Journal articles: 'Schizophrenia – Risk factors'

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Pulver, Ann E., Kung-Yee Liang, C. Hendricks Brown, Paula Wolyniec, John McGrath, Lawrence Adler, Doreen Tam, William T. Carpenter, and Barton Childs. "Risk Factors in Schizophrenia." British Journal of Psychiatry 160, no. 1 (January 1992): 65–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.160.1.65.

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The risk for schizophrenia among first-degree relatives of schizophrenic probands obtained from an epidemiological sample using family history methods was examined to determine whether month of birth of the proband was associated with familial risk. The results of this study of the first-degree relatives of 106 female schizophrenics and 275 male schizophrenics suggested that the relatives of probands born in the months February to May had the highest risk, although the association between month of birth and familial risk among the male probands was present only for those relatives who had onset of schizophrenia before the age of 30.

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Baron, Miron, and Rhoda Gruen. "Risk Factors in Schizophrenia." British Journal of Psychiatry 152, no. 4 (April 1988): 460–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.152.4.460.

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The association between the familial risk for schizophrenia and season of birth was studied in 88 schizophrenic patients. An increased risk for schizophrenia and ‘spectrum’ disorders was demonstrated among the first-degree relatives of winter and spring-born schizophrenic patients. However, patients with a family history of schizophrenia and ‘spectrum’ disorders did not differ from patients with no family history with respect to season of birth. Season of birth was unrelated to the sex of the patient, birth order, age at onset, or clinical subtypes (paranoid vs non-paranoid, as defined by the RDC, and ‘narrow’ vs ‘broad’, as defined by Taylor & Abrams' 1975 criteria). The morbid-risk data support a ‘stress-diathesis' hypothesis whereby environmental factors (in this case a seasonally varying viral insult may be implicated) interact with genetic vulnerability to increase the risk for schizophrenia.

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Weyerer, Siegfried. "Social Risk Factors in Schizophrenia." Psychological Reports 74, no. 3 (June 1994): 795–800. http://dx.doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1994.74.3.795.

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In analyzing the relationship between social factors and schizophrenia one can distinguish two research strategies. Studies can focus on individual differences or the aggregate level. Several investigations indicate that social factors, e.g., low socioeconomic status, single status, ethnic group, are significantly associated with the prevalence of schizophrenia. To explain this relationship most investigators favor the hypothesis of social selection rather than a social causation. This view is also supported by an ecological study of the incidence of psychiatrically treated schizophrenic disorders in the city of Mannheim.

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Boydell, Jane. "Risk factors for schizophrenia." Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics 1, no. 2 (November 2001): 183–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1586/14737175.1.2.183.

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Owen, Michael J., and Shôn W. Lewis. "Risk Factors in Schizophrenia." British Journal of Psychiatry 153, no. 3 (September 1988): 407. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.153.3.407a.

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Sacchetti, E., A. Vita, G. M. Giobbio, M. Dieci, and C. L. Cazzullo. "Risk factors in schizophrenia." British Journal of Psychiatry 155, no. 2 (August 1989): 266–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.155.2.266a.

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Hultman, Christina M., Arne Öhman, Sven Cnattingius, Ing-Marie Wieselgren, and Leif H. Lindström. "Prenatal and neonatal risk factors for schizophrenia." British Journal of Psychiatry 170, no. 2 (February 1997): 128–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.170.2.128.

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BackgroundThe present study examines the effects of independent, single pre- and perinatal risk factors and rates of obstetric complications upon the subsequent development of schizophrenia.MethodThis study was based on prospectively recorded birth records of 107 cases (82 with schizophrenic disorders and 25 with other psychotic reactions) and 214 controls, individually matched by gender and time and place of birth. Variables univariately associated with significantly elevated risk were entered in a logistic regression model.ResultsA high non-optimality summary score (> or = 7 complications of 34 possible) was a significant risk estimate for the total index group (OR 4.58, 95% CI 1.74–12.03) and the 82 schizophrenic patients (OR 3.67, CI 1.30–10.36). Patients with 2–6 complications also had an increased, although lower, risk (OR 1.67, CI 1.02–2.75). A disproportionate birth weight for body length (OR 3.57, CI 1.77–7.19) and a small head circumference (OR 3.93, CI 1.32–11.71) were the strongest independent risk factors.ConclusionsA contribution of obstetric complications to the risk of schizophrenia was confirmed. Only aberrations in physical size remained as individual independent risk factors.

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Lyons, Michael J., Jonathan Huppert, Rosemary Toomey, Rebecca Harley, Jack Goldberg, Seth Eisen, William True, Stephen V. Faraone, and Ming T. Tsuang. "Lifetime prevalence of mood and anxiety disorders in twin pairs discordant for schizophrenia." Twin Research 3, no. 1 (February 1, 2000): 28–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1375/twin.3.1.28.

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AbstractThere have been long questions about the relationship of schizophrenia to other mental disorders. Lifetime DSM-III-R diagnoses of mood and anxiety disorders in twins with clinically diagnosed schizophrenia (n = 24) and their non-affected co-twins (n = 24) were compared with twins from pairs without schizophrenia (n = 3327) using a sample from the Vietnam Era Twin Registry. Schizophrenic probands had significantly elevated rates of all included disorders (bipolar disorder, major depression, dysthymia, generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, and PTSD) compared with controls (P < 0.01). The odd ratios comparing co-twins of schizophrenic probands with controls was greater than three for every disorder, but did not attain statistical significance. A similar pattern was observed when analyses were restricted to only monozygotic twins (n = 12). Consistent with other studies, schizophrenics appeared to have higher rates of a range of mental disorders. Our results suggest that schizophrenia per se represents a risk factor for other psychiatric disorders, but the absence of significantly elevated risk among non-schizophrenic co-twins suggested that family environmental and/or genetic factors that contribute to risk of schizophrenia do not increase the risk of mood and anxiety disorders to the same extent that the risk of these other disorders is increased by the presence of schizophrenia. Twin Research (2000) 3, 28–32.

