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Journal articles on the topic 'Saxitoxin'

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Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 30 July 2024

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1

Moustaka-Gouni, Maria, Anastasia Hiskia, Savvas Genitsaris, Matina Katsiapi, Korina Manolidi, Sevasti-Kiriaki Zervou, Christophoros Christophoridis, Theodoros M. Triantis, Triantafyllos Kaloudis, and Sotiris Orfanidis. "First report of Aphanizomenon favaloroi occurrence in Europe associated with saxitoxins and a massive fish kill in Lake Vistonis, Greece." Marine and Freshwater Research 68, no. 4 (2017): 793. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/mf16029.

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The cyanobacterium Aphanizomenon favaloroi was identified for the first time in Europe in the Mediterranean brackish Lake Vistonis during July–August 2014. It formed a dense bloom (from 16×106 to 81×106 trichomes L–1), causing a brown colouration of the lake water. When A. favaloroi formed 100% of the total phytoplankton biomass (44mg L–1), saxitoxins (saxitoxin and neo-saxitoxin) were detected in the lake seston (42 and 17μg g–1 phytoplankton dry weight respectively), which was screened for saxitoxins, cylindrospermopsin, anatoxin-a, microcystins and nodularin. A massive fish kill coincided with the A. favaloroi bloom. This new saxitoxin-producing species of cyanobacteria, with traits for successful dispersal, may pose a health risk to animals and humans and cause adverse effects on water quality and water services because of its expansion potential.

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2

Casali, Simone Pereira, André Cordeiro Alves Dos Santos, Patrícia Bortoletto de Falco, and Maria do Carmo Calijuri. "Influence of environmental variables on saxitoxin yields by Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii in a mesotrophic subtropical reservoir." Journal of Water and Health 15, no. 4 (March 25, 2017): 509–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2017.266.

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Saxitoxins are a class of toxins produced by at least two groups of evolutionarily distant organisms (cyanobacteria and dinoflagellates). While the toxicity of these toxins is relatively well characterized, to date little is known about their drivers and ecological functions, especially in lower latitude tropical and subtropical freshwater ecosystems. In the present study, we aimed to obtain a better understanding of the main drivers of saxitoxin concentrations in aquatic environments. We investigated the relationships among saxitoxin concentrations in a mesotrophic subtropical reservoir dominated by the cyanobacteria Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii with physical, chemical and biological water variables. The highest saxitoxin concentrations were 0.20 μg·L−1, which occurred in the samples with the highest densities of C. raciborskii (maximum of 4.3 × 104 org·mL−1) and the highest concentration of dissolved nutrients (nitrate from 0.2 to 0.8 μg·L−1, ortophosphate from 0.3 to 8.5 μg·L−1). These correlations were confirmed by statistical analyses. However, the highest saxitoxin relative concentrations (per trichome) were associated with lower C. raciborskii densities, suggesting that saxitoxin production or the selection of saxitoxin-producing strains was associated with the adaptation of this species to conditions of stress. Our results indicate that C. raciborskii toxin yields vary depending on the enrichment conditions having potential implications for reservoir management.

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3

Truman, Penelope, and Robin J. Lake. "Comparison of Mouse Bioassay and Sodium Channel Cytotoxicity Assay for Detecting Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning Toxins in Shellfish Extracts." Journal of AOAC INTERNATIONAL 79, no. 5 (September 1, 1996): 1130–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jaoac/79.5.1130.

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Abstract A neuroblastoma cell culture assay was used to analyze shellfish extracts for presence of paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins (saxitoxins). Results were compared with mouse bioassays performed as part of a screening program for shellfish toxins in New Zealand. Twenty-nine samples gave negative results in both assays. Fifty-seven samples gave positive results in at least one assay. The correlation between the assays for saxitoxin equivalent levels in shellfish was 0.867. In spiking studies on shellfish extracts, the neuroblastoma assay showed a good response to added saxitoxin. Although these results support use of the neuroblastoma assay as a screening procedure for shellfish toxicity, results close to regulatory limits should be confirmed by mouse bioassay.

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4

Grachev, Mikhail, Ilya Zubkov, Irina Tikhonova, Maria Ivacheva, Anton Kuzmin, Elena Sukhanova, Ekaterina Sorokovikova, et al. "Extensive Contamination of Water with Saxitoxin Near the Dam of the Irkutsk Hydropower Station Reservoir (East Siberia, Russia)." Toxins 10, no. 10 (October 1, 2018): 402. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins10100402.

