Journal articles on the topic 'Scrap metal industry United States'

The article discusses the issue of increasing the efficiency of the Russian steel industry taking into consideration the requirements of the concept of sustainable development. To solve this problem the author reviews the practices of metal scrap collection and recycling at the leading enterprises of the North America, Europe and the forecast of metal recycling development in the world economy up to the year 2050. This part of the survey shows that technologies of metal scrap and other types of industrial waste recycling could result in considerable economy of different types of resources. The great benefit of using metal scrap recycling technologies by the companies in the United States and the European Union is new jobs creation and improvement of environmental conditions. Taking into account the mentioned benefits of using recycling technologies in steel industry the author analyzes the forecast information and concludes that the further development of steel industry may lead to two times increase in metal scrap collection and recycling by the middle of the XXI century. Companies of the Chinese People Republic, countries members of NAFTA and Japan will prevail in the regional structure of metal scrap consumption. The article also states that the system of metal scrap collection and recycling in the Russian Federation will have to be recreated on the qualitatively new foundation. The most important distinctive feature of a new system still under creation from the former one is that before all the enterprises engaged into metal scrap collection had made part of a single concern and operated as a branch of steel industry. In this regard the Russian Federation faces the problem of re-creation of institutional foundation of metal scrap collection and recycling as well as creation of mechanisms to manage this industry efficiently. This in turn will require the development of legal, regulatory, organizational, economic and scientific support.

Companies in the United States need to mine billions of tons of raw natural aggregate each year. At the same time, billions of scrap tires are stockpiled every year. As a result, replacing the natural aggregate with recycled aggregate is beneficial to the construction industry and the environment. This paper is part of a comprehensive project that developed, and field implemented, a new eco-friendly rubberized chip seal where the mineral aggregate in chip seal is partially or totally replaced with crumb rubber made of recycled tires. This paper presents an extensive study of the environmental impact of using rubber aggregate in chip seal pavement in terms of leaching under different pH conditions, including simulated acid rain. The results are compared with those of conventional chip seal. Leaching from the constituents of chip seal, that is, rubber aggregate and emulsion, was investigated. Two types of rubber and two types of asphalt emulsions were studied. The leaching performance of rubberized chip seal was also investigated. This study revealed that the toxic heavy metals leached from the rubberized chip seal, for pH ranging from 4 to 10, were below that of the EPA drinking water standards. In addition, a significant reduction of heavy metal leaching was recorded when rubber was used with emulsion in the form of chip seal pavement under different pH conditions. Finally, the metal leaching in all types of samples (including rubber, asphalt emulsion, and chip seal) decreased with the increase in pH value.

This study explores how industry-specific technological, organizational, and managerial features affected the employment of old male manufacturing workers in the early-twentieth-century United States. Industrial characteristics favorably related to the employment of old industrial workers include high labor productivity, less capital- and material-intensive production, short workdays, low intensity of work, high job flexibility, and formalized employment relationships. Results show that aged industrial workers were heavily concentrated in “unfavorable” industries, suggesting that the contemporary argument of “industrial scrap heap” was applicable for most of the manufacturing workers in the early-twentieth-century United States.

Seismic isolation was selected as a potential method of increasing the structural integrity margins for liquid metal reactor power plants. Analyses indicated that seismic isolation would reduce by 90 to 95% the acceleration experienced by the reactor vessel at its fundamental frequency. A cooperative development program was established by electric utility organizations in Japan, the United Kingdom and the United States. Alternative seismic isolator concepts were compared and the laminated elastomer/steel with lead plug concept was selected to be the first concept tested. Sixteen half-sized units were tested, the results compared with predictions and potential isolator design improvements inferred. The cooperative program is continuing through testing of other isolator concepts.

With the development of economic globalization, the problem of unequal distribution of globalization dividends among and within countries has become increasingly serious, and reverse globalization has a great impact on the national economy and export trade. This paper uses the KOF Globalization Index and the world input-output tables in World Input-Output Database (WIOD), and empirically studies the transformation of a country’s export trade and export structure in the context of reverse globalization from the perspectives of world, country, industry, subdivided manufacturing and service industry. The results show that reverse globalization has a significant non-linear negative effect on economic development and export trade. Compared with developed and European Union (EU) countries, the exports of developing and non-EU countries are more affected by reverse globalization shocks. Reverse globalization has the greatest inhibition on the secondary industry exports, followed by the tertiary industry. The suppressive effects on the exports of 12 subdivided manufacturing and 14 subdivided service in China are significantly greater than that of the United States, but most of sub-industry exports in the United States are more sensitive. Besides, China’s exports of high-product-complexity industry such as metal products, medicinal chemicals, electrical and optical products and mechanical equipments are greatly affected by reverse globalization, while the exports of water transportation, construction, land transportation are relatively less restrained.

Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials (NORMs) in the offshore petroleum industry are generally associated with the formation of scale in pipes and vessels. As scale and sludge contain radioactive isotopes of radium they are in the category of Low Specific Activity (LSA) NORMs. Handling of NORMs creates issues involving occupational health and safety, environmental protection and radioactive waste management and waste disposal. Barium(Radium)Sulfate scale is highly insoluble and can create serious production problems by clogging pipes and valves.The paper discusses the external gamma radiation monitoring at the external surfaces of well and oil production pipes which assists in establishing the scale thickness patterns in pipes and in identifying the optimum location of a scale inhibitor injection point.To minimise radiation doses received by workers special NORM handling Work Procedures and Instructions supported by radiation protection training need to be developed. If facility personnel are trained in radiation protection and Work Procedures and Instructions are adopted it is possible to effectively manage personal radiation exposures below the public limit of 1 millisievert per year. Under such conditions no personal radiation monitoring during routine operations is required and the assessment of routine annual external radiation doses may be carried out through yearly external gamma radiation surveys of of fshore petroleum production facilities.The NORM waste cannot be disposed of onshore within the same disposal sites used for general non-radioactive waste. In Australia only the NORM waste generated in Western Australia can be disposed of onshore in an official low level radioactive waste disposal facility. It is important that Governments of other States and Territories address the onshore NORM waste disposal option. Regulations should also address a screening method for scrap metal contaminated by NORMs to be released for smelting.

Metal Injection Molding (MIM) of Titanium and its alloys has been the topic of many scientific research activities and presentations for many years. By now there are several companies that focus on applying the gained knowledge for producing Titanium MIM components in production quantities. This is only possible since Titanium powder in repeatable quality is available in production quantities and the specialized production equipment was developed over the recent years. Two ASTM standards for Titanium MIM implants have published and several Titanium MIM components have received approval around the globe, including approval by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the United States. Based on this foundation, several large Medical Technology companies started developing next generation implants using MIM as the preferred production method in order to use the design advantages and / or reduce costs. The aerospace industry also started recognizing the advantages of Titanium MIM. There are several Titanium MIM parts that are already being used in commercial airplanes in production quantities. Additional applications in order to replace other materials, reduce costs or use the design advantages of MIM are currently being developed. The cost reduction related to Titanium MIM allows the usage of this great material in other industries like for sporting goods, outdoor equipment or luxury products. The Titanium MIM industry is slowly maturing and large companies started applying the great advantages into the product portfolio. It will be imperative that the relatively small Titanium MIM companies perform according to the high expectations of the large potential customers that would like to use the technology for future products.

The paper gives a brief review of properties and applications of developed extra-hard nanostructured composite materials and coatings based on them. The presentresearch suggestsaerospace applications of nanostructured composite materials based on carbides, carbonitrides and diboridesof transition and refractory metals. To improve the technical and economic performance of gas turbine engines, it is advisable to use new composite structural materials whose basic physicomechanical properties are several times superior to traditional ones. The greatest progress in developing new composites should be expected in the area of materials created on the basis of polymer, metal, intermetallic and ceramic matrices. Currently components and assemblies of gas turbine engines and multiple lighting power units with long operation life and durability will vigorously develop. Next-generation composites are studied in all developed countries, primarily in the United States and Japan.

In order to analysis in the next 20 years, how many copper resources China has, when the peak demand peak comes, how great is the supply gap, and how to deal with that situation, this paper uses the authority of statistical data and material from the international copper research group, the world bureau of metal, growth and development center, the United States geological survey, China's national bureau of statistics, China nonferrous metals industry association, and in the system analysis of China's future economic and social development trend, to analyze the Chinese copper resources future demand, supply tendency, which has been clear about the China's future copper resources supply the challenge.

The accidental discovery of a seventeen-pound gold nugget by a trio of adolescents in Cabarrus County, North Carolina in 1799 spurred a fitful gold rush that spread throughout the southeastern United States. From the early 1800s to 1849 the search for the precious metal fomented exploration and various industries along the gold-bearing regions of the Piedmont and eastern Appalachian Mountains from Alabama to Maryland. The focus of the nascent gold industry was off-season, haphazard placer mining by individuals and small family groups who used primitive medieval mining techniques and backbreaking physical labor. By the 1820s, the part-time, untrained farmers, slaves, and "boomers" had depleted the easily found nuggets and lodes in the "branch" streams. New techniques and innovations in machinery were developed by a set of diverse, yet interconnected, events and individuals to bring forth the golden metal. Thus, the gold fields of the Southeastern United States were a proving ground for the placer mining techniques and technology that fostered economic and industrial expansion in the agriculturally dominated region, as well as substantially contributing to the wealth of the new nation. This fifty-year period of placer mining innovation and practical application in the Southern gold fields provided the skills and basic equipment that promoted the whirlwind of mining frenzy that was the 1849 California Gold Rush.

Recycling aluminum alloys has been shown to provide major economic benefits, as a result it is appropriate for the aluminum industry and the United States as a whole to identify, develop, and implement all technologies that will optimize the benefits of recycling. This paper will focus primarily alloy design for optimizing the reuse of recycled metal; this is both the most forward looking as we move toward a more recycling friendly world and the most overlooked for its potential in maximizing the recycle loop. Some specific approaches to alloy design for recycling are put forth, and some specific compositions for evaluation are proposed. Options for moving forward to further capitalize of the advantages of aluminum recycling are also addressed.

The energy storage industry has expanded globally as costs continue to fall and opportunities in consumer, transportation, and grid applications are defined. As the rapid evolution of the industry continues, it has become increasingly important to understand how varying technologies compare in terms of cost and performance. This paper defines and evaluates cost and performance parameters of six battery energy storage technologies (BESS)—lithium-ion batteries, lead-acid batteries, redox flow batteries, sodium-sulfur batteries, sodium-metal halide batteries, and zinc-hybrid cathode batteries—four non-BESS storage systems—pumped storage hydropower, flywheels, compressed air energy storage, and ultracapacitors—and combustion turbines. Cost and performance information was compiled based on an extensive literature review, conversations with vendors and stakeholders, and costs of systems procured at sites across the United States. Detailed cost and performance estimates are presented for 2018 and projected out to 2025. Annualized costs were also calculated for each technology.