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Michie, Patricia T., Aaron Kent, Renee Stienstra, Rochelle Castine, Julie Johnston, Kellie Dedman, Helen Wichmann, et al. "Phenotypic Markers as Risk Factors in Schizophrenia: Neurocognitive Functions." Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 34, no. 1_suppl (February 2000): A74—A85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/000486740003401s12.

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Objective To review the literature on neurocognitive measures as risk markers for schizophrenia and to present data from the Perth family study of schizophrenia. Of all the risk markers that have been identified, the most promising are deficits in sustained attention. Method Inclusion in the review was determined by whether the research addressed a number of key questions: methods of assessing sustained attention; evidence of sustained attention deficits in patients and first-degree relatives including children; the importance of attentional dysfunction in the schizophrenic process and functional outcome; and the biological basis of sustained attention deficits. Results Sustained attention deficits are evident in both patients and a proportion of their first-degree relatives, a finding replicated in preliminary data from the Perth family study. The literature suggests that the attention deficit is a stable enduring trait that is independent of clinical state. The neural basis of the deficit may be a functional disconnection between prefrontal and parietal cortex. Attention impairment is an important predictor of functional outcome in patients and the development of social dysfunction in adulthood in the at-risk offspring of patients. However, sustained attention deficits that are measured in childhood results in an unacceptable high false-positive rate (21%) when predicting which at-risk offspring of parents with schizophrenia will develop a schizophrenia spectrum disorder, although the overall classification accuracy (78%) is impressive. Conclusions The main findings are that sustained attention deficits are important risk markers for schizophrenia but need to be supplemented by other neurocognitive risk markers to improve predictive accuracy.

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Planas, P., R. Català, C. Madrid, S. Eduard, and S. Lira. "Metabolic Risk Factors in a Schizophrenic Community Sample (vallès Oriental, Catalonia, Spain)." European Psychiatry 24, S1 (January 2009): 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0924-9338(09)71418-x.

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Introduction:Life expectancy for individuals with schizophrenia is 20% lower than in general population. Medical illnesses, psychiatric comorbidities, less access to care, poverty and limited perception of illness are some of the most important factors associated with increased risk of morbidity. Cardiovascular death (CVD) is a major contributor to increased mortality in schizophrenia 2,3. Prevalence of obesity in patients with schizophrenia (40%-60%) is twice the rate of the general population (20%-30%). Obesity, high abdominal perimeter, serum lipid levels, and smoking are significant, Independent Risk Factors for CVD.Metabolic syndrome is a cluster of metabolic disturbances, which is associated with an increased risk of CVD.Objective:To estimate the prevalence of CVRF in schizophrenic outpatients treated at Granollers' CSM.Methods:Cross-sectional descriptive study about 100 schizophrenic outpatients treated at CSM Granollers. Data on sociodemographics, physical examinations, blood test parameters, CVRF history and treatments are recorded. Each CVRF is established according to international criteria and/or pharmacological treatment.Secondary objectives:•Prevalence of Metabolic Syndrome;•Antipsychotic drugs treatment.Variables - Sociodemographic data and Schizophrenia diagnosis:•Physical examination;•Lab parameters;•Other CV risk factors (smoking, alcohol intake…).Results and conlusions:Estimated prevalences for most of the CVRF in schizophrenic outpatients are, in general, higher than those expected of the same age group in the general population. Data presented can support therapeutic decision-making and suggests a need of new prevention and monitoring strategies. New guidelines for monitoring and intervention will be needed for monitoring and intervention.

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Brown, Alan S. "Prenatal risk factors and schizophrenia." Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics 2, no. 1 (January 2002): 53–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1586/14737175.2.1.53.

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Janoutová, Jana, Omar Šerý, Petr Ambroz, Ladislav Hosák, and Vladimír Janout. "Psychosocial risk factors in schizophrenia." Psychiatrie pro praxi 17, E-verze 3/16 (October 1, 2016): e20-e24. http://dx.doi.org/10.36290/psy.2016.040.

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Millichap, J. Gordon. "Neurobehavioral Risk Factors in Schizophrenia." Pediatric Neurology Briefs 13, no. 8 (August 1, 1999): 63. http://dx.doi.org/10.15844/pedneurbriefs-13-8-11.

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Modai, Shira, and Noam Shomron. "Molecular Risk Factors for Schizophrenia." Trends in Molecular Medicine 22, no. 3 (March 2016): 242–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.molmed.2016.01.006.

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Lewis, Shôn W. "Congenital risk factors for schizophrenia." Psychological Medicine 19, no. 1 (February 1989): 5–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0033291700010977.

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Fenton, Wayne S., Thomas H. McGlashan, and Crystal R. Blyler. "Suicide risk factors in schizophrenia." Schizophrenia Research 24, no. 1-2 (January 1997): 15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0920-9964(97)82038-5.

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Oliver, Emily A., and Paul Fearon. "Schizophrenia: epidemiology and risk factors." Psychiatry 7, no. 10 (October 2008): 410–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mppsy.2008.07.011.

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Opler, Mark, Joseph Charap, Astrea Greig, Victoria Stein, Stephanie Polito, and Dolores Malaspina. "Environmental Risk Factors and Schizophrenia." International Journal of Mental Health 42, no. 1 (April 2013): 23–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.2753/imh0020-7411420102.

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Cardno, A. G., M. C. O’Donovan, and M. J. Owen. "Genetic Risk Factors for Schizophrenia." International Journal of Mental Health 29, no. 3 (September 2000): 13–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00207411.2000.11449495.