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An area of discolored water 50 m wide and 30 m long was found in September 2017 close to the dam of the Irkutsk hydroelectric power station. Water from this spot was sampled for investigation in the present study. Microscopic analysis revealed that the suspended matter in the sample was composed of clumps of filaments, vegetative cells, akinetes and heterocysts that formed short filaments and solitary cells. This matter was found to consist of partially degraded cells of the cyanobacterium Dolichospermum lemmermannii. Nucleotide sequencing of DNA isolated from the biomass revealed the presence of the sxtA gene which is involved in the synthesis of saxitoxin. Water from the polluted area contained 600 ± 100 μg L−1 saxitoxin as measured by HPLC-MS with pre-column modification of the toxin with 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine. Immunoassay analysis (ELISA) showed a concentration of saxitoxins in the water of 2900 ± 900 μg L−1. Hydrochemical and microbiological analyses suggested the contaminated area appeared as a result of a D. lemmermannii bloom, followed by its decay and release of saxitoxin and nutrients. The present paper describes the results of a case study. Better understanding of the phenomenon will depend on the possibility to perform implementation of a large-scale monitoring program.

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5

Duncan, Keith G., Jacque L. Duncan, and Daniel M. Schwartz. "Saxitoxin." Cornea 20, no. 6 (August 2001): 639–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00003226-200108000-00016.

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6

Thottumkara, Arun P., William H. Parsons, and J. Du Bois. "Saxitoxin." Angewandte Chemie 126, no. 23 (April 25, 2014): 5868–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ange.201308235.

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7

Thottumkara, Arun P., William H. Parsons, and J. Du Bois. "Saxitoxin." Angewandte Chemie International Edition 53, no. 23 (April 25, 2014): 5760–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/anie.201308235.

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8

Egmond, Hans P. van, Antonio Mouriño, Pedro A. Burdaspal, Achim Boenke, P. Alvito, F. Arevalo, L. M. Botana-López, et al. "Development of Reference Materials for Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning Toxins." Journal of AOAC INTERNATIONAL 84, no. 5 (September 1, 2001): 1668–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jaoac/84.5.1668.

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Abstract A project was undertaken to develop mussel reference materials that were certified for their mass fractions of saxitoxin and decarbamoyl-saxitoxin. Fifteen laboratories from various European countries participated. Three of these had major responsibility for substantial parts of the work and overall coordination of the project. The project involved 4 main activities: (1) procurement and characterization of calibrants; (2) improvement of analytical methodology; (3) preparation of reference materials, including homogeneity and stability studies; (4) 2 interlaboratory studies and a certification exercise. The joint activities resulted in 3 homogeneous and stable reference materials: 2 lyophilized mussel materials with and without naturally incurred paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) toxins, and a saxitoxin enrichment solution. The reference materials were certified with respect to their saxitoxin and decarbamoyl-saxitoxin content. The lyophilized mussel material with PSP toxins (CRM 542) contained <0.07 mg saxitoxin·2HCl/kg and 1.59 ± 0.20 mg decarbamoyl-saxitoxin·2HCl/kg. The lyophilized mussel material without PSP toxins (CRM 543) contained <0.07 mg saxitoxin·2HCl/kg and <0.04 mg decarbamoyl-saxitoxin·2HCl/kg. The certified value of the saxitoxin mass fraction in the saxitoxin enrichment solution (CRM 663) was 9.8 ± 1.2 μg/g.

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9

Ho, Lionel, Paul Tanis-Plant, Nawal Kayal, Najwa Slyman, and Gayle Newcombe. "Optimising water treatment practices for the removal of Anabaena circinalis and its associated metabolites, geosmin and saxitoxins." Journal of Water and Health 7, no. 4 (July 1, 2009): 544–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2009.075.

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The cyanobacterium Anabaena circinalis has the ability to co-produce geosmin and saxitoxins, compounds which can compromise the quality of drinking water. This study provides pertinent information in optimising water treatment practices for the removal of geosmin and saxitoxins. In particular, it demonstrates that pre-oxidation using potassium permanganate could be applied at the head of water treatment plants without releasing intracellular geosmin and saxitoxins from A. circinalis. Furthermore, powdered activated carbon (PAC) was shown to be an effective treatment barrier for the removal of extracellular (dissolved) geosmin and saxitoxins, with similar adsorption trends of both compounds. The relative removal of the saxitoxins compared with geosmin was determined to be 0.84±0.27, which implies that saxitoxin removal with PAC can be estimated to be approximately 60 to 100% of the removal of geosmin under equivalent conditions. Chlorine was shown to be effective for the oxidation of the saxitoxins with CT values of approximately 30 mg min l−1 required for greater than 90% destruction of the saxitoxins.

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10

Newcombe, G., and B. Nicholson. "Treatment options for the saxitoxin class of cyanotoxins." Water Supply 2, no. 5-6 (December 1, 2002): 271–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2002.0179.