The article is dedicated to the citizens of Liepāja city Teodors Bredžs- Briedis (1885–1940) and Nikolajs Bredžs-Briedis (1909–1989) – father and son. Father Teodors Bredžs-Briedis was an entrepreneur in Liepāja city, but his son, Nikolajs, graduate of the Faculty of Chemistry (1936) of the University of Latvia, emigrated to the United States of America at the end of the Second World War. Nikolajs Bredžs-Briedis had a brilliant scientist’s career – his research work in the metal welding industry was valued in 1955 by the Lincoln Gold Medal Award of the American Welding Society. In 1956, he was admitted to the US Honorary Society of Scientists and Researchers. Nikolajs Bredžs-Briedis has received 27 patents and is the author of 14 scientific publications.

Magnesium is increasingly becoming an attractive alternative to steel, aluminum, and polymer composites for vehicle weight reduction due to its ability to meet vehicle performance requirements. To meet the Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFÉ) standard and to maximize the weight reduction of vehicles in the coming years, the magnesium applications are expected to increase significantly in both structural and powertrain components where material creep resistance is required. This first half of the paper will give an overview of recent automotive magnesium R&D programs including Light Metal Cast, Magnesium Powertrain Cast Components, and Structural Cast Magnesium Development supported by the United States Council for Automotive Research (USCAR) and the US Department of Energy. The USCAR is the umbrella organization of DaimlerChrysler Corporation, Ford Motor Company and General Motors, which was formed in 1992 to further strengthen the technology base of the US automotive industry through cooperative, pre-competitive research. During the last decade, the magnesium foundry industry has grown, yet the material and manufacturing process costs of magnesium die-casting has impeded large-scale implementation into the automotive industry. As a result, Ford Motor Company initiated a Cost Reduced Magnesium Die Castings Using Heated Runners (CORMAG) program in partnership of the Advanced Technology Program of the US National Institute of Standards and Technology. The second half of this paper will briefly present the program goal, progress and its impact. In addition, this paper will present some magnesium applications, including a 2004 Ford F-150 light truck Front End Support Assembly and a 2005 Ford GT instrument panel structure.

We conducted a comprehensive review of air emissions resulting from burning wood residues in industrial boilers and potential methods to control these emissions. This report compares average emissions with similar data published by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency for the burning of fossil fuels coal, oil, and natural gas in industrial boilers. As compared with coal or oil combustion, wood combustion in boilers generally leads to lower emissions of trace metals, hydrochloric acid, sulfur dioxide (SO2), and nitrogen oxides (NOx); higher emissions of carbon monoxide, polyaromatic hydrocarbons, and total volatile organic compounds; and comparable emissions of particulate matter and polychlorinated dibenzo-dioxins and -furans (PCDDs/Fs) (both of which are highly dependent on the efficiency of the ultimate particulate matter control device). Most importantly, wood combustion is carbon dioxide-neutral, a distinct advantage over fossil fuel combustion. Firing wood in stoker units with sulfur-containing fuels, such as coal and oil, leads to a reduction in expected SO2 emissions because of the high carbon and alkali content of most wood ash, and cofiring wood with coal also has some benefits for NOx reduction. This report also discusses the generation and types of combustion ashes resulting from wood burning in mostly combination boilers in the United States and Canada, and provides an overview of ash management practices and the salient characteristics of such ashes relative to their trace metal, organic, and PCDD/F contents.

India, which has long been recognized as a well-endowed nation in natural mineral resources, is a major minerals producer. According to the report of Indian Ministry of Mines 2013, Indian mining and metals sector ranked the fourth among the mineral producer countries, behind China, United States, and Russia and had in fact led the economy into recovery from the global financial crisis. Since this industry has turned into a significant issue, this paper attempts to rank the performance of 23 Indian mining and metal companies and to evaluate and measure the productivity change of these sectors during different time periods (2010–2014). Besides, the authors would like to choose one advanced model of MPI to see the performance of these companies in the past-present period and the 4-year future period (2015–2018) by using forecasting results of Grey system theory. The results revealed that from the past to future period the National Mineral Development Corporation, Hindalco Industries Limited, and Coal India always keep their highest best rankings among 23 DMUs regarding performance scores. This study contributes better insights of Indian mining industry as it is the core of the economy.

The article is devoted to the search for solutions to adapt the strategic planning of the Russian metallurgical industry to modern political and economic conditions. The sanctions restrictions mutually applied against Russia by the countries of the European Union and the United States, and escalated in 2022, led to the destruction of established trade and financial flows, which seriously complicated the work of the Russian metallurgy. Therefore, the author of the article set the task to develop mechanisms for adapting the strategies of metallurgical companies to the current economic situation. The methodological basis of the current material was the analysis of annual reports of companies in the industry, as well as a number of works by Russian researchers devoted to the topic of modern development of metallurgy. It is noted that, despite the negative consequences of the prohibitive measures, the industry has promising sales markets and opportunities to maintain production volumes. The key results of the study were the data obtained on the share of metal exports and the structure of supplies to the foreign market. Ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy are considered separately from this perspective, which is rare in modern research. In the course of the work, the current and prospective strategic directions for the development of the metallurgical industry were determined. A potential decrease in the interest of Russian companies in the environmental component of their activities, which was largely determined by dependence on foreign markets for debt capital and sales, was noted.

The competitive forces that have dominated the aluminum industry over the last decade are similar to those in many other industries. New international competitors, driven primarily by their ability to compete with long-standing U.S. producers on the basis of cost and quality, have made significant inroads into virtually all aluminum markets.As more emerging nations, driven by the need to create jobs and hard currency rather than profits, entered the primary metal business and exported their output, ingot prices fell. Eventually, ingot became a commodity traded in the international marketplace, with metal prices no longer related to production costs.While these structural changes in the worldwide aluminum industry are of great concern (particularly in the United States), by no means do they signal the light metal's demise in the materials marketplace. What they have done, however, is to provide the impetus for the development and pursuit of economic and technical strategies designed to ensure long-term, profitable growth.By the beginning of the 21st century, most monolithic metals will be firmly entrenched as commodities. This will solidify emerging nations as key producers, based upon their access to raw materials, less costly labor and energy resources, and subsidized capital. The ability of companies like Alcoa to compete in this commodity marketplace will be based upon their ability to reduce manufacturing costs and provide technically-based product differentiation, primarily via quality control, through new and improved processing technologies.

Important processes within the shipbuilding and ship repair industry include metal cutting, welding, surface preparation, and painting. When dealing with ship repair, ships are brought into drydocks to carry out necessary repairs. Typical repairs include but are not limited to dry or wet abrasive blasting for removing the old paint and rust followed by repainting of the external hull. Also, the painting of superstructure is carried out as necessary. Additionally, many metal cutting and welding operations are carried out. Air pollutant emissions generated from repair operations carried out within drydock are challenging to quantify, particularly if some of these repair activities do not have reliable emission factors. This paper investigates the feasibility of the inverse dispersion model for quantifying drydock emissions in a shipyard environment. The authors use a well-established Gaussian dispersion model that is used as a regulatory model in the United States and many other countries in a two-step process using a code developed in MATLAB: (1) Source-to-Receptor modeling to compute ambient concentrations using assumed emissions from various sources and meteorological conditions, and (2) The utilization of the computed ambient concentrations at various receptors to compute emissions at those sources (assumed in the first step) using the inverse Gaussian code developed.

<p>RCEP (Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership), a modern, comprehensive, high-level and mutually beneficial agreement was signed<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">, which</span> marks the official establishment of the free trade zone with the largest participating population, the most diverse membership structure and the greatest development potential in the world. Benefit<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">ed</span> from RCEP<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">, the</span> regional trade liberalization <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">can be achieved and the</span> rising global inflation expectations <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">can be reached</span>. The mining industry, especially the metal industry, may usher in a new period of development opportunities. However, potential risks still need to be paid attention to. For example, the implementation of RCEP is <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">far less than expectations; </span>the situation of Sino-US trade has further deteriorated<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">;</span> and the implementation of economic stimulus policies in Europe and the United States falls <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">out</span> of expectations.</p>

The atmospheric corrosion presented in indoors of a seafood industry, generated aggressive environments and with this deterioration in steel cans used to can sardine and tuna food, which were corroded in the manufacturing processes of this industry evaluated. Even using metal containers with a special coating to can tuna and sardines and with the exposition of aggressive environments the deterioration of these cans was made, before being used for the container of tuna and sardines in the manufacturing areas. The air pollutants as sulfurs principally, which generated the aggressive environments penetrated through cracks and air conditioning systems to indoors of the seafood industry evaluated in Ensenada, promoting the corrosion process originated. The occurrence of corrosion in the seafood industry evaluated, increased the costs of the manufacturing processes for the necessity of takeoff the deterioration of steel cans corroded used to pack tuna and sardine in 45% of the steel cans received of an industry of United States, and around 35% of the steel cans used had to be replaced. This represented a decrease in competitiveness in this industrial company evaluated, presenting economic losses, caused by presence the air pollution of Ensenada, which generated the deterioration in steel cans, being originated principally sulfurs of cars and chloride ions of sea breeze. Recently in this city of the northwest of the Mexican Republic, the indices of air pollutants emitted by the traffic vehicle, are increased and overpass the air quality standards (AQS), determined by the Secretaria de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales (SEMARNAT-Mexico) and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA-USA). For this reason an analysis of the atmospheric corrosion in indoors of a seafood industry located in Ensenada city, was made to identify the aggressive agents that reacted with the metallic surface of steel cans used to can tuna and sardine, with micro evaluation with technique of Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and nano analysis with Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES) method. The investigation was made in 2019.

The present work reports the synergistic and inhibitory adsorption effects involved in the multicomponent adsorption of heavy metal ions (Fe (II), Pb (II)), and major elements from oil mill liquid waste (OMW) using natural bentonite as adsorbent cames from Nador (North-East Morocco). Morocco is one of the most olive oil producing Mediterranean countries. This industry, which is so beneficial to the national economy, leaves two toxic and non-biodegradable residues (liquid/solid). OMW or margin is a current liquid pollutant that has been listed by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The classical methods used for phenol removal are expensive or limited to large-scale applications such as biological and thermal decomposition methods. The margins used in the studies were collected from a semimodern oil mill (Nador-Morocco). The results of the physicochemical analyses showed that the effluents of the oil mills showed that they are highly polluted, in particular the suspended solids, COD, and iron contents of around 154.82 (mg/l) and copper 31.72 (mg/l). Samples of OMW mixed with raw bentonites at different percentages vary between 10 % and 80 %. Different interactions between bentonite and metal ions dealing with the decrease of the concentrations. This study proves that this bentonite is an effective adsorbent for the elimination of heavy metals from OMW.

