifice throws,” whereas only few were “good luck throws.” Due to the limited size of the country, and early farming, cairns and other road marks have not played the same role as a help for travellers and traffic as it did in our neighbouring countries with their huge waste areas.If the stone piles are considered part of a thousands of years old chain of traditions, they belong to the oldest human “monuments.” The global distribution of the phenomenon endows it with a mystery, which, during a travel in Mongolia, Haslund-Christensen caught with a stroke of genius: “We stood before an oboo, one of the largest I have ever seen...one of those mysterious places of sacrifice which are still secretly preserved, built of stone cast upon stone through many generations; a home of mystery which has its roots in the origin of the people itself, and whose religious significance goes much further back in time than any of the religions in the modern world.”Gustav HenningsenDansk Folkemindesamling Jesper LaursenMoesgård Museum Translated by Annette Lerche Trolle

Mid-Century Modern is a style of architecture, product, interior, and graphic design that reflects 20th century developments in modern design. Mid Century Modern style is a combination of many styles and materials, one of which is retro style wrapped with the simplicity of Scandinavian style. Several Scandinavian design elements were applied to the Mid-Century Modern design by displaying clean lines, the use of wood, soft and minimalist organic curves. One of the popular design styles in the Mid-Century Modern era is the Biomorphic form which has a characteristic of curved shape, smooth surface, asymmetrical shape and is oriented towards natural objects and their environment. One of the iconic mid-century design is the La Chaise chair by Charles and Ray Eames, its biomorphic shape inspired by Gaston Lachaise's 'The Floating Figure' sculpture. Through analysis of politic, economy, social and technology and the work of figures in the Mid-Century Modern era, we were able to identify the key concepts, design elements and visual characters of this era, which were then used to determine the concept and design style’s visual character for the brand concept and product collection of Móta Studio.

Antiquity is often synonymous with white marble. Such are the general expectations when visitors enter 21st century museum galleries hosting ancient sculpture. Yet, ancient marble sculptures have never been actually white. They were originally fully painted or otherwise coloured, and today they pose as controlled ruins build by decades of restorations, de-restorations and preservation manifested as encrusted layers and patina. As such they express the modern ideal, meaning ideas of aesthetics developed by 19th and 20th century museums. They do not reflect the ancient artistic practice or the ideas of aesthetics that once guided the ancient craftspeople. The experimental reconstructions -meaning painted copies of authentic sculptures- are therefore often met with suspicion and sometimes frustration, because they explore the artistic practice above the ideal. Unlike the ancient originals, the painted copies are not in any way visually authentic, but fully polychrome, and layers of paint are often applied in thick, opaque layers, thus failing to meet the ideas of aesthetics on behalf of the modern viewer. While the reconstructions serve as seminal research tools in the academic exploration and experimentation with colours on white marble sculptures, they have no precedents in the history of art. This article will therefore explore how reviews of these experimental reconstructions echoes ideas of aesthetics originating from the 19th century, and how a lack of confronting these ideas ultimately empowers the reconstructions with the potential to impose a much-needed material diversity to 21st century classical sculpture galleries.

AbstractGlazes found on ancient Nubian quartzite sculpture were characterized in a previous study by scanning electron microscopy/energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometry (SEM/EDS). Now in the collection of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, these objects were excavated in the early 20th century by the joint Harvard University-Boston Museum of Fine Arts Expedition, in ancient Kerma, the capital of ancient Kush. The project presented here attempts to recreate the ancient technology used to glaze quartzite with compositions determined in the previous study. Raw and fritted experimental glazes were prepared, as well as an alkali paste mixed with a copper colorant. All of the samples were fired in modern kilns. After firing, samples of the glazes and their quartzite substrates were examined with SEM/EDS.