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The saxitoxin class of algal toxins (cyanotoxins) are neurotoxins produced in Australia by the blue-green alga (cyanobacterium) Anabaena circinalis. A range of water treatment processes was investigated for the removal of these compounds. Ozonation of the toxins at moderate doses was found to be ineffective. Chlorination was found to be effective at high pH; therefore where pH adjustment is possible in the treatment process, chlorination could be considered as an important treatment option. Activated carbon, both in the granular and powdered form, was effective for reducing the toxicity of a mixture of the toxins as the most toxic of the saxitoxins were also the most readily removed by adsorption.

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11

Davio, Stephen R. "Neutralization of saxitoxin by anti-saxitoxin rabbit serum." Toxicon 23, no. 4 (January 1985): 669–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0041-0101(85)90371-x.

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12

YAHUMIN, SYLVIA, KENNETH FRANCIS RODRIGUES, and GRACE JOY WEI LIE CHIN. "CHARACTERIZATION OF THE SAXITOXIN BIOSYNTHETIC STARTING GENE, sxtA, IN THE TOXIC DINOFLAGELLATE, Pyrodinium bahamense var. compressum." JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABILITY SCIENCE AND MANAGEMENT 17, no. 7 (July 31, 2022): 151–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.46754/jssm.2022.07.011.

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Pyrodinium bahamense var. compressum, a saxitoxin-producing dinoflagellate, frequently blooms on the west coast of Sabah. According to previous studies, saxitoxin from cyanobacteria and dinoflagellates is manufactured from similar precursors (three arginines, one methionine via S-adenosylmethionine and one acetate) through identical biochemical pathways. The saxitoxin biosynthetic starting gene, sxtA is essential for synthesizing the final compound. The genes associated with saxitoxin synthesis in Alexandrium spp. and cyanobacteria have been previously identified; in spite of this, limited information is known about P. bahamense var. compressum, the principal tropical saxitoxin-producing dinoflagellate. In this study, the exclusive starting gene for saxitoxin biosynthesis, sxtA, specifically the SAM-dependent methyltransferase, sxtA1 and the class II aminotransferase coding gene, sxtA4 of P. bahamense was studied. Comparative sequence analysis revealed that sxtA1 and sxtA4 genes in P. bahamense exhibited high sequence similarity with other toxic dinoflagellates such as Alexandrium fundyense and Alexandrium tamarense. This study provides a genetic insight into saxitoxin biosynthesis in P. bahamense, which will be helpful in future investigations such as the development of genetic markers to study the expression of the sxtA gene and the identification of potential molecular targets for bloom characterization.

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13

LUMOR, STEPHEN E., BRONWYN D. DEEN, IAN RONNINGEN, KENNETH SMITH, NEAL R. FREDRICKSON, FRANCISCO DIEZ-GONZALEZ, and THEODORE P. LABUZA. "Detection and Inactivation of Saxitoxin in Skim Milk." Journal of Food Protection 75, no. 6 (June 1, 2012): 1113–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-11-381.

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In this study, saxitoxin dihydrochloride in skim milk was reacted with sodium hydroxide and hydrogen peroxide to yield nontoxic 8-amino-6-hydroxymethyl-iminopurine-3(2H)-propionic acid (AHIPA), which was quantified by fluorescence spectroscopy using excitation and emission wavelengths of 330 and 425 nm, respectively. Samples of saxitoxin dihydrochloride (in 20% ethanol, vol/vol) were used as controls. The limits of detection of AHIPA, based on the concentration of saxitoxin prior to inactivation, were 5 and 10 μg/ml for the control and skim milk, respectively. These values are considerably below the concentration of saxitoxin that corresponds to the lethal dosage of 1 mg for an adult of average weight (70 kg). The inactivation of saxitoxin proceeded at a lower rate in skim milk than in the control, as its reaction rate constant was only 0.004 min−1 compared with 0.011 min−1 for the control. We were unable to detect AHIPA in 2% milk contaminated with saxitoxin because of possible interference from what we believed were products of secondary reactions involving milk fat and sodium hydroxide. Our results also indicated that the conversion of saxitoxin to AHIPA increased initially with temperature up to 40°C but decreased thereafter. We observed a decrease in the formation of AHIPA when the concentration of hydrogen peroxide was increased except at 22°C, where there was an initial increase in AHIPA formation between 1.2 and 2.4 mg/ml hydrogen peroxide but its formation decreased thereafter.

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14

Akbar, Muhamad Afiq, Nurul Yuziana Mohd Yusof, Noor Idayu Tahir, Asmat Ahmad, Gires Usup, Fathul Karim Sahrani, and Hamidun Bunawan. "Biosynthesis of Saxitoxin in Marine Dinoflagellates: An Omics Perspective." Marine Drugs 18, no. 2 (February 5, 2020): 103. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/md18020103.