ABSTRACT The resistance of Listeria monocytogenes to cadmium and arsenic has been used extensively for strain subtyping. However, limited information is available on the prevalence of such resistance among isolates from the environment of food-processing plants. In addition, it is not known whether the resistance of such isolates to heavy metals may correlate with resistance to quaternary ammonium compounds extensively used as disinfectants in the food-processing industry. In this study, we characterized 192 L. monocytogenes isolates (123 putative strains) from the environment of turkey-processing plants in the United States for resistance to cadmium and arsenic and to the quaternary ammonium disinfectant benzalkonium chloride (BC). Resistance to cadmium was significantly more prevalent among strains of serotypes 1/2a (or 3a) and 1/2b (or 3b) (83% and 74%, respectively) than among strains of the serotype 4b complex (19%). Resistance to BC was encountered among 60% and 51% of the serotype 1/2a (or 3a) and 1/2b (or 3b) strains, respectively, and among 7% of the strains of the serotype 4b complex. All BC-resistant strains were also resistant to cadmium, although the reverse was not always the case. In contrast, no correlation was found between BC resistance and resistance to arsenic, which overall was low (6%). Our findings suggest that the processing environment of turkey-processing plants may constitute a reservoir for L. monocytogenes harboring resistance to cadmium and to BC and raise the possibility of common genetic elements or mechanisms mediating resistance to quaternary ammonium disinfectants and to cadmium in L. monocytogenes.

Zinc chloride smoke bomb exposure is frequently seen in military drills, combat exercises, metal industry works, and disaster simulations. Smoke exposure presents with variety of pulmonary damage based on the intensity of the exposure. Smoke induced severe acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is often fatal and there are no standard treatment guidelines. We report the first survival of smoke induced severe ARDS in the United States (US) with prolonged use of high dose steroids (five weeks) and lung protective ventilation alone. Previously reported surviving patients in China and Taiwan required extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) and other invasive modalities. We suggest that an extended course of high dose corticosteroids should be considered for the treatment of smoke inhalation related ARDS and should be introduced as early as possible to minimize the morbidity and mortality. We further suggest that patients with smoke inhalation should be observed in the hospital for at least 48 to 72 hours before discharge, as ARDS can have a delayed onset. Being vigilant for infectious complications is important due to prolonged steroid treatment regimen. Patients must also be monitored for critical illness polyneuromyopathy. Additionally, upper airway injury should be suspected and early evaluation by otorhinolaryngology may be beneficial.

Nuclear energy is the leading clean energy source in the United States with 99 nuclear power plants generating approximately 20% of the country’s electricity. While the growth of the industry helps to reduce our reliance on fossil fuels, there is also an increase in nuclear waste. The demand for on-site dry cask spent nuclear fuel storage has increased due to complications with the Yucca Mountain Project and diminishing pool capacity. A novel dry cask consisting of an aluminum metal matrix for effective thermal conductivity with boron carbide as a neutron absorbing additive was investigated using gravity sand casting techniques. X-ray diffraction, Raman spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, and optical microscopy were used to characterize the resultant microstructure, including boron carbide incorporation and heterogeneity. Results indicate vortex and nonvortex mixing in air with boron carbide (1–10 µm diameter) produces large amounts of porosity and insufficient wetting. Use of a larger particle size distribution of boron carbide (20–60 µm diameter) during high speed vortex mixing prior to casting has shown significant dispersion of up to 12 wt% sufficient for neutron shielding with appropriate wall thickness. These results validate the use of gravity sand casting as a means to produce borated aluminum for an effective alternative to fuel storage.

Wastewater treatment sludge, which is the largest volume residual waste stream generated by the pulp and paper industry, is generally disposed of in a dedicated landfill. Composting the sludge is an alternative method proposed by the Asian Regional Research Program on Environmental Technology-De La Salle University (ARRPET-DLSU) Minor Issue Group. The Philippine Department of Agriculture's (DA) standards for an organic fertilizer's maximum allowable content of heavy metals provided the legislative regulation for the conversion of sludge to compost. The research was designed to characterize the sludge samples from TIPCO, a Philippine paper-recycling mill, and establish whether the sludge contained the heavy metals cadmium, chromium, lead, mercury, nickel, and zinc using atomic absorption spectrophotometer (MS). Sampling was done for four weeks during newsprint and white paper production. Three discharge terminals were established as sampling points. The samples showed that the metal content of the sludge vary from point to point and was highest throughout the manufacture of white paper. Chromium, mercury, and nickel, however, were nondetectable in all the samples, while cadmium was detectable only in very few samples. Lead and zinc were present at all three points and were highest at the de inking sludge. Comparing the results with Part 503 of the United States EPA and the DA's guidelines for organic fertilizers yield significantly lower parameter values. Composting the sludge was, therefore, found to be a feasible option for recycling paper-mill sludge since the metal content were very low compared to local and international standards.

The purpose of the paper is to analyze and present the role of the metallurgical industry for the economy of Ukraine and evaluate the impact of trade restrictions on the international activity of the metallurgical industry of Ukraine. As a result, this study evaluated the risks of international activities of metallurgical enterprises of Ukraine with key partner countries. Methodology. Assessment of the role of the metallurgical industry for the Ukrainian economy and the extent of the impact of trade barriers on international activities is based on several statistical data and a few methods and rules for their analysis. Their use will allow managers of metallurgical companies to form a strategy for the development of the enterprise in international markets and quickly respond to changes in the external market situation. These methods include statistical analysis, strategic segmentation, deductive and inductive methods, data comparison method, forecasting and risk assessment. Results. Per capita steel consumption growth rates have shown positive dynamics since 2010. Volatility levels of per capita steel consumption of the population is significantly lower than the growth of world GDP. Against the backdrop of slowing global GDP growth rate of steel consumption continues to grow. According to the level of consumption of steel per capita, the author singled out three stages in the development of countries. The share of exports of products of the metallurgical industry of Ukraine in 2020 amounted to 18.3% in monetary terms. This indicator is the second after the volume of exports of agricultural products. Among the total export of steel products in Ukraine 95% are engaged in export of ferrous metals, which is a raw product. The trade balance of Ukraine in the trade of metallurgical products has been decreasing since 2018 amid a decrease in export volumes and has not yet reached the level of 2016. According to the World Trade Organization, at the end of 2020, there were 3,208 non-tariff trade barriers in the world regarding trade in metals and metal products. In terms of the number of anti-dumping measures, the market of metals and metal products ranks first – 843 measures out of 2160 measures for all product groups. This tool is used by countries to protect the domestic market and as a tool in international competition. As a result of a matrix analysis of the rates and volumes of growth of Ukraine's metallurgical products in the context of partner countries and the number of introduced trade barriers, the countries with the highest risk in international activities and the most promising sales markets were identified. The Russian Federation and the United States are identified as the countries with the highest risk of the impact of trade barriers on international activities for Ukrainian metallurgical companies. The most promising sales markets are Saudi Arabia and Italy. Practical implications. With the help of the results of this paper, managers of metallurgical enterprises in Ukraine can form and adjust the strategic directions for the development of companies in the frame-work of international activities.

Abstract Objectives The occupational environment represents an important source of exposures to multiplehazards for workers’ health. Although it is recognized that mixtures of agents may have differenteffects on health compared to their individual effects, studies generally focus on the assessment ofindividual exposures. Our objective was to identify occupational co-exposures occurring in the United States using the multi-industry occupational exposure databank of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). Methods Using OSHA’s Integrated Management Information System (IMIS), measurement data from workplace inspections occurring from 1979 to 2015 were examined. We defined a workplace situation (WS) by grouping measurements that occurred within a company, within the same occupation (i.e. job title) within 1 year. All agents present in each WS were listed and the resulting databank was analyzed with the Spectrosome approach, a methodology inspired by network science, to determine global patterns of co-exposures. The presence of an agent in a WS was defined either as detected, or measured above 20% of a relevant occupational exposure limit (OEL). Results Among the 334 648 detected exposure measurements of 105 distinct agents collected from 14 513 US companies, we identified 125 551 WSs, with 31% involving co-exposure. Fifty-eight agents were detected with others in &gt;50% of WSs, 29 with a proportion &gt;80%. Two clusters were highlighted, one for solvents and one for metals. Toluene, xylene, acetone, hexone, 2-butanone, and N-butyl acetate formed the basis of the solvent cluster. The main agents of the metal cluster were zinc, iron, lead, copper, manganese, nickel, cadmium, and chromium. 68 556 WS were included in the analyses based on levels of exposure above 20% of their OEL, with 12.4% of co-exposure. In this analysis, while the metal cluster remained, only the combinations of toluene with xylene or 2-butanone were frequently observed among solvents. An online web application allows the examination of industry specific patterns. Conclusions We identified frequent co-exposure situations in the IMIS databank. Using the spectrome approach, we revealed global combination patterns and the agents most often implicated. Future work should endeavor to explore the toxicological effects of prevalent combinations of exposures on workers’ health to prioritize research and prevention efforts.

More than 50 billion disposable paper cups used for cold and hot beverages are sold within the United States each year. Most of the cups are coated with a thin layer of plastic — low density polyethylene (LDPE) — to prevent leaking and staining. While the paper in these cups is both recyclable and compostable, the LDPE coating is neither. In recycling a paper cup, the paper is separated from the plastic lining. The paper is sent to be recycled and the plastic lining is typically sent to landfill. In an industrial composting environment, the paper and lining can be composted together if the lining is made from compostable materials. Coating paper cups with a compostable performance material uniquely allows for used cups to be processed by either recycling or composting, thus creating multiple pathways for these products to flow through a circular economy. A segment of the paper converting industry frequently uses an extrusion grade of polylactic acid (PLA) for zero-waste venues and for municipalities with ordinances for local composting and food service items. The results among these early adopters reveal process inefficiencies that elevate manufacturing costs while increasing scrap and generally lowering output when using PLA for extrusion coating. NatureWorks and Sung An Machinery (SAM) North America researched the extrusion coating process utilizing the incumbent polymer (LDPE) and PLA. The trademarked Ingeo 1102 is a new, compostable, and bio-based PLA grade that is specifically designed for the extrusion coating process. The research team identified the optimum process parameters for new, dedicated PLA extrusion coating lines. The team also identified changes to existing LDPE extrusion lines that processors can make today to improve output. The key finding is that LDPE and PLA are significantly different polymers and that processing them on the same equipment without modification of systems and/or setpoints can be the root cause of inefficiencies. These polymers each have unique processing requirements with inverse responses. Fine tuning existing systems may improve over-all output for the biopolymer without capital investment, and this study showed an increase in line speed of 130% by making these adjustments. However, the researchers found that highest productivity can be achieved by specifying new systems for PLA. A line speed increase to more than 180% and a reduction in coat weight to 8.6 µm (10.6 g/m2 or 6.5 lb/3000 ft2) was achieved in this study. These results show that Ingeo 1102 could be used as a paper coating beyond cups.