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Lobato, M. I., P. Belmonte-de-Abreu, D. Knijnik, B. Teruchkin, E. Ghisolfi, and A. Henriques. "Neurodevelopmental risk factors in schizophrenia." Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research 34, no. 2 (February 2001): 155–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s0100-879x2001000200002.

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Malama, Irene M., Dimitri J. Papaioannou, Evangelia P. Kaklamani, Klea M. Katsouyanni, Ivoni G. Koumantaki, and Dimitri V. Trichopoulos. "Birth Order Sibship Size and Socio-Economic Factors in Risk of Schizophrenia in Greece." British Journal of Psychiatry 152, no. 4 (April 1988): 482–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.152.4.482.

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A case-control study was undertaken to evaluate the effects, if any, of sibship size, birth order and parents' age at birth on the risk of a person's developing schizophrenia. Information was obtained, during an 18-month period, from 221 schizophrenic patients in the only mental-health hospital of the region of Peloponese, Greece, and from an equal number of matched patients. The data were analysed by modelling through logistic regression. No relationship was found between the occurrence of schizophrenia in a patient and either father's or mother's age at patient's birth, or sibship size, or birth order, when demographic and socio-economic variables were accounted for in the analysis. Although patients with schizophrenia were of similar socio-economic status to the comparison patients, they came from families with higher original socio-economic status, a fact which appears to reflect the decline of both schizophrenic and pre-schizophrenic people in the social ladder.

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Pomohaibo, V., O. Berezan, and A. Petrushov. "SCHIZOPHRENIA: THE SEARCH FOR GENETIC RISK FACTORS." Psychology and Personality, no. 1 (May 20, 2019): 241–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.33989/2226-4078.2019.1.164024.

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The risk of schizophrenia is caused by mutations in brain expressed genes. Four groups of mutations are distinguished: single-nucleotide polymorphisms, single-nucleotide variants, small insertions/deletions and copy number variations. Each individual disruptive allele has a weak clinical effect, but their certain complex causes schizophrenia hereditary liability. Currently almost 30 alleles with SNPs were identified, but theirs can be several thousands. It was showed that 2546 genes with SNVs and InDel have a higher probability of being associated with schizophrenia. It was identified more than 20 schizophrenia risk loci with CNVs that are distributed over the genome-wide.It was noted that the genetic mechanism of schizophrenia is extremely complex and far from understanding. Satisfactory genetic model of this disease does not exist for the present. It is proposed a classification of schizophrenia risk alleles according to their frequency: common, rare and de novo.

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Sham, Pak Chung, Peter Jones, Ailsa Russell, Karyna Gilvarry, Paul Bebbington, Shôn Lewis, Brian Toone, and Robin Murray. "Age at Onset, Sex, and Familial Psychiatric Morbidity in Schizophrenia." British Journal of Psychiatry 165, no. 4 (October 1994): 466–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.165.4.466.

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BackgroundAlthough a genetic component in schizophrenia is well established, it is likely that the contribution of genetic factors is not constant for all cases. Several recent studies have found that the relatives of female or early onset schizophrenic patients have an increased risk of schizophrenia, compared to relatives of male or late onset cases. These hypotheses are tested in the current study.MethodA family study design was employed; the probands were 195 patients with functional psychosis admitted to three south London hospitals, diagnosed using Research Diagnostic Criteria (RDC), and assessed using the Present State Examination (PSE). Information on their relatives was obtained by personal interview of the mother of the proband, and from medical records. Psychiatric diagnoses were made using Family History – Research Diagnostic Criteria (FH-RDC), blind to proband information.ResultsThere was a tendency for homotypia in the form of psychosis within families. The lifetime risk of schizophrenia in the first degree relatives of schizophrenic probands, and the risk of bipolar disorder in the first degree relatives of bipolar probands, were 5–10 times higher than reported population risks. Relatives of female and early onset (<22 years) schizophrenic probands had higher risk of schizophrenia than relatives of male and late onset schizophrenic probands. However, this effect was compensated in part by an excess of non-schizophrenic psychoses in the relatives of male probands.ConclusionsThese results suggest a high familial, possibly genetic, loading in female and early onset schizophrenia, but do not resolve the question of heterogeneity within schizophrenia.

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Wardani, Sri, and Afrizal. "RISK FACTORS OF SKIZOFRENIA IN THE PUSKESMAS SELAT PANJANG, MERANTI ISLANDS DISTRICT." Bina Generasi : Jurnal Kesehatan 13, no. 1 (September 15, 2021): 50–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.35907/bgjk.v13i1.191.

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Schizophrenia is a serious mental illness in the form of loss of contact with reality and difficulty in distinguishing between real and non-real. The mortality rate of schizophrenic sufferers is 8 times higher than the number of population deaths in general. The prevalence of schizophrenia in Riau Province in the past 5 years has also continued to increase. quantitative with case-control design. Research Locations at Selat Panjang Health Center. The sample in this study consisted of 90 respondents from 45 cases and 45 controls. Sampling was carried out by purposive sampling. The measuring instrument in this study was an interview with a questionnaire guide, recording and direct observation of the surrounding environment. Data analysis was univariate and bivariate using the Chi Square test. The results showed that there was a relationship between heredity OR 2.813 (95% CI: 1.117-6.721), personality type with OR 12, 364 (95% CI: 4.558-33.536), economic status with OR value 3.077 (95% CI = 1,286-7,336), precipitating factors with OR 4.054 b (95% CI = 1.678-9.798) with the incidence of schizophrenia. There is no relationship between residence and the incidence of schizophrenia. It is hoped that families can improve mentoring and supervision and increase self-confidence for family members who are at risk of schizophrenia, as well as Puskesmas to increase mental health promotion to the community as well as increase empowerment programs and increase skills for the community as well as synergize with other sector lists including religious and community leaders.