Since the history of humanity, the image of women has always been attractive; poetry, as well as painting and sculpture, novels, stories and many other subjects have been the subject.The beauty of the woman, sometimes her ugliness, sometimes her sorrows, sorrows, tears, joys and excitement sometimes inspired a poet or a painter, sculptor, writer, composer. A woman's portrait, her naked body, her nobility, and even her identity have led to wars between very powerful civilizations.In the works of Spanish painter Picasso, one of the most important, different and even the most critically acclaimed artists of the 20th century, the image of woman is frequently encountered. Picasso, who has received many criticisms from some circles, has been approved and regarded as a genius by some circles, especially in his Cubic paintings, depicting women's portraits and women's bodies in different geometric shapes.Picasso stated that he was influenced by many artists and works by saying I get what I need from other artists ve and that he used what they found appropriate in his own works without hesitation.The aim of this study is to examine Picasso's works with a female image in her cubic paintings and to evaluate her perspective towards women. Fort his reason, this study is a qualitative research method which is a due diligence model and the data is analyzed with document analysis method. The results of the study are important in terms of analyzing the image of women in Picasso’s Works and being a source for other scientific researches. Keywords: Picasso, female image, cubism,women portraits, modern art

03—373 Appleby, Roslyn, Copley, Kath, Sithirajvongsa, Sisamone and Pennycook, Alastair (U. of Technology, Sydney, Australia). Language in development constrained: Three contexts. TESOL Quarterly (Alexandria, VA, USA), 36, 3 (2002), 323—46.03—374 Bruthiaux, Paul (Nat. U. of Singapore). Hold your courses: Language education, language choice, and economic development. TESOL Quarterly (Alexandria, VA, USA), 36, 3 (2002), 275—96.03—375 Cleghorn, Ailie (Concordia U., Montreal, Quebec, Canada) and Rollnick, Marissa. The role of English in individual and societal development: A view from African classrooms. TESOL Quarterly (Alexandria, VA, USA), 36, 3 (2002), 347—72.03—376 Derwing, Tracey M. (U. of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada; Email: tracey.derwing@ualberta.ca), Rossiter, Marian J. and Ehrensberger-Dow, Maureen. ‘They speaked and wrote real good’: Judgements of non-native and native grammar. Language Awareness (Clevedon, UK), 11, 2 (2002), 84—99.03—377 Gebhard, Meg (U. of Massachusetts, USA). Fast capitalism, school reform, and second language literacy practices. The Canadian Modern Language Review/La Revue canadienne des langues vivantes (Toronto, Ont.), 59, 1 (2002), 15—52.03—378 Lin, Angel (City U. of Hong Kong) and Luk, Jasmine. Beyond progressive liberalism and cultural relativism: Towards critical postmodernist, sociohistorically situated perspectives in classroom studies. The Canadian Modern Language Review/La Revue canadienne des langues vivantes (Toronto, Ont.), 59, 1 (2002), 97—124.03—379 Markee, Numa (U. of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA). Language in development: Questions of theory, questions of practice. TESOL Quarterly (Alexandria, VA, USA), 36, 3 (2002), 265—74.03—380 Pavlenko, Aneta (Temple U., USA). ‘We have room for but one language here’: Language and national identity in the US at the turn of the 20th century. Multilingua (Berlin, Germany), 21, 2/3 (2002), 163—96.03—381 Pomerantz, Anne (U. of Pennsylvania, USA). Language ideologies and the production of identities: Spanish as a resource for participation in a multilingual marketplace. Multilingua (Berlin, Germany), 21, 2/3 (2002), 275—302.03—382 Ramanathan, Vai (U. of California at Davis, USA). What does ‘literate in English’ mean?: Divergent literacy practices for vernacular- vs. English-medium students in India. The Canadian Modern Language Review/La Revue canadienne des langues vivantes (Toronto, Ont.), 59, 1 (2002), 125—51.03—383 Schmidt Sr., Ronald. Racialization and language policy: The case of the U.S.A. Multilingua (Berlin, Germany), 21, 2/3 (2002), 141—61.03—384 Vavrus, Frances (Columbia U., New York, USA). Postcoloniality and English: Exploring language policy and the politics of development in Tanzania. TESOL Quarterly (Alexandria, VA, USA), 36, 3 (2002), 373—97.03—385 Williams, Eddie (U. of Reading, UK) and Cooke, James. Pathways and labyrinths: Language and education in development. TESOL Quarterly (Alexandria, VA, USA), 36, 3 (2002), 297—322.