AbstractThis article highlights the major role Arthur von Hippel and the Laboratory for Insulation Research at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology played in the early development of the field of ferroelectricity in mixed oxides with the perovskite structure and, in particular, in the identification of ferroelectricity in barium titanate following its discovery in industrial laboratories in the United States during World War II.Very early optical and x-ray studies highlighted the characteristics of the ferroelectric domain structures in both ceramic and single-crystal BaTiO3, the elimination of domains at the Curie temperature TC, and the salient characteristics of the two low-temperature phase transitions. Perhaps the culmination of this work was the detailed studies of lamella 90° domains by Peter Forsbergh and the gorgeous patterns these could generate. This article also traces the manner in which the early studies contributed to whole industries based on perovskite ferroelectrics. The ceramic capacitor industry is now fabricating sophisticated, cofired multilayer capacitors (MLCs) with up to a thousand 1-µm-thick dielectric layers interleaved with base metal electrodes, addressing a market for some 1013 capacitors per year.Manufacturers of large piezoelectric transducers depend almost exclusively on perovskite-structure oxide ceramics. Navy sonar systems are major customers, but spinoff has occurred into a wide range of commercial and medical ultrasound systems. The capability of current materials has improved more than tenfold over the original BaTiO3 ceramics as a result of the effective application of molecular engineering, a strong testament to the insight of the founder of this area of study.

Abstract Fumigation with methyl bromide has been a long established and effective method for controlling many pests of stored products, including the key major pests that infest dry-cured hams, aged cheese, and other value-added durable stored products. Methyl bromide had been widely used for the disinfestation of dry-cured ham facilities in the United States, but is now phased out of use since it is an ozone-depleting substance. This paper reports laboratory studies to evaluate the efficacies of methyl bromide and phosphine for controlling two of the key arthropod pests of dry-cured hams and aged cheeses. Larvae of the red-legged ham beetle, Necrobia rufipes (Fabricius), were the most tolerant life stages when treated with either phosphine or methyl bromide for 48 h exposure at 23°C, whereas eggs of the mold mite, Tyrophagus putrescentiae (Schrank), were slightly more tolerant than mobile stages for both compounds. Under laboratory conditions, complete control was achieved for the both species with concentrations of 0.85 and 4.0 g/m3 of phosphine and methyl bromide, respectively, at 48 h exposure. The results give new information for judicious use of the existing stocks of methyl bromide, whether for pest mitigation or to help in developing a quarantine treatment schedule with that gas. Phosphine shows good potential as an effective alternative to methyl bromide, but if it was to be adopted as a fumigant in the dry-cured ham industry, methods to prevent metal corrosion would need to be designed and effectively implemented.

This paper presents the development of a new remediation technology of contaminated soil and groundwater using humic acid (HA) in permeable reactive barrier (PRB) for pipeline leakage. The objective of this study was to use humic acid that could be medium within a PRB to filter complex contaminated soil and groundwater containing chromium. Leakage of pollutants (such as hydrocarbon、gasoline、oil、wastewater、heavy metal et al) has a large economic and environmental impact. When a pipeline leak is large or undiscovered for a longer period of time, substantial volumes of gases and liquids can leak into the soil and groundwater, which can develop into dangerous situations involving costly remediation works. Traditional methods for remedying contaminated soil and groundwater from pipeline leakage, such as drilling and geochemical analysis, are destructive, time consuming and expensive. A PRB was determined to be the best option for remedying groundwater that has become contaminated with a wide range of organic contaminants (i.e., benzene, toluene, methylbenzene, xylene and polyaromatic hydrocarbons), heavy metals (i.e., lead and arsenic). PRB is installed in or down gradient from the flow path of a contaminant plume. The contaminants in the plume react with the media inside the barrier to either break the compound down into harmless products or immobilize contaminants by precipitation or sorption. It is made up of humic acid that reduce contaminants. With the development of industry and agriculture, environmental contamination has become more and more serious, especially heavy metal pollution, have been a major environmental issue, drawing much scientific and public attention. Chromium is identified as “priority pollutant” by the United States Environment Protection Agency (US EPA). the measurements show a significant increase of the adsorption of Cr (VI) because of the complexion reaction between HA and Cr (VI) occurred under acidic condition. It could be concluded that HA could be used effectively on remediation of Cr (VI)-contaminated soil and groundwater in a wide range of pH, with or without sunlight.

In the past, almost every industry worldwide patronizediron and its alloys for every major industrial design, construction and other forms of work. However, with the advent of the Glass Reinforced Plastic (GRP)as accepted in the United Kingdom or the Fibre Reinforced Plastic as accepted in the United States, which was discovered in the nineteen thirty’s (1930’s), the Glass Reinforced Plastic (GRP) has become very versatile as it has become a household name in most industries globally .It has attained this height through the significant properties it possesses, which include its ability to transform into moulds of difficult and delicate shapes and sizes which iron and its alloy may not find easy to submit to. It brings a host of otherbenefits in the form of long term performance and reliability, ease of installation and the ability to withstand corrosion and tuberculation. A service life of more than thrice that of the ductile iron pipes to mention but a few. Ductile Iron pipes are used in most petrochemical industries where pipeline plays a very important role in transporting crude oil and gas. As the service duration increases, the pipe lines are affected by corrosion mechanism which can lead to fatal accident. Corrosion can occur atboth the internal and external surface of the pipelines. In general, corrosion would cause metal loss which leads to reduction in pipeline thickness and consequently reduce its strength. Itbecomes necessary that the stability of the Glass Reinforced Plastic (GRP) pipes are carefully investigated especially in the event of high pressure turbulent flows. This is the thrust of this work. In the light of the above, ductileiron pipes and Glass Reinforced Plastics (GRP) pipes of the same thicknesses were investigated, some special characteristics such as the bursting pressures were calculated using Peter Barlow’s formula. The ANSYS software was also used for modelanalysisand compare the stress profile under dynamic condition for both pipes. Also the cost of production of pipes, classification and the difficulties encountered during their installation processes wereexamined. The result indicated an overwhelming encouragement to use Glass Reinforced Plastic (GRP) pipes as substitutes to the traditional ductile iron and its alloys in view of the fact that Glass Reinforced Plastic (GRP) pipes withstand corrosion and tuberculation while saving the huge cost that would have been used forpigging

Topicality. The urgency of studying the problems and challenges of the European Union's common industrial policy in the post-pandemic is due to the need to overcome the recession caused by the epidemic crisis and find innovative ways and means to transform European economies to rebuild the economy for the welfare of citizens and environmental security. Another prerequisite for the intensification of industrial policy as a driver of development of the EU common market is the realization of competitive advantages over the economies of the United States and China.Aim and tasks. The aim of the work is to analyze the problems and general challenges of the European Union's industrial policy in the new realities after the pandemic. The COVID-19 crisis has created many problems and posed many challenges to the European Union, but this is not the first crisis it has faced. The paper analyzes the challenges that have arisen during the measures taken to correct the economic downturn, as well as plans for the recovery and development of the European Union, including on the basis of digitization of the common industrial policy.Research results. The day, the genesis of the new, the fourth stage of the development of the industrial policy of the European Union has been designated. Established, according to the main method of industrial policy, and at the same time, 24 industrial halls of the 27 countries ЄC to improve the competitiveness of the European industry, as a step towards the development of the age of the mainstream of work. It was approved by the tools for the implementation of the industrial policy and criteria and indicators of evaluation and development. Sectoral analysis of industry, allowing you to camp for 2018 p. advanced development of machinery and equipment for the indicator of additional costs for production of coke and products of naphtha processing, automobiles, hairstyles and applications, industrial production of metal products for machinery. An analysis of the indicator of security to the given variability in the industrial spheres has taken into account the tendency to the concentration of security in the five countries of the world, some of the economies of Nimechchin. Analyzed the Eurocomisin's praise for April 2020. The plan for the development of Europe and the plan for the middle of the initial ones is the concept of industrial ecosystems. The concept of Europe is a light leader and ecology of the economy, realizing the industry and economy of the state government, the energy and economics of the program “Green Ladies”, as well as the economics of the economy.Conclusion. Problems and directions of overcoming challenges, determined by coronary crisis in industry and economy in general are identified: assistance in resumption of activity of industrial enterprises, coordination of partnership principles, limitation of pandemic expansion, preservation of jobs, tax benefits and credit policy of national banks aimed at investment development, financial assistance governments to support small and medium-sized businesses, assistance to relevant sectors of economic activity. The common industrial policy of the European Union covers many areas. Therefore, it is known that in times of the COVID-19 pandemic, the common industrial policy will face many challenges and problems. The article highlights not only the difficulties that the European Union had to overcome, but also the measures and measures it has taken to solve these problems. Putting the safety of its citizens first, the European Union has temporarily suspended its common industrial policy to focus on priorities. The most important aim was to help the most needy Member States and to support the economic sectors most affected. In addition, the Union has also launched a ten- action plan to rebuild Europe. The reconstruction plan for Europe allowed the European Union authorities to focus on the original goals of the Union, thus putting the new industrial strategy for Europe into effect. The European Council plans not only to increase the global competitiveness of its industry as well as its autonomy and resilience, but also to increase the resilience of the single market and ensure the leading role of the EU in the ecological and digital transformation.