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Kachouchi, A., D. S. Majda, D. S. Said, P. A. Imane, P. M. Fatiha, P. A. Mohamed, and P. A. Fatima. "Risk Factors Related to Homicide in Moroccan Patients with Schizophrenia." European Psychiatry 41, S1 (April 2017): S268—S269. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpsy.2017.02.091.

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BackgroundThe relationship between schizophrenia and homicide is complex and cannot be reduced to a simple causal link.ObjectivesThe objectives of this study were to describe the characteristics of homicide in Moroccan patients suffering from schizophrenia and to determine the correlated socio-demographic, clinical and toxic variables.MethodsThe study included two groups of patients with a DSM-IV diagnosis of schizophrenia who attended the “Ibn Nafis” university psychiatric hospital of Marrakech in Morocco. The first group was composed of 30 patients hospitalized for homicide in the forensic unit between the first January 2005 and the 31st of August 2015. The second group included 90 patients without any criminal record. These two groups have been matched according to age and gender. Demographic, clinical and therapeutic variables were analyzed and compared between the two groups.ResultsThe mean of age in the first group was 37.03 and in the second group was 31.4. No significant difference was found between the two groups regarding the different socio-demographic variables and the age of onset of disease. Significant difference was found between the two groups regarding: personal antecedents of attempt of homicide a (P < 0.003), personal antecedents of attempt of suicide (P < 0.001), a history of previous violence (P = 0.005), untreated psychosis before the act (P < 0.001) poor medication compliance and a low familial support (P < 0.001), antisocial behavior (P < 0.001), addictive behavior (P = 0.007).ConclusionAwareness of these factors will allow us to provide improved prevention of violence within schizophrenic subjects.Disclosure of interestThe authors have not supplied their declaration of competing interest.

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Elbogen, Eric B., and Matthew T. Huss. "The Role of Serotonin in Violence and Schizophrenia: Implications for Risk Assessment." Journal of Psychiatry & Law 28, no. 1 (March 2000): 19–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/009318530002800103.

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This article examines dynamic biological factors associated with violence and schizophrenia to help explain inconsistent findings in the empirical literature on risk assessment. In particular, the role of serotonin in both violence and schizophrenia is reviewed and integrated. Although serotonin does seem implicated in violence, its connection with violence in schizophrenic populations has not been established. Findings from serotonin studies suggest several factors that might influence a relationship between violence and schizophrenia, including different serotonin subtypes, the type and severity of violent behavior, the type of comparison group studied, the context of the study, interactions between neurotransmitter systems, and the individual's level of psychosis.

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Hans, Sydney L., Judith G. Auerbach, Keith H. Nuechterlein, Robert F. Asarnow, Joan Asarnow, Benedict Styr, and Joseph Marcus. "Neurodevelopmental factors associated with schizotypal symptoms among adolescents at risk for schizophrenia." Development and Psychopathology 21, no. 4 (October 14, 2009): 1195–210. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0954579409990113.

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AbstractSchizophrenia has come to be viewed as a neurodevelopmental disorder that is characterized by genetic vulnerability, stressors during the prenatal period that may be marked by minor physical anomalies and neurobehavioral deficits that emerge in early development. Less is known about the neurodevelopmental origins of schizotypal personality symptoms. The present study examines schizotypal symptoms in Israeli adolescents (mean age = 16.79 years) who have not yet reached the developmental period during which first schizophrenic episode is most likely to emerge: 39 adolescent offspring of parents with schizophrenia, 39 offspring of parents with other psychiatric disorders, and 36 offspring of parents with no history of mental illness. The Semi-Structured Kiddie Interview for Personality Syndromes was used to assess cognitive–perceptual, interpersonal, and disorganized schizotypal symptoms. Interpersonal schizotypal symptoms were more prevalent in the schizophrenia offspring group than in the no-mental-illness offspring group. Among the schizophrenia offspring group, interpersonal, but not cognitive–perceptual, schizotypal symptoms were associated with minor physical anomalies, fine motor dyscoordination, and deficits in executive functioning during adolescence. Among young people whose parents did not have schizophrenia, cognitive–perceptual schizotypal symptoms were correlated with deficits in executive functioning. Adolescent schizotypal symptoms were associated with neurobehavioral symptoms measured during middle childhood in a subgroup of the sample that had been assessed prospectively. Finally, young people who had genetic risk for schizophrenia, minor physical anomalies, and neurobehavioral signs together were at markedly increased risk for symptoms of interpersonal schizotypal symptoms, compared to young people with one or none of these risk factors.

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Dennison, Charlotte A., Sophie E. Legge, Leon Hubbard, Amy J. Lynham, Stanley Zammit, Peter Holmans, Alastair G. Cardno, Michael J. Owen, Michael C. O’Donovan, and James T. R. Walters. "Risk Factors, Clinical Features, and Polygenic Risk Scores in Schizophrenia and Schizoaffective Disorder Depressive-Type." Schizophrenia Bulletin 47, no. 5 (April 10, 2021): 1375–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbab036.