Introduction The decline of marriage in the West has been extensively researched over the last three decades (Carmichael and Whittaker; de Vaus; Coontz; Beck-Gernshein). Indeed, it was fears that the institution would be further eroded by the legalisation of same sex unions internationally that provided the impetus for the Australian government to amend the Marriage Act (1961). These amendments in 2004 sought to strengthen marriage by explicitly defining, for the first time, marriage as a legal partnership between one man and one woman. The subsequent heated debates over the discriminatory nature of this definition have been illuminating, particularly in the way they have highlighted the ongoing social significance of marriage, even at a time it is seen to be in decline. Demographic research about partnering practices (Carmichael and Whittaker; Simons; Parker; Penman) indicates that contemporary marriages are more temporary, fragile and uncertain than in previous generations. Modern marriages are now less about a permanent and “inescapable” union between a dominant man and a submissive female for the purposes of authorised sex, legal progeny and financial security, and more about a commitment between two social equals for the mutual exchange of affection and companionship (Croome). Less research is available, however, about how couples themselves reconcile the inherited constructions of romantic love as selfless and unending, with trends that clearly indicate that romantic love is not forever, ideal or exclusive. Civil marriage ceremonies provide one source of data about representations of love. Civil unions constituted almost 70 per cent of all marriages in Australia in 2010, according to the Australian Bureau of Statistics. The civil marriage ceremony has both a legal and symbolic role. It is a legal contract insofar as it prescribes a legal arrangement with certain rights and responsibilities between two consenting adults and outlines an expectation that marriage is voluntarily entered into for life. The ceremony is also a public ritual that requires couples to take what are usually private feelings for each other and turn them into a public performance as a way of legitimating their relationship. Consistent with the conventions of performance, couples generally customise the rest of the ceremony by telling the story of their courtship, and in so doing they often draw upon the language and imagery of the Western Romantic tradition to convey the personal meaning and social significance of their decision. This paper explores how couples construct the idea of love in their relationship, first by examining the western history of romantic love and then by looking at how this discourse is invoked by Australians in the course of developing civil marriage ceremonies in collaboration with the author. A History of Romantic Love There are many definitions of romantic love, but all share similar elements including an intense emotional and physical attraction, an idealisation of each other, and a desire for an enduring and unending commitment that can overcome all obstacles (Gottschall and Nordlund; Janowiak and Fischer). Romantic love has historically been associated with heightened passions and intense almost irrational or adolescent feelings. Charles Lindholm’s list of clichés that accompany the idea of romantic love include: “love is blind, love overwhelms, a life without love is not worth living, marriage should be for love alone and anything less is worthless and a sham” (5). These elements, which invoke love as sacred, unending and unique, perpetuate past cultural associations of the term. Romantic love was first documented in Ancient Rome where intense feelings were seen as highly suspect and a threat to the stability of the family, which was the primary economic, social and political unit. Roman historian Plutarch viewed romantic love based upon strong personal attraction as disruptive to the family, and he expressed a fear that romantic love would become the norm for Romans (Lantz 352). During the Middle Ages romantic love emerged as courtly love and, once again, the conventions that shaped its expression grew out of an effort to control excessive emotions and sublimate sexual desire, which were seen as threats to social stability. Courtly love, according to Marilyn Yalom, was seen as an “irresistible and inexhaustible passion; a fatal love that overcomes suffering and even death” (66). Feudal social structures had grounded marriage in property, while the Catholic Church had declared marriage a sacrament and a ceremony through which God’s grace could be obtained. In this context courtly love emerged as a way of dealing with the conflict between the individual and family choices over the martial partner. Courtly love is about a pure ideal of love in which the knight serves his unattainable lady, and, by carrying out feats in her honour, reaches spiritual perfection. The focus on the aesthetic ideal was a way to fulfil male and female emotional needs outside of marriage, while avoiding adultery. Romantic love re-appeared again in the mid-eighteenth century, but this time it was associated with marriage. Intellectuals and writers led the trend normalising romantic love in marriage as a reaction to the Enlightenment’s valorisation of reason, science and materialism over emotion. Romantics objected to the pragmatism and functionality induced by industrialisation, which they felt destroyed the idea of the mysterious and transcendental nature of love, which could operate as a form of secular salvation. Love could not be bought or sold, argued the Romantics, “it is mysterious, true and deep, spontaneous and compelling” (Lindholm 5). Romantic love also emerged as an expression of the personal autonomy and individualisation that accompanied the rise of industrial society. As Lanz suggests, romantic love was part of the critical reflexivity of the Enlightenment and a growing belief that individuals could find self actualisation through the expression and expansion of their “emotional and intellectual capacities in union with another” (354). Thus it was romantic love, which privileges the feelings and wishes of an individual in mate selection, that came to be seen as a bid