The solutions are there to improve energy efficiency in all sectors. We don’t need to wait. We need action because the greenest energy is the energy we don’t use.—Kim Fausing, president and CEO, Danfoss I don’t know any other solution like energy efficiency that can simultaneously address our economic crisis, energy crisis, and climate crisis. … efficiency is the very first fuel.—Fatih Birol, executive director of the IEA Energy security, energy prices, and the cost of living were the focus of the International Energy Agency’s (IEA) 7th Annual Global Conference on Energy Efficiency held last month in Sønderborg, Denmark. Twenty-four governments from around the world issued a joint statement stressing the importance of energy efficiency to address the energy crisis, rising inflation, and greenhouse-gas emissions. IEA said, “It was the first event of its kind at which so many governments—including France, Germany, Indonesia, Japan, Mexico, Senegal, and the United States—have made a specific call for stronger action on energy efficiency.” Although energy efficiency has long been mentioned as a means toward achieving Paris Agreement goals, the “more exciting” announcements such as carbon capture and storage grabbed attention. Big projects offering big solutions proposed by big corporations and governments outshone energy efficiency, which also called for personal actions. Although that may be an unpleasant truth, more attention may be turning to it. Global energy prices are high and volatile—an unsettling mix—and are hitting hard the wallets of individuals, households, industries, and entire economies. Gasoline, other fuels, and electricity prices are high (and likely to get higher), and added to inflation, are increasing the cost of most everything else. A threshold has been met or surpassed for what is considered “affordable,” and the critical role of demand-side actions, including energy efficiency, should gain traction. Consider this: Doubling the current rate of improvement in energy intensity, a measure of the economy’s energy efficiency, from 2 to 4% per year over this decade could potentially avoid 95 exajoule (EJ) per year of final energy consumption—equivalent to China’s current final energy consumption. (One exajoule is equal to 1018 joules.) IEA added that with each unit of energy delivering more than it does today, final energy demand by 2030 could be 5% lower yet serve an economy 40% larger. With an eye toward energy security, cutting 95 EJ per year by 2030 avoids 30 million BOPD, approximately triple Russia’s average 2021 production. And it avoids 650 billion m3 of natural gas, around four times the EU’s imports from Russia in 2021.Also highlighted was a shift in global efforts to provide clean and efficient cooking and hearting to all who lack it today. More than 20 EJ demand would be reduced for the traditional use of biomass such as wood and charcoal in 2030, dramatically improving the lives of billions of people. For example, household air pollution is linked to around 2.5 million premature deaths a year, with women and children most affected. One-third of the decreased energy demand is forecast to come from the use of more technically efficient equipment ranging from air conditioners to vehicles, including the adoption of electric vehicles. Electrification provides around 20%, for example through switching to electricity for low-temperature heat in industry and replacing fossil-fuel boilers with more-efficient heat pumps. Smart (digital) controls and an increase in recycling of plastics and scrap steel account for another 30% of the decrease in demand. Changes in human behavior, our personal actions, could cut 18% or so through changing travel patterns and turning down thermostats. Buildings, heavy industry, manufacturing, and the transport sector hold significant potential for reducing energy use. In 2020 transportation’s energy consumption totaled around 105 EJ and accounted for around 27% of total global energy-related emissions, according to IEA. Buildings accounted for 129 EJ and contributed 28%, and industrial energy consumption was 156 EJ and contributed 39% of the emissions. Although IEA said the oil market may rebalance in the second half of this year as oil demand is tempered, OPEC+ increases supply, and strategic reserves are released, it added, “This situation might prove short-lived. OPEC+ capacity constraints set the stage for 2023, when global oil supply will struggle to keep pace with demand. While non-OPEC+ continues to power ahead, OPEC+ would have to further deflate its shrunken capacity cushion to keep the implied balance from tipping into deficit.”

Proton exchange membrane water electrolyzers (PEMWEs) are a leading industry solution to large scale production of green hydrogen, and as a form of energy storage [5]. The PEMWEs have the advantages of having greater energy efficiency, higher product purity, and are environmentally friendly. Within the construction of a PEMWE stack, there are many catalysts coated membranes (CCMs) sandwiched between anode porous transport layers (PTLs) and cathode Gas Diffusion Layers. The PTL is constructed of sintered titanium powder or fibers. The Ti-PTL is on the anode side of a PEMWE cell where the water diffuses towards the CCM. The anode half-cell reaction or oxygen evolution reaction (OER) occurs on this side of the cell. This is important as the PTL is in contact with the bipolar plate (BPP) and the anode catalyst layer [9]. A key aspect plaguing the PEMWEs is the highly oxidative and corrosive environment that is typically observed on the anode side. This significantly affects the interfacial contact resistance (ICR) of the components as the corrosion can cause the ohmic resistance of the PTL to increase. In order to combat the corrosion in the PTLs, in this work we use two thin film deposition methods, Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) and Vacuum Sputtering, to deposit protective metal layers on top of the state-of-the-art Ti PTLs [2]. The explored metal coatings of interest are Platinum (Pt) and Gold (Au) [9]. For the purposes of these experiments, Au and Pt coatings with various thicknesses are deposited on Ti-PTLs by using either PVD or vacuum spattering method. As deposited thin films are characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), digital optical microscopy, and inductively coupled plasma (ICP) analysis. Also, the in-plane conductivity and the ICR of all samples of interest are measured before and after the electrochemical tests by using the 4-probe method and in-house build setup for ICR measurements. The optimal deposition parameters for fabrication of thin, continuous and smooth Pt and Au protective coatings that result in minimum ICR and improved in-plane conductivity of the PTLs of interest are identified, and the results will be reported at the ECS 241 meeting. References: [1] Mo, Jingke, Steen, Stuart, Kang, Zhenye, Yang, Gaoqiang, Taylor, Derrick A., Li, Yifan, Toops, Todd J., Brady, Michael P., Retterer, Scott T., Cullen, David A., Green, Johney B., and Zhang, Feng-Yuan. Study on corrosion migrations within catalyst-coated membranes of proton exchange membrane electrolyzer cells. United States: N. p., 2017. Web. [2] Rojas, Nuria & Sevilla, Gema & Sánchez-Molina, Margarita & Amores, Ernesto & Bueno, Rebeca & Almandoz, Eluxka & Cruz, Marlon & Colominas, Carles. (2018). Materials selection for bipolar plates in PEMWE. [3] Oluwatosin Ijaodola, Emmanuel Ogungbemi, Fawwad Nisar. Khatib,Tabbi Wilberforce, Mohamad Ramadan, Zaki El Hassan, James Thompson andAbdul Ghani Olab. Evaluating the effect of metal bipolar plate coating on the performance of proton exchange membrane fuel cells. Energies, MDPI AG, 5 Oct. 2021 [4] Sigrid Lædre, Ole Edvard Kongstein, Anders Oedegaard, Frode Seland, and Håvard Karoliussen. Measuring In Situ Interfacial Contact Resistance in a Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell. Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 166 (13) F853-F859 (2019) [5] Peter Holzapfela, Melanie Bühler, ChuyenVan Phamc, Friedemann Hegge, Thomas Böhm, David McLaughlin, Matthias Breitwieser, Simon Thielead. Directly coated membrane electrode assemblies for proton exchange membrane water electrolysis. Electrochemical Communications, volume 110, January 2020, 106640. [6] S. Stiber, N. Sata, T. Morawietz, S. A. Ansar, T. Jahnke, J. K. Lee, A. Bazylak, A. Fallisch, A. S. Gago and K. A. Friedrich. A high-performance, durable and low-cost proton exchange membrane electrolyser with stainless steel components. Journal, Energy & Environmental Science [7] Chang Liu, Marcelo Carmo, Guido Bender, Andreas Everwand, Thomas Lickert, James L. Young, Tom Smolinka, Detlef Stolten, Werner Lehnert, Performance enhancement of PEM electrolyzers through iridium-coated titanium porous transport layers, Electrochemistry Communications, Volume 97, 2018, Pages 96-99, ISSN 1388-2481, [8] Gago, Aldo & Ansar, Asif & Gazdzicki, Pawel & Wagner, Norbert & Arnold, Johannes. (2014). Low Cost Bipolar Plates for Large Scale PEM Electrolyzers. ECS Transactions. 64. 10.1149/06403.1039ecst. [9] Novel components in Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) Water Electrolyzers (PEMWE): Status, challenges and future needs. A mini review, Electrochemistry Communications, Volume 114, 2020, 106704

The rapid development of dental industry and constant improvement of technologies in production of basic dental materials contribute to the increase of the quality of rendering dental care with the obligatory consideration not only of functional but also aesthetic parameters during a patient's rehabilitation. However, there is still no precise indication for the use of metal-free structures for the qualitative and durable aesthetic restoration of the frontal group of teeth, white-pink aesthetics and prosthetic rehabilitation, taking into account changes in the parameter of biological width of the tooth and aesthetic criteria. The aim of the research is to improve the effectiveness of treatment of frontal group teeth with discoloration using direct and indirect restorations by evaluating and comparing the quality of restorations. Research materials and methods. For clinical substantiation and comparison of direct and indirect ceramic restorations with classical fixation and the proposed method of fixation on the heated composite, 90 patients with discoloration and defects of the crown of the front teeth, aged 18 to 65 years, were examined and treated. A comparative evaluation was carried out one year after the restoration was completed. The distribution of patients into clinical groups was as follows: the first group – patients who were treated by direct restorations, performed with light- polymer restorative material Estet X HD (Dentsply) (50 patients, 125 restorations); the second group embraced patients, treated with indirect ceramic restorations manufactured by the method of pressing high temperature ceramics (IPS Emax). The latter group was in turn divided into two subgroups, depending on the treatment method: 2A – patients with indirect fixation by conventional methods on the Dentsply dual-cure composite of Calibra production (20 patients, 70 veneers) and 2B - patients with fixation treated on the heated composite Gradia Direct by GC production (20 patients, 55 veneers). In order to evaluate the quality of prosthetics in patients with direct and indirect ceramic restorations (veneers) it has been determined the status of these restorations using the modified USPHS (United States Public Health Service; Ryge, G., 1980, 1981) criteria for the frontal teeth group. The obtained results were processed by the method of variational statistics using Student's test. Research results. During the clinical evaluation of direct restorations using the modified USPHS criteria for the frontal teeth group, the following complications were identified: tooth sensitivity was present in 5.6% of teeth, fractures, cracks, chips – in 20 restorations (16%); discrepancy between the color of restoration and the color of natural teeth – in 30 restorations (24%); the presence of defects in the texture of the surface – 30 teeth (24%). Impaired marginal adaptation was in 32 restorations, which amounted to 25.6%; loss of restoration gloss – in 66,4%, the presence of secondary caries – in 17 teeth (13,6%); deficiency of occlusal contact –in 13 restorations (10.4%), of approximate contact – in 17 restorations (3.6%). A detailed analysis of the condition of indirect restorations and clinical complications in the second group showed that the most common defects are impairment of marginal adaptation – 16 veneers (12.8%), impairment of the integrity of veneers due to fractures, cracks, chips – 6 (4.8%), inconsistency of color – 13 veneers (10.4%), the presence of surface texture defects – 0, secondary caries – 3 teeth (2.4%), the position of fixing cement – 4 veneers (3.2%). Impaired occlusal contact was observed in 1 tooth (8.8%). No changes in approximate contacts were detected. The total number of complications was 17%, which indicates the need to find the optimization approaches to treatment with these structures. Comparison of the status of indirect restorations, depending on the method of fixation by subgroups showed that the impaired integrity of veneers due to fractures, cracks, chips in subgroup 2A was detected in 4 teeth (5.7%), and in the subgroup 2B – in 2 teeth (3.6%). Color change in group 2A was observed in 12 teeth (17.1%), in group 2B – in 3 teeth (5.5%). Disorders of marginal adaptation in group 2A were observed in 12 teeth (17.1%), in group 2B – in 4 teeth (6.6%). Secondary caries was observed on 2 teeth (2.9%) in group 2A and in one patient in group 2B (1.8%). According to the criteria for evaluating the state of indirect ceramic restorations and recommended follow-up professional actions, the following estimates were established: 28% of restorations in the first group, 55.7% of restorations in group 2A, 85.5% of restorations in group 2B received an “excellent” rating; 33.6% of restorations in the first group, 25.7% in group 2A, 5.5% in group 2B received a “good” rating; a “satisfactory” rating was obtained by 11.2% of restorations in the first group, 11.7% in group 2A, 5.4% in group 2B. In the first group, 27.2% of restorations needed immediate replacement, 11.4% – in the second and 3.6% – in the third group. The total score for the first group was 3.87±0.07, for 2A – 4.26±0.12, p.05, for group 2B – 4.73±0,1, p1˂p,05, p2˂0,05. Conclusion. Thus, our studies of direct and indirect restorations after one year of use showed that the highest level of quality was observed in the group where indirect restorations (veneers) were manufactured, which were fixed on the heated Gradia Direct composite by GC production. The obtained results are confirmed by the statistical analysis. To evaluate the quality and duration of using direct and indirect structures with different types of fixation, it is advisable to carry out a long-term monitoring for up to 10 years.