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Abstract There is controversy about the status of schizoaffective disorder depressive-type (SA-D), particularly whether it should be considered a form of schizophrenia or a distinct disorder. We aimed to determine whether individuals with SA-D differ from individuals with schizophrenia in terms of demographic, premorbid, and lifetime clinical characteristics, and genetic liability to schizophrenia, depression, and bipolar disorder. Participants were from the CardiffCOGS sample and met ICD-10 criteria for schizophrenia (n = 713) or SA-D (n = 151). Two samples, Cardiff Affected-sib (n = 354) and Cardiff F-series (n = 524), were used for replication. For all samples, phenotypic data were ascertained through structured interview, review of medical records, and an ICD-10 diagnosis made by trained researchers. Univariable and multivariable logistic regression models were used to compare individuals with schizophrenia and SA-D for demographic and clinical characteristics, and polygenic risk scores (PRS). In the CardiffCOGS, SA-D, compared to schizophrenia, was associated with female sex, childhood abuse, history of alcohol dependence, higher functioning Global Assessment Scale (GAS) score in worst episode of psychosis, lower functioning GAS score in worst episode of depression, and reduced lifetime severity of disorganized symptoms. Individuals with SA-D had higher depression PRS compared to those with schizophrenia. PRS for schizophrenia and bipolar disorder did not significantly differ between SA-D and schizophrenia. Compared to individuals with schizophrenia, individuals with SA-D had higher rates of environmental and genetic risk factors for depression and a similar genetic liability to schizophrenia. These findings are consistent with SA-D being a sub-type of schizophrenia resulting from elevated liability to both schizophrenia and depression.

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Walker, E. "Risk factors, and the neurodevelopmental course of schizophrenia." European Psychiatry 17, S4 (August 2002): 363s—369s. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0924-9338(03)00079-8.

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SummaryFrom birth to two years, preschizophrenic children show much higher rates of neuromotor abnormalities and negative affective displays than their healthy siblings. Retrospectively, parents report that preschizophrenic children show more social and interpersonal problems and more abnormalities of thought. Similar results have been found with adolescents who have schizotypal personality disorder. Adolescence appears to be a critical period for the emergence of psychopathology in general, but especially for psychotic disorders. This may in large part be through the actions of gonadal and adrenal hormones, including cortisol, and in particular their influence on the expression of genes. In the case of schizophrenia, these are presumably the vulnerability genes. Patients with schizophrenia have heightened baseline levels of cortisol, and a heightened cortisol response to some biological challenges. Cortisol levels are positively correlated with symptom severity. In addition, the hippocampus, which modulates the activity of the HPA axis, is abnormal in schizophrenia. The HPA axis and hippocampal complex are modulatory neural systems; in the case of schizophrenia, what they might be modulating is the expression of abnormalities in dopamine neurotransmission. Whilst we assume that schizophrenia has prenatal neurodevelopmental origins, neural maturational processes that occur later in life, especially in adolescence, have significant implications for the expression of the illness. It is likely that preventive interventions for schizophrenia, be they pharmacological or behavioural, will have the best chance of success if they are directed at adolescents who are showing preschizophrenic indicators.

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Yu, Alice W., J. David Peery, and Hyejung Won. "Limited Association between Schizophrenia Genetic Risk Factors and Transcriptomic Features." Genes 12, no. 7 (July 12, 2021): 1062. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/genes12071062.

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Schizophrenia is a polygenic disorder with many genomic regions contributing to schizophrenia risk. The majority of genetic variants associated with schizophrenia lie in the non-coding genome and are thought to contribute to transcriptional regulation. Extensive transcriptomic dysregulation has been detected from postmortem brain samples of schizophrenia-affected individuals. However, the relationship between schizophrenia genetic risk factors and transcriptomic features has yet to be explored. Herein, we examined whether varying gene expression features, including differentially expressed genes (DEGs), co-expression networks, and central hubness of genes, contribute to the heritability of schizophrenia. We leveraged quantitative trait loci and chromatin interaction profiles to identify schizophrenia risk variants assigned to the genes that represent different transcriptomic features. We then performed stratified linkage disequilibrium score regression analysis on these variants to estimate schizophrenia heritability enrichment for different gene expression features. Notably, DEGs and co-expression networks showed nominal heritability enrichment. This nominal association can be partly explained by cellular heterogeneity, as DEGs were associated with the genetic risk of schizophrenia in a cell type-specific manner. Moreover, DEGs were enriched for target genes of schizophrenia-associated transcription factors, suggesting that the transcriptomic signatures of schizophrenia are the result of transcriptional regulatory cascades elicited by genetic risk factors.

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Hutchinson, G., N. Takei, T. A. Fahy, D. Bhugra, C. Gilvarry, P. Moran, R. Mallett, P. Sham, J. Leff, and R. M. Murray. "Morbid Risk of Schizophrenia in First-Degree Relatives of White and African–Caribbean Patients with Psychosis." British Journal of Psychiatry 169, no. 6 (December 1996): 776–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.169.6.776.

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BackgroundThe high rate of schizophrenia among the second-generation African–Caribbean population in Britain has prompted much concern and speculation. Sugarman and Craufurd have reported that the morbid risk in the siblings of second-generation African–Caribbean schizophrenic patients was unusually high compared with that of the siblings of White patients.MethodWe sought to replicate these findings by comparing the morbid risk for schizophrenia in the first-degree relatives of 111 White and 73 African–Caribbean psychotic probands. The latter comprised 35 first-generation (bom in the Caribbean) and 38 second-generation (born in Britain) probands.ResultsThe morbid risk for schizophrenia was similar for the parents and siblings of White and first-generation African–Caribbean patients, and for the parents of the second-generation African–Caribbean probands. However, the siblings of second-generation African–Caribbean psychotic probands had a morbid risk for schizophrenia that was seven times that of their White counterparts (P=0.007); similarly, the siblings of second-generation African–Caribbean schizophrenic probands had a morbid risk for schizophrenia that was four times that of their White counterparts (P=0.05).ConclusionsThese findings replicate those of the earlier report of Sugarman and Craufurd, and suggest either that the second-generation African–Caribbean population in Britain is particularly vulnerable to some environmental risk factors for schizophrenia, or that some environmental factors act selectively on this population in Britain.