for freedom by the offspring of the growing middle classes coerced into marriage for financial or property reasons. Throughout the 19th century romantic love was seen as a solution to the dehumanising forces of industrialisation and urbanisation. The growth of the competitive workplace—which required men to operate in a restrained and rational manner—saw an increase in the search for emotional support and intimacy within the domestic domain. It has been argued that “love was the central preoccupation of middle class men from the 1830s until the end of the 19th century” (Stearns and Knapp 771). However, the idealisation of the aesthetic and purity of love impacted marriage relations by casting the wife as pure and marital sex as a duty. As a result, husbands pursued sexual and romantic relationships outside marriage. It should be noted that even though love became cemented as the basis for marriage in the 19th century, romantic love was still viewed suspiciously by religious groups who saw strong affection between couples as an erosion of the fundamental role of the husband in disciplining his wife. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries romantic love was further impacted by urbanisation and migration, which undermined the emotional support provided by extended families. According to Stephanie Coontz, it was the growing independence and mobility of couples that saw romantic love in marriage consolidated as the place in which an individual’s emotional and social needs could be fully satisfied. Coontz says that the idea that women could only be fulfilled through marriage, and that men needed women to organise their social life, reached its heights in the 1950s (25-30). Changes occurred to the structure of marriage in the 1960s when control over fertility meant that sex was available outside of marriage. Education, equality and feminism also saw women reject marriage as their only option for fulfilment. Changes to Family Law Acts in western jurisdictions in the 1970s provided for no-fault divorce, and as divorce lost its stigma it became acceptable for women to leave failing marriages. These social shifts removed institutional controls on marriage and uncoupled the original sexual, emotional and financial benefits packaged into marriage. The resulting individualisation of personal lifestyle choices for men and women disrupted romantic conventions, and according to James Dowd romantic love came to be seen as an “investment” in the “future” that must be “approached carefully and rationally” (552). It therefore became increasingly difficult to sustain the idea of love as a powerful, mysterious and divine force beyond reason. Methodology In seeking to understand how contemporary partnering practices are reconstituting romantic love, I draw upon anecdotal data gathered over a nine-year period from my experiences as a marriage celebrant. In the course of personalising marriage ceremonies, I pose a series of questions designed to assist couples to explain the significance of their relationship. I generally ask brides and grooms why they love their fiancé, why they want to legalise their relationship, what they most treasure about their partner, and how their lives have been changed by their relationship. These questions help couples to reflexively interrogate their own relationship, and by talking about their commitment in concrete terms, they produce the images and descriptions that can be used to describe for guests the internal motivations and sentiments that have led to their decision to marry. I have had couples, when prompted to explain how they know the other person loves them say, in effect: “I know that he loves me because he brings me a cup of coffee every morning” or “I know that she loves me because she takes care of me so well.” These responses are grounded in a realism that helps to convey a sense of sincerity and authenticity about the relationship to the couple’s guests. This realism also helps to address the cynicism about the plausibility of enduring love. The brides and grooms in this sample of 300 couples were a socially, culturally and economically diverse group, and they provided a wide variety of responses ranging from deeply nuanced insights into the nature of their relationship, to admissions that their feelings were so private and deeply felt that words were insufficient to convey their significance. Reoccurring themes, however, emerged across the cases, and it is evident that even as marriage partnerships may be entered into for a variety of reasons, romantic love remains the mechanism by which couples talk of their feelings for each other. Australian Love and Marriage Australians' attitudes to romantic love and marriage have, understandably, been shaped by western understandings of romantic love. It is evident, however, that the demands of late modern capitalist society, with its increased literacy, economic independence and sexual equality between men and women, have produced marriage as a negotiable contract between social equals. For some, like Carol Pateman, this sense of equality within marriage may be illusory. Nonetheless, the drive for individual self-fulfilment by both the bride and groom produces a raft of challenges to traditional ideas of marriage as couples struggle to find a balance between independence and intimacy; between family and career; and between pursuing personal goals and the goals of their partners. This shift in the nature of marriage has implications for the “quest for undying romantic love,” which according to Anthony Giddens has been replaced by other forms of relationship, "each entered into for its own sake, for what can be derived by each person from a sustained association with another; and which is continued only in so far as it is thought by both parties to deliver enough satisfactions for each individual to stay within it” (qtd. in Lindholm 6). The impact of these social changes on the nature of romantic love in marriage is evident in how couples talk about their relationship in the course of preparing a ceremony. Many couples describe the person they are marrying as their best friend, and friendship is central to their commitment. This description supports research by V.K. Oppenheimer which