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Saxitoxin is an alkaloid neurotoxin originally isolated from the clam Saxidomus giganteus in 1957. This group of neurotoxins is produced by several species of freshwater cyanobacteria and marine dinoflagellates. The saxitoxin biosynthesis pathway was described for the first time in the 1980s and, since then, it was studied in more than seven cyanobacterial genera, comprising 26 genes that form a cluster ranging from 25.7 kb to 35 kb in sequence length. Due to the complexity of the genomic landscape, saxitoxin biosynthesis in dinoflagellates remains unknown. In order to reveal and understand the dynamics of the activity in such impressive unicellular organisms with a complex genome, a strategy that can carefully engage them in a systems view is necessary. Advances in omics technology (the collective tools of biological sciences) facilitated high-throughput studies of the genome, transcriptome, proteome, and metabolome of dinoflagellates. The omics approach was utilized to address saxitoxin-producing dinoflagellates in response to environmental stresses to improve understanding of dinoflagellates gene–environment interactions. Therefore, in this review, the progress in understanding dinoflagellate saxitoxin biosynthesis using an omics approach is emphasized. Further potential applications of metabolomics and genomics to unravel novel insights into saxitoxin biosynthesis in dinoflagellates are also reviewed.

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15

Bois, J., and J. Fleming. "Synthesis of (+)-Saxitoxin." Synfacts 2006, no. 9 (September 2006): 0870. http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-2006-942053.

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16

Thottumkara, Arun P., William H. Parsons, and J. Du Bois. "ChemInform Abstract: Saxitoxin." ChemInform 45, no. 35 (August 14, 2014): no. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/chin.201435243.

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17

Dwiyitno, D., G. R. Barokah, R. K. Rustiani, and S. Wibowo. "Distribution of saxitoxin producing algae in Jakarta Bay and the implication to saxitoxin concentration in green mussel." IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 967, no. 1 (January 1, 2022): 012037. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/967/1/012037.

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Abstract Harmful algae blooms (HABs) have been associated with an annual incidence in Jakarta Bay. The The present study aimed to investigate the concentration of dinoflagellates producing saxitoxins (STXs) in Cilincing and Kalibaru regions and the STXs concentration in mussel species from this coastal water. A sampling of phytoplankton, green mussel (Perna viridis), and environmental parameters were measured during the transition from wet to dry season. The water nutrients of the Cilincing region, mainly nitrite and ammonia in some green mussel aquaculture, have exceeded the recommended concentration to support the eutrophication/algae bloom. The N/P ratio at the study area was between 10 and 22. Plankton identification found STXs producing dinoflagellates, i.e., Alexandrium sp. and Gymnodinium sp. Other species of dinoflagellates and diatom showed predominantly to trigger algae Bloom, such as Skeletonema sp., Chaetoceros sp., Prorocentrum sp., Gonyaulax sp., Protoperidinium sp., and Nitzchia sp. Further analysis of saxitoxin in mussel samples from Cilincing and Kalibar showed STX concentrations of 10.15 μg/100 g and 21.24 μg/100 g, respectively, which is fairly below the official maximum limit (80 μg/100 g) as set by FAO/WHO or national standard.

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18

Oshima, Yasukatsu. "Postcolumn Derivatization Liquid Chromatographic Method for Paralytic Shellfish Toxins." Journal of AOAC INTERNATIONAL 78, no. 2 (March 1, 1995): 528–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jaoac/78.2.528.

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Abstract More than 20 analogues of saxitoxin occur naturally. An accurate analytical method applicable to all saxitoxins is required because of the recent findings that decarbamoyl toxins and C (N-sulfocarbamoyl- 11-hydroxysulfate) toxins are metabolites of marine animals or major products of some dinoflagellate species. Almost all the toxins could be determined by ion-interaction chromatography on a silica-based reversed-phase (C8) column with postcolumn periodate oxidation and fluorescence detection. Toxin groups of different net charges were separately determined by isocratic elution using different mobile phases. For determination of the saxitoxin group (net charge, 2+) and the gonyautoxin group (net charge, 1+), use of 1-heptanesulfonate as counterion, with or without acetonitrile in the mobile phase, resulted in resolution of decarbamoyl toxins from their carbamate analogues. C toxins having both M-sulfocarbamoyl and 11-hydroxysulfate moieties on the same molecule were completely resolved using the tetrabutylammonium ion. High sensitivity with detection limits ranging from 20 to 110 fmol were achieved as a result of reduced band broadening and optimized reaction conditions. For applications to biological matrixes, a cleanup procedure using a C18 solid-phase extraction cartridge was effective in preventing false peaks. When applied to low-toxicity shellfish, the liquid chromatographic method gave higher values than the standard mouse bioassay, because of underestimation by the bioassay.