In the new issue, our scientific journal offers you nine scientific articles. As always, we try to offer a wide variety of topics and areas and follow current trends in the history of science and technology. The issue of the journal opens with an article dedicated to the formation and development of natural history museology in Europe in the 15th–19th centuries. The development of scientific knowledge at that time affects the idea of the world order and the place of man in it, and the combination of knowledge with practical experience leads to the birth of true science. It is shown that one of the most important components of the development of natural sciences, in particular biological sciences, was the collection of naturalia (i.e. objects of natural origin), the rapid surge of interest in which contributed to the Great Geographical Discoveries. In chronological order, the further historical development of museum work from private collections in Italy to the formation of a prototype of a genuine museum, which performs the main museum functions such as amassment, storage and demonstration of collections, is considered. The article by Leonid Griffen and co-authors considers the object and subject of the history of science and technology, its place in the system of sciences. Today, more and more people are turning to the factors that determine the interaction of the society with the environment (productive forces of the society), to study which in the historical aspect and called a special scientific discipline the history of science and technology. The composition and development of the technosphere and noosphere are considered in the article. It is shown that the functioning of the technosphere is based on its interaction with the noosphere, which provides information about the environment and controls the effectiveness of interaction with it. It is formed by combining the mental structures of individuals through sign systems. The production process that ensures the functioning of the society begins with the noosphere, which through individual consciousness controls the actions of each individual, who through the means of production (technosphere) interacts with the natural environment. However, the gradual development of productive forces leads at some point to the fact that the information needed by the individual to perform all necessary actions for the benefit of the society, ceases to fit in his individual consciousness. As a result, there is a new social phenomenon the social division of labor. The cardinal solution to the problem is the prospect of humanity entering infinite space. The article by Jun-Young Oh and Hyesook Han is devoted to the study of what Understanding mathematical abstraction in the formularization of Galileo's law. Galileo's revolution in science introduced an analytical method to science that typifies the overall modern thinking of extracting, abstracting, and grasping only critical aspects of the target phenomena and focusing on “how”, which is a quantitative relationship between variables, instead of “why”. For example, to him, the question of 'why does an object fall' is of no significance; instead, only the quantitative relationship between distance from the falling object and time is important. Yet, the most fundamental aspect of his idea is that he introduced a quantified time t. Because, according to atomic theory, vacuum exists between an atom and an object composed of atoms or between objects – ignoring factors that interfere with motion, such as friction – the space for absolute time, which is a mathematical time, can be geometrically defined. In order to justify this mathematical abstraction strategy, thought experiments were conducted rather than laboratory experiments, which at that time were difficult to perform. The article by Vasyl Andriiashko and co-authors provides a thorough overview of the evolutionary process of the emergence, establishment, and development of the Kyiv school of artistic textiles. It reveals the influence of various factors (ideological, political, economic, and aesthetic) on this process. The historical and factual method allowed us to study socio-economic, as well as historical and cultural factors that contributed to the emergence, establishment, and development of the Kyiv textile school in a chronological sequence. It is established that the very fact of emergence of the Kyiv school of artistic textile, as a community of style, unity of forms, preservation, and continuity of traditions, had unbiased backgrounds since Ukrainian decorative weaving, a part of which is Kyiv weaving, inherited the abundant artistic traditions that were created over the centuries and most vividly manifested through the art of Kyivan Rus. In the next article, the authors Artemii Bernatskyi and Mykola Sokolovskyi is devoted to the study history of military laser technology development in military applications. For better understanding and systematization of knowledge about development of historical applications in the military field, an analysis of publicly known knowledge about their historical applications in the leading world countries was conducted. The study focuses on development that was carried out by the superpowers of the Cold War and the present era, namely the United States, the Soviet Union and the Peoples Republic of China, and were built in metal. Multiple avenues of various applications of laser technology in military applications were studied, namely: military laser rangefinders; ground and aviation target designators; precision ammunition guidance systems; non-lethal anti-personnel systems; systems, designed to disable optoelectronics of military vehicles; as well as strategic and tactical anti-air and missile defense systems. The issues of ethical use of laser weapons and the risks of their use in armed conflicts, which led to an international consensus in the form of conventions of the United Nations and the International Committee of the Red Cross, were also considered. As a result of the analysis, a systematic approach to the classification of applications of laser technology in military products by three main areas of development was proposed: ancillary applications, non-lethal direct action on the human body and optical devices of military equipment, and anti-aircraft and anti-missile defensive systems. The author of the following article considered the front line transporter as the embodiment of the USSR military doctrine in the middle of the 20th century. The paper based on a source analysis of the history of creation, design, and production of LuAZ-967, LuAZ-967M, against the background of the processes of implementing projects of small tactical high mobility wheeled vehicles for the armies of European countries, shows that the developing, testing, and commissioning a front line transporter became a deepening of the process of motorization of the Soviet army. The designs of similar vehicles have been analyzed. An attempt to assess the degree of uniqueness of the front line transporter design and its place in the history of technology, as well as its potential as a reminder of science and technology has been made. An analysis of the front line transporter design, its systems, compared with its foreign counterparts, suggests that it is a Soviet refinement of the concept of a small army vehicle, a more specific means directly for the battlefield. At the same time, it was developed taking into account foreign developments and similar designs, imitating individual designs, adapting to the capabilities of the USSR automotive industry. The next article is devoted to the study, generalization and systematization of scientific knowledge about the history of the establishment, development and operation of the regional railway system in Bukovyna in the second half of XIX – early XX centuries. The authors attempted to analyze the process of creation and operation of railways in Bukovyna during the reign of the Austro-Hungarian Empire based on a wide range of previously unpublished archival documents, periodicals, statistical literature and memoirs. The article studies the development of organizational bases for the construction of railways, the activity of the communication network management, lists a whole range of requirements and tasks set for railway transport in Bukovyna, the progress of their implementation, considers successes and difficulties in this work. The purpose of the article by authors Sana Simou, Khadija Baba and Abderrahman Nounah is to reveal, recreate as accurately as possible the characteristics of an archaeological site or part of it. The restoration and conservation of monuments and archaeological sites is a delicate operation. It requires fidelity, delicacy, precision and archaeological authenticity. Research during the last two decades has proved that 3D modeling, or the digital documentation and visualization of archaeological objects in 3D, is valuable for archaeological research. The study has opted for the technique of terrestrial and aerial photogrammetry by 3D surveys of architectural elements, to develop an archetype of the deteriorated Islamic Marinid site (a dynasty between the 13th and 15th centuries), and the Roman site (25 BC), located at the Chellah archaeological site in Rabat and Salé cities. The data acquired build an architectural database to archive and retrieve the entire existing architecture of monuments. This study has been completed by photogrammetrists, architects, and restorers. The issue of the journal ends with an article devoted to the analyzing the prerequisites and conditions for the foundation of an aircraft engine enterprise in Ukraine. Based on the retrospective analysis, the prerequisites and conditions of the foundation of the aircraft engine enterprise in Aleksandrovsk, Ukraine, were considered. There was a severe gap between the Russian Empire and European countries in the development pace of the aviation industry during World War I. This prompted the Russian Empire to raise foreign capital, as well as attract technologies and specialists to develop aircraft engineering and other industries. By 1917, the plant had gained the status of Russia’s largest engine-building enterprise in terms of building area and one of the best in equipment. It is evident that the beginning of aircraft engine production in Aleksandrovsk relates to the establishment of a branch of Petrograd Joint Stock Company of Electromechanical Structures and the plant’s purchase from the Moznaim brothers. We hope that everyone will find interesting useful information in the new issue. And, of course, we welcome your new submissions.

That the United States stands almost alone among nations in its failure to adopt the metric system has long been blamed on conservative, reactionary forces. This paper argues against this interpretation, which passes for conventional wisdom in both academic and popular circles. It instead contends that attacks on the metric system in the late nineteenth and twentieth century originated with progressive engineers, entrepreneurs, and industrialists who had taken the lead in setting the nation's first industrial standards. Far from being backward-looking reactionaries, they enjoyed reputations as cutting-edge leaders in the development of the machine-tool industry, the railroads, and the metal-working industries. Many of them pioneered new methods of management that privileged rationality, efficiency, and systemic approaches; indeed, they strongly influenced the development of what became known as scientific management. These individuals deftly advanced their cause through the nation's political institutions, thwarting the metric cause.

Antimony is a type of critical metal for the energy transition. The antimony industry chain is distributed among the major developed and developing countries around the world. With the development of clean energy technology, the demand for antimony in photovoltaic and energy storage fields will increase significantly. Considering the significant changes in the global demand for antimony products and the serious supply shortage, people should pay more attention to the supply risk of related products of the antimony industry chain. In this paper, we propose a new integrated index to evaluate the supply risk of antimony industry chain related products, including Herfindahl Hirschman index, global governance index, human development index, global innovation index, and betweenness centrality in complex networks. Meanwhile, seven commodities in the antimony industry chain are selected for empirical analysis from 2011 to 2019. The results show that countries with high supply risks of the industry chain upstream include Canada, France, Germany, India, Japan, Thailand, and the United Kingdom. And, Australia, India, Japan, Thailand, and Vietnam are with high supply risks in the midstream of the industry chain. Meanwhile, Canada, India, Japan, and Thailand are with high downstream supply risks. Some countries, like China, the United States, and Germany, play a core role in different sectors of the industry chain. International competitive relations of countries have caused a high supply risk of products related to the antimony industry chain. The supply risk of the antimony industry chain shows that countries must strengthen industrial division and cooperation to maximize their interests. It is suggested to take the country-specific measures to mitigate supply risks, including establishing national inventories of critical materials, overseas investment, strengthening the guidance of industrial policies, and accelerating infrastructure construction.

AbstractIn the 1950s, Ta-7.5%W and the Ta-2.5%W were the only tantalum alloys of commercial significance. An intensive alloy development effort occurred between 1958 and 1968 in response to Air Force and Navy aerospace needs for high-temperature, oxidation-resistant alloys for rocket and air-breathing engines and airframe applications. Compatibility with oxidation-resistant coatings, high-temperature short-time strength, fabricability and weldability were of prime importance. These programs led to the development of Ta-10w%W, Ta-30w%Nb-7.5w%V, T-111(Ta-8w%W-2w%Hf), and T-222(Ta-10w%W-2.5w%Hf-O.Olw%C). T-111, with its demonstrated compatibility with liquid alkali metals, and combination of strength, fabricability and weldability, was selected by NASA as the baseline reference alloy for space nuclear power systems studies. Significant quantities of T- 111 and T-222 were produced in the 1960s. Today, however, production is limited to unalloyed tantalum and the tantalum-tungsten binaries because of the demand of the chemical industry for materials with outstanding acid corrosion resistance. To again produce T-11 and T-222 on a commercial basis will require relearning by the refractory metal alloy producers. The current lack of experience in the refractory metal industry with these high temperature alloys will necessitate recovery of the expertise needed for the United States to effectively compete in this technology arena.