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Takei, N., PC Sham, EO' Callaghan, G. Glover, and RM Murray. "Early risk factors in schizophrenia: place and season of birth." European Psychiatry 10, no. 4 (1995): 165–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0767-399x(96)80059-9.

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SummaryFirst admission psychiatric patients born in England and Wales between 1938 and 1963, and discharged from hospitals in England and Wales between 1976 and 1986, were examined. Using logistic regression, we tested the hypothesis that the risk of shizophrenia varies by place, and season of birth. Persons born in city areas showed a 12% greater risk of schizophrenia (odds ratio 1.12; 95% confidence interval 1.06 to 1.19) than those born in non-city areas, when compared with other psychiatric patients. The increase in risk was particularly high for individuals born in city areas in winter (21%, ie odds ratio 1.21 and confidence interval 1.08 to 1.36). These findings suggest that the factor(s) responsible for the season-of-birth effect preferentially affects city born schizophrenics.

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Goldin, L. R., L. E. DeLisi, and E. S. Gershon. "Unravelling the Relationship between Genetic and Environmental Risk Factors in Psychiatric Disorders." British Journal of Psychiatry 151, no. 3 (September 1987): 302–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.151.3.302.

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Murray et al (1985) have proposed a method for using biological markers and information about family history to reduce the heterogeneity in a disease such as schizophrenia. They propose that families which are heavily loaded with illness are most likely to be segregating for a major locus and therefore should be used for studies of genetic marker or other biological traits that are thought to be related to a genetic etiology. They propose that patients without a family history (sporadics) of an illness should be investigated for hypothesised environmental components since they are the cases where environmental factors are most likely to play a large role. They give an example from their own data on Ventricular Brain Ratios (VBR) in a sample of schizophrenic twins (Reveley et al, 1984) where schizophrenic twins without any family history (FH-) of a major psychosis had significantly larger ventricles than did schizophrenic twins with a family history (FH+). They conclude that while there is a genetic determinant to ventricular size within the normal range, large ventricles reflect an environmental aetiology that is more important in sporadic cases than in those with a familial pattern to the illness. Subsequently, Reveley & Chitkara (1985) found that singleton schizophrenic patients who were FH-had a significantly larger VBR than did controls while FH+ patients had a mean midway between FH-patients and controls. While this is an attractive hypothesis for the structural brain changes seen in some schizophrenic patients, results of other studies are not consistent with these findings (Nasrallah et al, 1983; Schulsinger et al, 1984; Owens et al, 1985; DeLisi et al, 1986). For example, in our own data (DeLisi et al, 1986), ‘familial’ schizophrenics had larger ventricles than did controls and risk factors thought to be environmental (head injuries and birth complications) were found to be present in that sample.

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Cooper, Brian, and John M. Eagles. "Folnegović & Folnevogić-Šmalc's “Schizophrenia in Croatia: Inter-regional Differences in Prevalence and a Comment on Constant Incidence”." British Journal of Psychiatry 164, no. 1 (January 1994): 97–100. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.164.1.97.

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“Study objective - The aim was to examine why differences exist in schizophrenia prevalence and risk in some areas of Croatia, when schizophrenia incidence rates do not appear to vary. Design - Areas differing by schizophrenia admission rates in patients born in 1953 and admitted by the age of 31 years are compared using a number of indicators relating both to general population characteristics and to those of schizophrenic cases in these populations. Setting - The study covers the whole of Croatia (4 601 469 inhabitants, 1981 census). Subjects - By the age of 31 years, out of 80 445 individuals born in Croatia in 1953, 464 were admitted for and diagnosed as having schizophrenia. Main results - Admission risk rates are higher in those parts of Croatia where emigration rates are high and lower where immigration rates are high. There is also a positive correlation with schizophrenia prevalence and manic depressive psychosis rates. There is a negative correlation with age of onset of schizophrenia and with schizophrenic reproduction rates. In the study areas, hospital incidence rates are not significantly different. Conclusions - Economic migration and negative selection in the domestic population are likely to be the most significant factors leading to differences in schizophrenia prevalence. The approximately equal incidence rates in the population, with different prevalence and admission risks, are linked to differences in the disease onset among schizophrenics with a positive family history for this condition. In other words, these patients, when part of the population with a greater prevalence and a greater hereditary loading, experience the onset more often at an earlier age. Thus they have a lower reproduction rate than in a population with a lower prevalence and a lower hereditary loading. Thus incidence rates in populations with different prevalences and different hereditary loads are maintained roughly equal over generations.”

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Нтага, N. V., and О. A. Skiigarevsky. "RISK FACTORS FOR THE MANIFESTATION OF AGGRESSION IN PATIENTS WITH SCHIZOPHRENIA AND SCHIZOPHRENIC SPECTRUM DISORDERS." Medical Journal, no. 3(77) (2021): 109–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.51922/1818-426x.2021.3.109.

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Introduction: The article deals with the influence of alcohol and a hostile attributive style on schizophrenic spectrum disorders as provocateurs of aggression. Objectives: To determine the level of influence of ВАС and alcohol on the likelihood of aggression in patients with schizophrenia and schizophrenic spectrum disorders with concomitant problematic alcohol use. Materials and methods: the ASSIST screening scale — to assess the level of «risk» of alcohol consumption, the A05 scale determines the severity of aggression, the AIHQ scale — the severity of the hostile attributive style. Results and discussion: The recruitment of patients for the study was carried out on the basis of the institution «Gomel Regional Clinical Psychiatric Hospital» from 2014 to 2020. A total of 86 people were examined, all of working age. The period of observation of the disease is up to 5 years. In the structure of diagnoses verified by ICD-10, the following distribution was observed: schizophrenia (F 20) and acute polymorphic psychotic disorders of the schizophrenic spectrum (F 23). It was found that an increase in alcohol consumption after the onset of the disease is accompanied by an increase in aggressive acts; the A05 9 and higher group showed higher indices for all components of the AIHQ scale. Conclusions: Increased alcohol consumption after the onset of schizophrenia leads to conjugate relationships with aggressive behavior. The total value of intentional indices (AIHQ scale: hostility index, accusation index, anger index) 44.6 and higher entails an increase in the risk of aggression («overall score» AOS scale) by 3.53 times and physical aggression against other people (AOS scale) 3.45 times.