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Orr, Russell J. S., Anke Stüken, Shauna A. Murray, and Kjetill S. Jakobsen. "Evolutionary Acquisition and Loss of Saxitoxin Biosynthesis in Dinoflagellates: the Second “Core” Gene,sxtG." Applied and Environmental Microbiology 79, no. 7 (January 18, 2013): 2128–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/aem.03279-12.

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ABSTRACTSaxitoxin and its derivatives are potent neurotoxins produced by several cyanobacteria and dinoflagellate species. SxtA is the initial enzyme in the biosynthesis of saxitoxin. The dinoflagellate full mRNA and partial genomic sequences have previously been characterized, and it appears thatsxtAoriginated in dinoflagellates through a horizontal gene transfer from a bacterium. So far, little is known about the remaining genes involved in this pathway in dinoflagellates. Here we characterizesxtG, an amidinotransferase enzyme gene that putatively encodes the second step in saxitoxin biosynthesis. In this study, the entiresxtGtranscripts fromAlexandrium fundyenseCCMP1719 andAlexandrium minutumCCMP113 were amplified and sequenced. The transcripts contained typical dinoflagellate spliced leader sequences and eukaryotic poly(A) tails. In addition, partialsxtGtranscript fragments were amplified from four additionalAlexandriumspecies andGymnodinium catenatum. The phylogenetic inference of dinoflagellatesxtG, congruent withsxtA, revealed a bacterial origin. However, it is not known ifsxtGwas acquired independently ofsxtA. Amplification and sequencing of the corresponding genomicsxtGregion revealed noncanonical introns. These introns show a high interspecies and low intraspecies variance, suggesting multiple independent acquisitions and losses. UnlikesxtA,sxtGwas also amplified fromAlexandriumspecies not known to synthesize saxitoxin. However, amplification was not observed for 22 non-saxitoxin-producing dinoflagellate species other than those of the genusAlexandriumorG. catenatum. This result strengthens our hypothesis that saxitoxin synthesis has been secondarily lost in conjunction withsxtAfor some descendant species.

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20

Mao, Hua, John B. Thorne, Jennifer S. Pharr, and Robert E. Gawley. "Effect of crown ether ring size on binding and fluorescence response to saxitoxin in anthracylmethyl monoazacrown ether chemosensors." Canadian Journal of Chemistry 84, no. 10 (October 1, 2006): 1273–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/v06-093.

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Convenient macrocyclization synthetic routes for the preparation of different-sized monoaza anthracylmethyl crown ether chemosensors (15-crown-5, 18-crown-6, 21-crown-7, 24-crown-8, and 27-crown-9) are described. Evaluation of these crowns as chemosensors for saxitoxin revealed that the larger crowns have moderately higher binding constants, with the 27-crown-9 chemosensor having the largest binding constant (2.29 × 105 (mol/L)–1). Fluorescence enhancements of 100% were observed at saxitoxin concentrations of 5 µmol/L, which is close to the detection limit in mouse bioassay.Key words: anthracene, crown ethers, saxitoxin, paralytic shellfish poison (PSP), binding constants; chemosensors.

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21

Akamatsu, Michiru, Ryosuke Hirozumi, Yuko Cho, Yuta Kudo, Keiichi Konoki, Yasukatsu Oshima, and Mari Yotsu-Yamashita. "First Identification of 12β-Deoxygonyautoxin 5 (12α-Gonyautoxinol 5) in the Cyanobacterium Dolichospermum circinale (TA04) and 12β-Deoxysaxitoxin (12α-Saxitoxinol) in D. circinale (TA04) and the Dinoflagellate Alexandrium pacificum (Group IV) (120518KureAC)." Marine Drugs 20, no. 3 (February 25, 2022): 166. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/md20030166.

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Saxitoxin and its analogues, paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs), are potent and specific voltage-gated sodium channel blockers. These toxins are produced by some species of freshwater cyanobacteria and marine dinoflagellates. We previously identified several biosynthetic intermediates of PSTs, as well as new analogues, from such organisms and proposed the biosynthetic and metabolic pathways of PSTs. In this study, 12β-deoxygonyautoxin 5 (12α-gonyautoxinol 5 = gonyautoxin 5-12(R)-ol) was identified in the freshwater cyanobacterium, Dolichospermum circinale (TA04), and 12β-deoxysaxitoxin (12α-saxitoxinol = saxitoxin-12(R)-ol) was identified in the same cyanobacterium and in the marine dinoflagellate Alexandrium pacificum (Group IV) (120518KureAC) for the first time from natural sources. The authentic standards of these compounds and 12α-deoxygonyautoxin 5 (12β-gonyautoxinol 5 = gonyautoxin 5-12(S)-ol) were prepared by chemical derivatization from the major PSTs, C1/C2, produced in D. circinale (TA04). These standards were used to identify the deoxy analogues by comparing the retention times and MS/MS spectra using high-resolution LC-MS/MS. Biosynthetic or metabolic pathways for these analogues have also been proposed based on their structures. The identification of these compounds supports the α-oriented stereoselective oxidation at C12 in the biosynthetic pathway towards PSTs.