The purpose of this study is to provide a comprehensive analysis of the global nanopowder market. Materials and methods. The study used such research methods as system-logical method, method of statistical generalization, comparative and factor analysis. Research results. It is known that nanopowders are obtained by chemical, physical, physico-chemical and mechanical methods. One of the major problems in the production of nanopowders is the tendency of nanoparticles to form aggregates and agglomerates that complicate the production of compact materials. To overcome the forces of agglomeration, a mechanical force or an increase in the sintering temperature must be applied. According to estimates from the consulting company Lux Research, in 2012, the nanotechnology market was $ 190.3 billion. Its annual growth is 15-17%. The world market leaders are the United States ($ 59 billion), Europe ($ 47 billion) and the Asia Pacific region ($ 9.4 billion). The US is the leader in both the commercial market and the number of publications (about 25,000 in 2015) and patents in nanotechnology (45% of patents). Following the results of 2015, more than $1.4 trillion worth of nanotechnology products were manufactured. In the structure of production of nanoproducts the chemical industry, scientific researches (intermediary products, as a rule, not serial) and electronics are leading. Global investments in nanotechnology in 2015 totaled $ 18.1 billion. This indicator increased by 18% compared to 2013. Corporate investments ($ 8.6 billion) became the main source of financing (public - only $ 8.3 billion). The leaders in terms of public investment are the US and the EU. Experts estimate that, by 2020, investment leadership may shift to Japan. Today, the leader in the nanomaterials market is the United States with a projected revenue level of 2018 of $ 1.46 billion. The main products on the world market for nanopowders are metal oxide powders. In the product group of metal oxides 4/5 the production volume accounts for the three most common types of raw materials: silica (SiO2), titanium dioxide (TiO2) and alumina (Al2O3). At the same time, silica occupies more than half of all production, alumina - 18% and titanium dioxide - 10%. The most available oxides are oxides of iron, zinc, cerium, zirconium, cuprum, magnesium, yttrium. The most complex oxides and mixtures are: tin oxide, barium titanate, cobalt carbide, silicon nitride and indium tin oxide. An analysis of the patents presented for nanopowder research has shown that the most promising area of ​​scientific development is aluminum and precious metal nanopowders. Conclusions. Analysis of the world nanopowder market makes it possible to identify the following indicators that characterize its development: the common problem in the nanomaterials market is high cost of production, low volume of production and accessibility for the end consumer; the most developed nanopowder markets: USA, Europe and Asia-Pacific; projected growth rates during 2015-2020 The three largest components of the nanomaterials market: energy, production of catalysts, structural materials - 60%, 13% and 30% respectively; production of metal oxide products prevails in the world market of nanopowders; the most common types of raw materials: silica) - more than half of all production, titanium dioxide - 10% and alumina - 18%.

Typical ASME Section XI subcritical cracking analyses assume an idealized flaw shape driven by stress intensity factors developed for semi-elliptical shaped flaws. Recent advanced finite element analyses (AFEA) conducted by both the United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission (U.S.NRC) and the nuclear industry for long circumferential indications found in the pressurizer nozzle dissimilar metal welds at the Wolf Creek power plant suggest that the semi-elliptical flaw assumption may be overly conservative in some cases. The AFEA methodology that was developed allowed the progression of a planar flaw subjected to typical stress corrosion cracking (SCC)-type growth laws by calculating stress intensity factors at every nodal point along the crack front, and incrementally advancing the crack front in a more natural manner. Typically, crack growth analyses increment the semi-elliptical flaw by considering only the stress intensity factor at the deepest and surface locations along the crack front, while keeping the flaw shape semi-elliptical. In this paper, a brief background to the AFEA methodology and the analyses conducted in the Wolf Creek effort will be discussed. In addition, the predicted behavior of surface cracks under normal operating conditions (plus welding residual stress) using AFEA will be investigated and compared with the semi-elliptical assumption. Conclusions on the observation of when semi-elliptical flaw assumptions are appropriate will be made. These observations will add insight into the conservatism of using an idealized flaw shape assumption.

Energy issues are closely related to the development of human society and economy. Embodied energy is the total direct and indirect energy consumption required for the production of goods and services. In the context of the intensifying development of economic globalization and prosperity of international trade, embodied energy is considered as a better indicator to comprehensively reflect the nature of a country’s energy use than the direct energy use. The development of trade in value added (TiVA) accounting and global value chain theory has brought new ideas to embodied energy research. This study applies TiVA accounting to the study of embodied energy and establishes a complete framework to decompose the sources, destinations, and transfer routes of embodied energy in a country’s exports, and comprehensively depicts the embodied energy flows in China’s exports at the country and sector levels as an instance. The results show that China exports large amounts of embodied domestic energy use, and export is an important factor for the rapid growth of China’s energy and emissions. At the country level, the United States and EU28 are traditional major importers of China, and developing countries, such as Brazil, India, and Indonesia, are emerging markets. China’s embodied energy flows to different importers vary in terms of trade patterns, flow routes, and the embodied domestic energy intensities. At the sector level, the light industry and the services create more benefits, whereas manufacturing, such as chemicals and metal products, consumes more energy, and there is a mismatch between the main sectors that create economic benefits from exports and the main sectors that consume energy for exports. These results indicate that embodied energy of China’s exports has a great impact on global energy consumption and carbon emission, and the optimizing of China’s export embodied energy structure is conducive to global energy conservation and emission reduction. This article strongly suggests the importance of the global value chain decomposition framework in embodied energy research.

Ballast water is important for safe and efficient operation of vessels, helping to maintain stability during voyage in seas and docking in harbours. However, ballast water can pose considerable environmental challenges because they are often laden with polluted sediments and invasive species. The Lagos Harbour, which houses in the largest port in West Africa, receives about five thousand vessels annually which discharge ballast water and tank sediments into the water with the potential to cause environmental pollution. In the Nigerian context there is high potential for pollution due to weak regulations, poor enforcement and limited research of this kind in order to understand their composition, fate and impacts. This study aims at characterizing the chemical composition (Heavy metals- Arsenic, Cadmium, Chromium, Copper, Lead & Zinc, as well as carbon and nitrogen content) of the ballast water and the tank sediments because of their positive correlation with the survival of invasive species in the ballast water and tank sediments. Water samples were collected from four ships (2 cargos and 2 tankers) within the Lagos Harbour; surface (1-5 cm) sediment samples were scooped from ship tanks using a specialized grab for sampling ballast sediments. The sediments were transferred in specialized sample containers (cool boxes) to the University of Portsmouth in United Kingdom for analysis. Total metal concentrations were analysed using X-ray fluorescence (XRF). They were subjected to two acid digestions: Aqua regia (AR) and 1 M hydrochloric acid (1 M HCl) following the procedures set out by the Canadian National Water Research Institute (NWRI) and the United States Environment Protection Agency (US-EPA Method 3050B). Total carbon and nitrogen contents were determined using an in-line Yanaco MT-5 CHN analyser. The results obtained were compared with established guidelines and subjected to correlation and Principal Component Analysis (PCA). The findings indicated high concentrations of Nickel, Lead, and Zinc in the sediments with values of 59.6 mg/kg, 33.75 mg/kg and 43,145.7 mg/kg respectively which exceeded NOAA and CSQGs permissible standards. Tanker vessels contained relatively higher concentrations of the pollutants than cargo vessels. The findings from this study provide useful baseline data which will guide a more intensive investigation of the chemical composition of ballast water and tank sediments for effective comparison with what is obtainable elsewhere in the world. The maritime industry needs to pay close attention to ballast as a potential source of marine pollution particularly in developing countries like Nigeria where there is limited regulation for management of coastal areas with respect to shipping activities. The IMO needs to direct further effort at investigating the non-biological components of ballast water and sediments in order to protect valuable biodiversity. Keywords: Coastal Pollution, Ballast Water Management, Ships, Analytical Techniques