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Kuo, Chian-Jue, Shang-Ying Tsai, Chun-Hsuan Lo, Ying-Ping Wang, and Chiao-Chicy Chen. "Risk Factors for Completed Suicide in Schizophrenia." Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 66, no. 05 (May 15, 2005): 579–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.4088/jcp.v66n0506.

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Meli, Giampiero, Birgit Öttl, Angela Paladini, and Luigi Cataldi. "Prenatal and perinatal risk factors of schizophrenia." Journal of Maternal-Fetal & Neonatal Medicine 25, no. 12 (July 18, 2012): 2559–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/14767058.2012.699118.

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Fazel, Seena, Martin Grann, Eva Carlström, Paul Lichtenstein, and Niklas Långström. "Risk Factors for Violent Crime in Schizophrenia." Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 70, no. 3 (March 10, 2009): 362–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.4088/jcp.08m04274.

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Zammit, Stanley, Glyn Lewis, Christina Dalman, and Peter Allebeck. "EXAMINING INTERACTIONS BETWEEN RISK FACTORS FOR SCHIZOPHRENIA." Schizophrenia Research 117, no. 2-3 (April 2010): 434–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2010.02.803.

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Ridler, Charlotte. "ALS and schizophrenia share genetic risk factors." Nature Reviews Neurology 13, no. 5 (April 7, 2017): 258. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrneurol.2017.50.

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Fazel, Seena, and John J. McGrath. "VIOLENCE AND SCHIZOPHRENIA: RISK FACTORS AND MEDIATORS." Schizophrenia Research 153 (April 2014): S30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0920-9964(14)70099-4.

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Arehart-Treichel, Joan. "Birth, Developmental Factors Linked to Schizophrenia Risk." Psychiatric News 46, no. 20 (October 21, 2011): 16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/pn.46.20.psychnews_46_20_16_1.

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Fenton, Wayne S. "Risk Factors for Spontaneous Dyskinesia in Schizophrenia." Archives of General Psychiatry 51, no. 8 (August 1, 1994): 643. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1994.03950080055008.

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McNeil, Thomas F., and Elizabeth Cantor-Graae. "Obstetric Complications as Risk Factors for Schizophrenia." International Journal of Mental Health 29, no. 4 (December 2000): 73–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00207411.2000.11449504.

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Roy, Alec, and Ronald Draper. "Suicide among psychiatric hospital in-patients." Psychological Medicine 25, no. 1 (January 1995): 199–202. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0033291700028233.

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SynopsisWe examined for risk factors for suicide among psychiatric in-patients by comparing 37 in-patients from an Ontario Provincial Psychiatric Hospital who had committed suicide with 37 age and sex matched in-patient controls. Significantly more of the suicide victims had made a previous suicide attempt (62·2 v. 35·1%), suffered from schizophrenia (75·7 v. 35·1%), were involuntary at their last admission (70·3 v. 43·2%) and lived alone (70·3 v. 43·2%). Only six patients committed suicide on the ward. Almost a third of the patients, the majority schizophrenic, committed suicide after having been in the hospital for more than a year. These results suggest that in the psychiatric hospital setting the in-patient at risk for suicide has previously exhibited suicidal behaviour, suffers from schizophrenia, was admitted involuntarily, lives alone and that the risk of suicide may remain high among long-stay schizophrenics.

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McLaughlin, Patrick. "Do reality distortions contribute to an increased risk of violent offending in schizophrenia? – a narrative review." BJPsych Open 7, S1 (June 2021): S272. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjo.2021.723.

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AimsTo critically examine the factors that drive an increased risk of violence in the schizophrenic population, with emphasis on the role played by reality distorted symptoms.BackgroundA multitude of studies have reported a positive association between schizophrenia and violence. Many of the risk factors for violence among the non-mentally disordered population, such as substance use, childhood conduct problems and victimisation, are the same as for persons with schizophrenia. There remains controversy however as to whether reality distorted symptoms themselves contribute to the increased risk of violence.MethodRelevant literature was identified through a search of the following databases: PubMed, EMBASE, and PsycINFO. Data were appraised and synthesised to provide a comprehensive overview of the current evidence base for the role of reality distorted symptoms in violence in schizophrenia.ResultStudies ascertaining the contribution of reality distorted symptoms in violent behaviour have produced contradictory results. At a population level, several epidemiological surveys have found little or no contribution for reality distorted symptoms. Such studies frequently show that violence can be accounted for almost entirely by other factors such as substance use and victimisation. However studies investigating relationships between clinical diagnoses and population-wide violence may be unable to detect association at the symptom level. A number of studies have found strong associations between schizophrenia and violence which was not explained by comorbid substance use and have shown strong associations between specific reality distorted symptoms (in particular persecutory delusions accompanied by anger) and violent behaviour.ConclusionThere is heterogeneity in the relationship between schizophrenia and violence. Factors that are associated with increased risk of violence among the schizophrenic population are also pertinent to those without mental disorders. With regards to the pathways to violence in schizophrenia the following conclusions may be drawn: there is an well-established increased risk of violence associated with schizophrenia which has been replicated in many studies; this risk is driven largely by substance use but other factors such as victimisation are also important; there is evidence that reality distorted symptoms, particularly persecutory symptoms, play a role in violent behaviour in some patients, particularly when co-occurring with anger; finally, there may be shared aetiological links between schizophrenia and antisocial behaviour.