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22

Sawayama, Yusuke, and Toshio Nishikawa. "A Synthetic Route to the Saxitoxin Skeleton: Synthesis of Decarbamoyl α-Saxitoxinol, an Analogue of Saxitoxin Produced by the Cyanobacterium Lyngbya wollei." Angewandte Chemie International Edition 50, no. 31 (June 17, 2011): 7176–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/anie.201102494.

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23

Sawayama, Yusuke, and Toshio Nishikawa. "A Synthetic Route to the Saxitoxin Skeleton: Synthesis of Decarbamoyl α-Saxitoxinol, an Analogue of Saxitoxin Produced by the Cyanobacterium Lyngbya wollei." Angewandte Chemie 123, no. 31 (June 17, 2011): 7314–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ange.201102494.

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24

McCall, Jennifer R., W. Christopher Holland, Devon M. Keeler, D. Ransom Hardison, and R. Wayne Litaker. "Improved Accuracy of Saxitoxin Measurement Using an Optimized Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay." Toxins 11, no. 11 (October 31, 2019): 632. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins11110632.

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Paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) is precipitated by a family of toxins produced by harmful algae, which are consumed by filter-feeding and commercially popular shellfish. The toxins, including saxitoxin, neosaxitoxin, and gonyautoxins, accumulate in shellfish and cause intoxication when consumed by humans and animals. Symptoms can range from minor neurological dysfunction to respiratory distress and death. There are over 40 different chemical congeners of saxitoxin and its analogs, many of which are toxic and many of which have low toxicity or are non-toxic. This makes accurate toxicity assessment difficult and complicates decisions regarding whether or not shellfish are safe to consume. In this study, we describe a new antibody-based bioassay that is able to detect toxic congeners (saxitoxin, neosaxitoxin, and gonyautoxins) with little cross-reactivity with the low or non-toxic congeners (decarbamoylated or di-sulfated forms). The anti-saxitoxin antibody used in this assay detects saxitoxin and neosaxitoxin, the two most toxic congers equally well, but not the relatively highly toxic gonyautoxins. By incorporating an incubation step with L-cysteine, it is possible to convert a majority of the gonyautoxins present to saxitoxin and neosaxitoxin, which are readily detected. The assay is, therefore, capable of detecting the most toxic PSP congeners found in commercially relevant shellfish. The assay was validated against samples whose toxicity was determined using standard HPLC methods and yielded a strong linear agreement between the methods, with R2 values of 0.94–0.96. As ELISAs are rapid, inexpensive, and easy-to-use, this new commercially available PSP ELISA represents an advance in technology allowing better safety management of the seafood supply and the ability to screen large numbers of samples that can occur when monitoring is increased substantially in response to toxic bloom events

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25

KODAMA, Masaaki, Takehiko OGATA, and Shigeru SATO. "Bacterial production of saxitoxin." Agricultural and Biological Chemistry 52, no. 4 (1988): 1075–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1271/bbb1961.52.1075.

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26

Kodama, Masaaki, Takehiko Ogata, and Shigeru Sato. "Bacterial Production of Saxitoxin." Agricultural and Biological Chemistry 52, no. 4 (April 1988): 1075–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00021369.1988.10868793.

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27

Fleming, James J., and J. Du Bois. "A Synthesis of (+)-Saxitoxin." Journal of the American Chemical Society 128, no. 12 (March 2006): 3926–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ja0608545.

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28

Zare, Mehrzad, Nima Bahador, and Majid Baseri Salehi. "Isolation of Cyanobacteria Producing Saxitoxin from Kor River Located in Marvdasht, Fars Province, Iran." International Journal of Life Sciences 9, no. 5 (June 14, 2015): 54–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/ijls.v9i5.12693.