indicates that many contemporary couples have a more “egalitarian collaborative approach to marriage” (qtd. in Carmichael and Whittaker 25). It is also standard for couples to note in ceremonies that they make each other happy and contented, with many commenting upon how their partners have helped to bring focus and perspective to their work-oriented lives. These comments tend to invoke marriage as a refuge from the isolation, competition, and dehumanising elements of workplaces. Since emotional support is central to the marriage contract, it is not surprising that care for each other is another reoccurring theme in ceremonies. Many brides and grooms not only explicitly say they are well taken care of by their partner, but also express admiration for their partner’s treatment of their families and friends. This behaviour appears to be seen as an indicator of the individual’s capacity for support and commitment to family values. Many couples admire partner’s kindness, generosity and level of personal self-sacrifice in maintaining the relationship. It is also not uncommon for brides and grooms to say they have been changed by their love: become kinder, more considerate and more tolerant. Honesty, communication skills and persistence are also attributes that are valued. Brides and grooms who have strong communication skills are also praised. This may refer to interpersonal competency and the willingness to acquire the skills necessary to negotiate the endless compromises in contemporary marriage now that individualisation has undermined established rules, rituals and roles. Persistence and the ability not to be discouraged by setbacks is also a reoccurring theme, and this connects with the idea that marriage is work. Many couples promise to grow together in their marriage and to both take responsibility for the health of their relationship. This promise implies awareness that marriage is not the fantasy of happily ever after produced in romantic popular culture, but rather an arrangement that requires hard work and conscious commitment, particularly in building a union amidst many competing options and distractions. Many couples talk about their relationship in terms of companionship and shared interests, values and goals. It is also not uncommon for couples to say that they admire their partner for supporting them to achieve their life goals or for exposing them to a wider array of lifestyle choices and options like travel or study. These examples of interdependence appear to make explicit that couples still see marriage as a vehicle for personal freedom and self-realisation. The death of love is also alluded to in marriage ceremonies. Couples talk of failed past relationships, but these are produced positively as a mechanism that enables the couple to know that they have now found an enduring relationship. It is also evident that for many couples the decision to marry is seen as the formalisation of a preexisting commitment rather than the gateway to a new life. This is consistent with figures that show that 72 per cent of Australian couples chose to cohabit before marriage (Simons 48), and that cohabitation has become the “normative pathway to marriage” (Penman 26). References to children also feature in marriage ceremonies, and for the couples I have worked with marriage is generally seen as the pre-requisite for children. Couples also often talk about “being ready” for marriage. This seems to refer to being financially prepared. Robyn Parker citing the research of K. Edin concludes that for many modern couples “rushing into marriage before being ‘set’ is irresponsible—marrying well (in the sense of being well prepared) is the way to avoid divorce” (qtd. in Parker 81). From this overview of reoccurring themes in the production of Australian ceremonies it is clear that romantic love continues to be associated with marriage. However, couples describe a more grounded and companionable attachment. These more practical and personalised sentiments serve to meet both the public expectation that romantic love is a precondition for marriage, while also avoiding the production of romantic love in the ceremony as an empty cliché. Grounded descriptions of love reveal that attraction does not have to be overwhelming and unconquerable. Indeed, couples who have lived together and are intimately acquainted with each other’s habits and disposition, appear to be most comfortable expressing their commitment to each other in more temperate, but no less deeply felt, terms. Conclusion This paper has considered how brides and grooms constitute romantic love within the shifting partnering practices of contemporary Australia. It is evident “in the midst of significant social and economic change and at a time when individual rights and freedom of choice are important cultural values” marriage remains socially significant (Simons 50). This significance is partially conveyed through the language of romantic love, which, while freighted with an array of cultural and historical associations, remains the lingua franca of marriage, perhaps because as Roberto Unger observes, romantic love is “the most influential mode of moral vision in our culture” (qtd. in Lindholm 5). It is thus possible to conclude, that while marriage may be declining and becoming more fragile and impermanent, the institution remains important to couples in contemporary Australia. Moreover, the language and imagery of romantic love, which publicly conveys this importance, remains the primary mode of expressing care, affection and hope for a partnership, even though the changed partnering practices of late modern capitalist society have exposed the utopian quality of romantic love and produced a cynicism about the viability of its longevity. It is evident in the marriage ceremonies prepared by the author that while the language of romantic love has come to signify a broader range of more practical associations consistent with the individualised nature of modern marriage and demystification of romantic love, it also remains the best way to express what Dowd and Pallotta describe as a fundamental human “yearning for communion with and acceptance by another human being” (571). 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