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Hawton, Keith, Lesley Sutton, Camilla Haw, Julia Sinclair, and Jonathan J. Deeks. "Schizophrenia and suicide: Systematic review of risk factors." British Journal of Psychiatry 187, no. 1 (July 2005): 9–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.187.1.9.

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BackgroundSuicide risk is greatly increased in schizophrenia. Detection of those at risk is clinically important.AimsTo identify risk factors for suicide in schizophrenia.MethodThe international literature on case-control and cohort studies of patients with schizophrenia or related conditions in which suicide was reported as an outcome was systematically reviewed. Studies were identified through searching electronic databases and reference lists, and by consulting experts.ResultsTwenty-nine eligible studies were identified. Factors with robust evidence of increased risk of suicide were previous depressive disorders (OR=3.03, 95% CI 2.06–4.46), previous suicide attempts (OR=4.09, 95% CI 2.79–6.01), drug misuse (OR=3.21, 95% CI 1.99–5.17), agitation or motor restlessness (OR=2.61, 95% CI 1.54–4.41), fear of mental disintegration (OR=12.1, 95% CI 1.89–81.3), poor adherence to treatment (OR=3.75, 95% CI 2.20–6.37) and recent loss (OR=4.03, 95% CI 1.37–11.8). Reduced risk was associated with hallucinations (OR=0.50, 95% CI 0.35–0.71).ConclusionsPrevention of suicide in schizophrenia is likely to result from treatment of affective symptoms, improving adherence to treatment, and maintaining special vigilance in patients with risk factors, especially after losses.

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Cohen, D., H. Burger, C. Gispen de Wied, R. Stolk, and D. Grobbee. "Do Antipsychotics Modify Age and Weight as Risk Factors for Diabetes Mellitus?" European Psychiatry 24, S1 (January 2009): 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0924-9338(09)70295-0.

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Aims:Study of risk factors of diabetes mellitus from the general population in a schizophrenic population.Method:Measurement of glucose and insuline levels, fasting and 120’ after oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) and calculating of HOMA-IR and HOMA-B.Results:We studied 167 outpatients, mean age 40.2 years, 90.9% Caucasian, suffering from schizophrenia (83%) or schizoaffective disorder (17%).Age could not be confirmed as a risk factor on any of the glucose or insuline measurements or HOMA in patients with typical or atypical antipsychotics.With bodyweight, patients with typical differed from those with atypical antipsychotics. Weight was not a risk factor on any measurement or model in with typical antipsychotics. In patients with atypical, a significant correlation with levels of plasma glucose (p=0.017), insuline (p= 0.003 resp. p= 0.010) or glucose homeostasis models (p= 0.004 resp. p= 0.016). Fasting plasma glucose (FPG) was the notable exception (p=0.987).Conclusion:Diabetes risk factors age and weight behave differently in schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder.The finding that age was not a risk factor, suggests that age is not a suitable criterion for the decision of glucose screening in this population.The different effect of weight (a risk factor only in patients treated with atypical, but not with typical antipsychotics) suggests in different pathophysiological pathway.As FPG was the only measurement with no correlation with either risk factors, this suggests that FPG is insufficiently sensitive for detection of disturbed glucosemetabolism in schizophrenia. Additional measurements (fasting insuline, HOMA-IR, HOMA-B, OGTT) seem to be necessary.

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Ben Soussia, R., A. Bouallagui, I. Marrag, S. Khouadja, S. Younes, and M. Nasr. "Acute psychotic disorders: Factors related to schizophrenia evolution." European Psychiatry 41, S1 (April 2017): S186. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpsy.2017.01.2106.

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IntroductionAcute psychotic disorders are described as a clinical syndrome characterized by Acuteness of the installation, the intensity and the polymorphism of delirium.AimDescribe the demographic characteristics of a population of patients with an acute psychotic disorder and identify factors correlated with evolution to schizophrenia.MethodsThis is a retrospective, descriptive and analytic study conducted on hospitalized patients in psychiatric department EPS Mahdia for acute psychotic disorder according to DSM-VI-TR criteria. A study of the recurrence time was performed by Kaplan–Meier and Cox test was used to identify factors correlated with evolution to schizophrenia.ResultsOne hundred and eleven patients were collected. The average age of the study population was 27 years, a male predominance was noted (59.5%), 39.6% of patients had family history of psychiatric disorders, including schizophrenic disorders and bipolar disorder were the most common with rates of 63.6 and 18.4% of cases. For our patients, 38.7% progressed to schizophrenia. Four risk factors were significantly predictive of progression to schizophrenia: male gender (P = 0.026), subacute or progressive onset disorders (P = 0.003), partial remission of the disorder (P = 0.023) and the prolonged duration of untreated psychosis (P = 0.027).ConclusionThe evolution of an acute psychotic disorder remains unpredictable. In fact, the severity is related to the risk of developing schizophrenia or mood disorder. Attention is paid in recent years to recognize and seek most precociously as possible factors associated with this evolution.Disclosure of interestThe authors have not supplied their declaration of competing interest.

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Breetvelt, Elemi J., Marco P. M. Boks, Mattijs E. Numans, Jean-Paul Selten, Iris E. C. Sommer, Diederick E. Grobbee, René S. Kahn, and Mirjam I. Geerlings. "Schizophrenia risk factors constitute general risk factors for psychiatric symptoms in the population." Schizophrenia Research 120, no. 1-3 (July 2010): 184–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2010.03.033.

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Journal articles on the topic 'Schizophrenia – Risk factors'

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