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Cyanobacteria are present in diverse habitats. Some of them produce dangerous toxin substances such as saxitoxin which is classified in the neurotoxin groups and show the impact on the aquatics and humans in the form of the paralysis of the limbs and hypersecretion saliva and so on. The aim of this research was screening of cyanobacteria isolates through combining the traditional and molecular methods, from the Kor river and assessment of the isolated cyanobacteria in terms of saxitoxin producing. The samples were collected from six stations in the Kor river. After dilution each sample were cultured on BG11 medium and incubated at 28?C under fluorescent light with 1500 to 2000 lux. Purified colonies were analysied by PCR to determine cyanobacteria (PCβ F and PCαR) and their ability to produce Saxitoxin (sxtAF and sxtAR). Results were proved existence of cyanobacteria in Kor River but no evidence were found for Saxitoxin production by isolates. So based on this research, it is more efficient to combine the traditional methods (culture) and molecular methods (PCR). Also, in order to study the toxins, this method is more profitable economically than chemical methods like LC MS, GC MS and HPLC.DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/ijls.v9i5.12693

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29

Anderson, Peter D. "Bioterrorism: Toxins as Weapons." Journal of Pharmacy Practice 25, no. 2 (April 2012): 121–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0897190012442351.

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The potential for biological weapons to be used in terrorism is a real possibility. Biological weapons include infectious agents and toxins. Toxins are poisons produced by living organisms. Toxins relevant to bioterrorism include ricin, botulinum, Clostridium perfrigens epsilson toxin, conotoxins, shigatoxins, saxitoxins, tetrodotoxins, mycotoxins, and nicotine. Toxins have properties of biological and chemical weapons. Unlike pathogens, toxins do not produce an infection. Ricin causes multiorgan toxicity by blocking protein synthesis. Botulinum blocks acetylcholine in the peripheral nervous system leading to muscle paralysis. Epsilon toxin damages cell membranes. Conotoxins block potassium and sodium channels in neurons. Shigatoxins inhibit protein synthesis and induce apoptosis. Saxitoxin and tetrodotoxin inhibit sodium channels in neurons. Mycotoxins include aflatoxins and trichothecenes. Aflatoxins are carcinogens. Trichothecenes inhibit protein and nucleic acid synthesis. Nicotine produces numerous nicotinic effects in the nervous system.

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30

Vingiani, Giorgio Maria, Dārta Štālberga, Pasquale De Luca, Adrianna Ianora, Daniele De Luca, and Chiara Lauritano. "De novo Transcriptome of the Non-saxitoxin Producing Alexandrium tamutum Reveals New Insights on Harmful Dinoflagellates." Marine Drugs 18, no. 8 (July 24, 2020): 386. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/md18080386.

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Many dinoflagellates species, especially of the Alexandrium genus, produce a series of toxins with tremendous impacts on human and environmental health, and tourism economies. Alexandrium tamutum was discovered for the first time in the Gulf of Naples, and it is not known to produce saxitoxins. However, a clone of A. tamutum from the same Gulf showed copepod reproduction impairment and antiproliferative activity. In this study, the full transcriptome of the dinoflagellate A. tamutum is presented in both control and phosphate starvation conditions. RNA-seq approach was used for in silico identification of transcripts that can be involved in the synthesis of toxic compounds. Phosphate starvation was selected because it is known to induce toxin production for other Alexandrium spp. Results showed the presence of three transcripts related to saxitoxin synthesis (sxtA, sxtG and sxtU), and others potentially related to the synthesis of additional toxic compounds (e.g., 44 transcripts annotated as “polyketide synthase”). These data suggest that even if this A. tamutum clone does not produce saxitoxins, it has the potential to produce toxic metabolites, in line with the previously observed activity. These data give new insights into toxic microalgae, toxin production and their potential applications for the treatment of human pathologies.

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31

Sylvia Yahumin, Grace Joy Wei Lie Chin, and Kenneth Francis Rodrigues. "Amplification of Genes Associated with Saxitoxin Biosynthesis in Bacteria Associated with Pyrodinium bahamense var. compressum Using Primers Designed from Other Saxitoxin-Producing Organisms." Borneo International Journal of Biotechnology (BIJB) 3 (December 1, 2023): 36–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.51200/bijb.v3i.3125.

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Pyrodinium bahamense var. compressum, the primary producer of saxitoxin (STX) in tropical water, poses a palpable threat to public health and safety. Seafood and aquaculture products contaminated with lethal concentrations of the principal neurotoxin, saxitoxin, have been implicated in mortality and morbidity. Previous research revealed that the relationship between bacteria and algae may contribute directly or indirectly to the synthesis of saxitoxin. This study investigates the potential relationship between the dinoflagellate and its associated bacteria; hence the initial step is to determine whether the genes responsible for the STX production in P. bahamense can be found in the associated bacteria. A total of six bacterial species associated with P. bahamense were successfully identified in a previous study. The presence of the sxt genes in the associated bacterial genome was determined using primers that have previously been utilized in other saxitoxin-producing species, such as in dinoflagellates (Alexandrium fundyense) and cyanobacteria (Anabaena and Aphanizomenon gracile). This study showed that the utilized primers were unsuitable as the primers produced non-specific amplification in the bacterial genome. We suggest that specific primers targeting the sxt homolog genes in bacterial species should be designed to obtain the desired genes from the associated bacteria in a future study.