Photo by Jo-Anne McArthur on Unsplash ABSTRACT The UK-based campaign group Scrap Factory Farming has launched a legal challenge against industrial animal agriculture; the challenge is in the process of judicial review. While a fringe movement, Scrap Factory Farming has already accrued some serious backers, including the legal team of Michael Mansfield QC. The premise is that factory farming is a danger not just to animals or the environment but also to human health. According to its stated goals, governments should be given until 2025 to phase out industrialized “concentrated animal feeding organizations” (CAFOs) in favor of more sustainable and safer agriculture. This paper will discuss the bioethical issues involved in Scrap Factory Farming’s legal challenge and argue that an overhaul of factory farming is long overdue. INTRODUCTION A CAFO is a subset of animal feeding operations that has a highly concentrated animal population. CAFOs house at least 1000 beef cows, 2500 pigs, or 125,000 chickens for at least 45 days a year. The animals are often confined in pens or cages to use minimal energy, allowing them to put on as much weight as possible in as short a time. The animals are killed early relative to their total lifespans because the return on investment (the amount of meat produced compared to animal feed) is a curve of diminishing returns. CAFOs’ primary goal is efficiency: fifty billion animals are “processed” in CAFOs every year. The bioethical questions raised by CAFOs include whether it is acceptable to kill the animals, and if so, under what circumstances, whether the animals have rights, and what animal welfare standards should apply. While there are laws and standards in place, they tend to reflect the farm lobby and fail to consider broader animal ethics. Another critical issue applicable to industrial animal agriculture is the problem of the just distribution of scarce resources. There is a finite amount of food that the world can produce, which is, for the moment, approximately enough to go around.[1] The issue is how it goes around. Despite there being enough calories and nutrients on the planet to give all a comfortable life, these calories and nutrients are distributed such that there is excess and waste in much of the global North and rampant starvation and malnutrition in the global South. The problem of distribution can be solved in two ways: either by efficient and just distribution or by increasing net production (either increase productivity or decrease waste) so that even an inefficient and unjust distribution system will probably meet the minimum nutritional standards for all humans. This essay explores four bioethical fields (animal ethics, climate ethics, workers’ rights, and just distribution) as they relate to current industrial agriculture and CAFOs. l. Animal Ethics Two central paradigms characterize animal ethics: welfarism and animal rights. These roughly correspond to the classical frameworks of utilitarianism and deontology. Welfarists[2] hold the common-sense position that animals must be treated well and respected as individuals but do not have inalienable rights in the same ways as humans. A typical welfare position might be, “I believe that animals should be given the best life possible, but there is no inherent evil in using animals for food, so long as they are handled and killed humanely.” Animal rights theorists and activists, on the other hand, would say, “I believe non-human animals should be given the best lives possible, but we should also respect certain rights of theirs analogous to human rights: they should never be killed for food, experimented upon, etc.” Jeremy Bentham famously gave an early exposition of the animal rights case: “The question is not Can they reason?, nor Can they talk?, but Can they suffer? Why should the law refuse its protection to any sensitive being?” Those who take an animal welfare stance have grounds to oppose the treatment of animals in CAFOs as opposed to more traditional grass-fed animal agriculture. CAFOs cannot respect the natural behaviors or needs of animals who evolved socially for millions of years in open plains. If more space was allowed per animal or more time for socialization and other positive experiences in the animal’s life, the yield of the farm would drop. This is not commercially viable in a competitive industry like animal agriculture; thus, there is very little incentive for CAFOs to treat animals well. Rampant abuse is documented.[3] Acts of cruelty are routine: pigs often have teeth pulled and tails docked because they often go mad in their conditions and attempt to cannibalize each other; chickens have their beaks clipped to avoid them pecking at each other, causing immense pain; cows and bulls have their horns burned off to avoid them damaging others (as this damages the final meat product, too); male chicks that hatch in the egg industry are ground up in a macerator, un-anaesthetized, in the first 24 hours of their life as they will not go on to lay eggs. These practices vary widely among factory farms and among jurisdictions. Yet, arguably, the welfare of animals cannot be properly respected because all CAFOs fundamentally see animals as mere products-in-the-making instead of the complex, sentient, and emotional individuals science has repeatedly shown them to be.[4] ll. Climate Ethics The climate impact of farming animals is increasingly evident. Around 15-20 percent of human-made emissions come from animal agriculture.[5] and deforestation to create space for livestock grazing or growing crops to feed farm animals. An average quarter-pound hamburger uses up to six kilograms of feed, causes 66 square feet of deforestation, and uses up to 65 liters of water, with around 4kg of carbon emissions to boot – a majority of which come from the cattle themselves (as opposed to food processing or food miles).[6] According to environmentalist George Monbiot, “Even if you shipped bananas six times around the planet, their impact would be lower than local beef and lamb.”[7] The disparity between the impact of animal and plant-based produce is stark. Not all animal products are created equally. Broadly, there are two ways to farm animals: extensive or intensive farming. Extensive animal farming might be considered a “traditional” way of farming: keeping animals in large fields, as naturally as possible, often rotating them between different areas to not overgraze any one pasture. However, its efficiency is much lower than intensive farming – the style CAFOs use. Intensive animal farming is arguably more environmentally efficient. That is, CAFOs produce more output per unit of natural resource input than extensive systems do. However, environmental efficiency is relative rather than absolute, as the level of intensive animal agriculture leads to large-scale deforestation to produce crops for factory-farmed animals. CAFOs are also point-sources of pollution from the massive quantities of animal waste produced – around 1,000,000 tons per day in the US alone, triple the amount of all human waste produced per day – which has significant negative impacts on human health in the surrounding areas.[8] The environmental impacts of CAFOs must be given serious ethical consideration using new frameworks in climate ethics and bioethics. One example of a land ethic to guide thinking in this area is that “[it] is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability, and beauty of the biotic community. It is wrong when it tends otherwise.”[9] It remains to be seen whether CAFOs can operate in a way that respects and preserves “integrity, stability, and beauty” of their local ecosystem, given the facts above. The pollution CAFOs emit affects the surrounding areas. Hog CAFOs are built disproportionately around predominantly minority communities in North Carolina where poverty rates are high.[10] Animal waste carries heavy metals, infectious diseases, and antibiotic-resistant pathogens into nearby water sources and houses. lll. Workers’ Rights The poor treatment of slaughterhouse workers has been documented in the US during the COVID-19 pandemic, where, despite outbreaks of coronavirus among workers, the White House ordered that they remain open to maintain the supply of meat. The staff of slaughterhouses in the US is almost exclusively people with low socioeconomic status, ethnic minorities, and migrants.[11] Almost half of frontline slaughterhouse workers are Hispanic, and a quarter is Black. Additionally, half are immigrants, and a quarter comes from families with limited English proficiency. An eighth live in poverty, with around 45 percent below 200 percent of the poverty line. Only one-in-forty has a college degree or more, while one-in-six lacks health insurance. Employee turnover rates are around 200 percent per year.[12] Injuries are very common in the fast-moving conveyor belt environment with sharp knives, machinery, and a crowd of workers. OSHA found 17 cases of hospitalizations, two body part amputations per week, and loss of an eye every month in the American industrial meat industry. This is three times the workplace accident rate of the average American worker across all industries. Beef and pork workers are likely to suffer repetitive strain at seven times the rate of the rest of the population. One worker told the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) that “every co-worker I know has been injured at some point… I can attest that the line speeds are already too fast to keep up with. Please, I am asking you not to increase them anymore.”[13] Slaughterhouses pose a major risk to public health from zoonotic disease transmission. 20 percent of slaughterhouse workers interviewed in Kenya admit to slaughtering sick animals, which greatly increases the risk of transmitting disease either to a worker further down the production line or a consumer at the supermarket.[14] Moreover, due to poor hygienic conditions and high population density, animals in CAFOs are overfed with antibiotics. Over two-thirds of all antibiotics globally are given to animals in agriculture, predicted to increase by 66 percent by 2030.[15] The majority of these animals do not require antibiotics; their overuse creates a strong and consistent selection pressure on any present bacterial pathogens that leads to antibiotic resistance that could create devastating cross-species disease affecting even humans. The World Health Organization predicts that around 10 million humans per year could die of antibiotic-resistant diseases by 2050.[16] Many of these antibiotics are also necessary for human medical interventions, so antibiotics in animals have a tremendous opportunity cost. The final concern is that of zoonosis itself. A zoonotic disease is any disease that crosses the species boundary from animals to humans. According to the United Nations, 60 percent of all known infections and 75 percent of all emerging infections are zoonotic.[17] Many potential zoonoses are harbored in wild animals (particularly when wild animals are hunted and sold in wet markets) because of the natural biodiversity. However, around a third of zoonoses originate in domesticated animals, which is a huge proportion given the relative lack of diversity of the animals we choose to eat. Q fever, or “query fever,” is an example of a slaughterhouse-borne disease. Q fever has a high fatality rate when untreated that decreases to “just” 2 percent with appropriate treatment.[18] H1N1 (swine flu) and H5N1 (bird flu) are perhaps the most famous examples of zoonoses associated with factory farming. lV. Unjust Distribution The global distribution of food can cause suffering. According to research commissioned by the BBC, the average Ethiopian eats around seven kilograms of meat per year, and the average Rwandan eats eight.[19] This is a factor of ten smaller than the average European, while the average American clocks in at around 115 kilograms of meat per year. In terms of calories, Eritreans average around 1600kcal per day while most Europeans ingest double that. Despite enough calories on the planet to sustain its population, 25,000 people worldwide starve to death each day, 40 percent of whom are children. There are two ways to address the unjust distribution: efficient redistribution and greater net production, which are not mutually exclusive. Some argue that redistribution will lead to lower net productivity because it disincentivizes labor;[20] others argue that redistribution is necessary to respect human rights of survival and equality.[21] Instead of arguing this point, I will focus on people’s food choices and their effect on both the efficiency and total yield of global agriculture, as these are usually less discussed. Regardless of the metric used, animals always produce far fewer calories and nutrients (protein, iron, zinc, and all the others) than we feed them. This is true because of the conservation of mass. They cannot feasibly produce more, as they burn off and excrete much of what they ingest. The exact measurement of the loss varies based on the metric used. When compared to live weight, cows consume somewhere around ten times their weight. When it comes to actual edible weight, they consume up to 25 times more than we can get out of them. Cows are only around one percent efficient in terms of calorific production and four percent efficient in protein production. Poultry is more efficient, but we still lose half of all crops we put into them by weight and get out only a fifth of the protein and a tenth of the calories fed to them.[22] Most other animals lie somewhere in the middle of these two in terms of efficiency, but no animal is ever as efficient as eating plants before they are filtered through animals in terms of the nutritional value available to the world. Due to this inefficiency, it takes over 100 square meters to produce 1000 calories of beef or lamb compared to just 1.3 square meters to produce the same calories from tofu.[23] The food choices in the Western world, where we eat so much more meat than people eat elsewhere, are directly related to a reduction in the amount of food and nutrition in the rest of the world. The most influential theory of justice in recent times is John Rawls’ Original Position wherein stakeholders in an idealized future society meet behind a “veil of ignorance” to negotiate policy, not knowing the role they will play in that society. There is an equal chance of each policymaker ending up poverty-stricken or incredibly privileged; therefore, each should negotiate to maximize the outcome of all citizens, especially those worst-off in society, known as the “maximin” strategy. In this hypothetical scenario, resource distribution would be devised to be as just as possible and should therefore sway away from animal consumption. CONCLUSION Evidence is growing that animals of all sorts, including fish and certain invertebrates, feel pain in ways that people are increasingly inclined to respect, though still, climate science is more developed and often inspires more public passion than animal rights do. Workers’ rights and welfare in slaughterhouses have become mainstream topics of conversation because of the outbreaks of COVID-19 in such settings. Environmentalists note overconsumption in high-income countries, also shining a light on the starvation of much of the low-income population of the world. At the intersection of these bioethical issues lies the modern CAFO, significantly contributing to animal suffering, climate change, poor working conditions conducive to disease, and unjust distribution of finite global resources (physical space and crops). It is certainly time to move away from the CAFO model of agriculture to at least a healthy mixture of extensive agriculture and alternative (non-animal) proteins. - [1] Berners-Lee M, Kennelly C, Watson R, Hewitt CN; Current global food production is sufficient to meet human nutritional needs in 2050 provided there is radical societal adaptation. Elementa: Science of the Anthropocene. 6:52, 2018. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1525/elementa.310 [2] : Lund TB, Kondrup SV, Sandøe P. A multidimensional measure of animal ethics orientation – Developed and applied to a representative sample of the Danish public. PLoS ONE 14(2): e0211656. 2019. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/ journal.pone.0211656 [3] Fiber-Ostrow P & Lovell JS. Behind a veil of secrecy: animal abuse, factory farms, and Ag-Gag legislation, Contemporary Justice Review, 19:2, p230-249. 2016. DOI: 10.1080/10282580.2016.1168257 [4] Jones RC. Science, sentience, and animal welfare. Biol Philos 28, p1–30 2013. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10539-012-9351-1 [5] Twine R. Emissions from Animal Agriculture—16.5% Is the New Minimum Figure. Sustainability, 13, 6276. 2021. DOI: https://doi.org/ 10.3390/su13116276 [6] Capper JL. "Is the Grass Always Greener? Comparing the Environmental Impact of Conventional, Natural and Grass-Fed Beef Production Systems" Animals 2, no. 2: 127-143. 2012. 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