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32

Chang, Man, Gunsup Lee, Sang Hyun Moh, Kyoungsoon Shin, Chung-Kyoon Auh, and Taek-Kyun Lee. "Production of antibodies for saxitoxin analysis and sensitivity analysis of anti-saxitoxin antiserum." Journal of the Korea Academia-Industrial cooperation Society 13, no. 12 (December 31, 2012): 6208–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.5762/kais.2012.13.12.6208.

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33

Salter, Julia E., Ralph J. Timperi, Laura J. Hennigan, Lynda Sefton, and Hilary Reece. "Comparison Evaluation of Liquid Chromatographic and Bioassay Methods of Analysis for Determination of Paralytic Shellfish Poisons in Shellfish Tissues." Journal of AOAC INTERNATIONAL 72, no. 4 (July 1, 1989): 670–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jaoac/72.4.670.

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Abstract A liquid chromatographic (LC) method was compared with the AOAC mouse bioassay method (18.086-18.092) for determination of paralytic shellfish toxins in shellfish tissues. Shellfish samples were collected from Massachusetts coastal waters as part of a state surveillance program, and extracts of shellfish meat were analyzed for toxins by using both analytical methods. Overall correlation of the LC and bioassay methods is good (r = 0.943), but for samples with toxicities < 100 jug saxitoxin/100 g shellfish meat, the correlation is significantly less (r = 0.531). Limits of detection are 10 fig saxitoxin/ 100 g shellfish meat and 40 fig saxitoxin/100 g shellfish meat for the LC and bioassay methods, respectively. Analytical capacity of the LC method is limited to 12 samples/person-day compared with 30 samples/ person-day for the bioassay. Sampling capacity of the LC method could be increased by using a fluorescence detector with a wider response range, which would eliminate the need for dilution of concentrated samples.

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34

Lawrence, James F., Barbara Wong, and Cathie Ménard. "Determination of Decarbamoyl Saxitoxin and Its Analogues in Shellfish by Prechromatographic Oxidation and Liquid Chromatography with Fluorescence Detection." Journal of AOAC INTERNATIONAL 79, no. 5 (September 1, 1996): 1111–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jaoac/79.5.1111.

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Abstract Oxidation and chromatographic conditions for detecting the decarbamoyl analogues of several paralytic shellfish poison (PSP) toxins were studied. Prechromatographic oxidation with periodate or hydrogen peroxide under slightly alkaline conditions was used as previously reported for the parent PSP toxins. Both periodate and hydrogen peroxide oxidations produced 2 fluorescent products separable by liquid chromatography for each decarbamoyl (dc) toxin (dc-saxitoxin, dc-neosaxatoxin and dcgonyautoxins 2 and 3). Decarbamoyl saxitoxin produced the same 2 products as did dc-neosaxitoxin but in different ratios. One of these products was the same as the one obtained with neosaxitoxin after periodate oxidation. Decarbamoyl gonyautoxins 2 and 3 (together) produced 2 products, one of which was the same as the major product obtained with gonyautoxins 1 and 4 (together) after periodate oxidation. Decarbamoyl gonyautoxins 1 and 4 were not available for study. The method was used to detect dc-saxitoxin and dc-gonyautoxins 2 and 3 in shellfish extracts

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35

Gawley, Robert E., Hua Mao, M. Mahbubul Haque, John B. Thorne, and Jennifer S. Pharr. "Visible Fluorescence Chemosensor for Saxitoxin." Journal of Organic Chemistry 72, no. 6 (March 2007): 2187–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jo062506r.

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36

Hack, Rüdiger, Volker Renz, Erwin Märtlbauer, and Gerhard Terplan. "A Monoclonal Antibody to Saxitoxin." Food and Agricultural Immunology 2, no. 1 (January 1990): 47–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09540109009354701.

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37

Bhonde, Vasudev R., and Ryan E. Looper. "A Stereocontrolled Synthesis of (+)-Saxitoxin." Journal of the American Chemical Society 133, no. 50 (December 21, 2011): 20172–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ja2098063.

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38

Su, Zhi, Michael Sheets, Hideyuki Ishida, Fenghua Li, and William H. Barry. "Saxitoxin Blocks L-Type ICa." Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 308, no. 1 (October 17, 2003): 324–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1124/jpet.103.056564.

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39

Strichartz, Gary R., Sherwood Hall, Barbarajean Magnani, Chang Yong Hong, Yoshito Kishi, and Debin John A. "The potencies of synthetic analogues of saxitoxin and the absolute stereoselectivity of decarbamoyl saxitoxin." Toxicon 33, no. 6 (June 1995): 723–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0041-0101(95)00031-g.

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40

Naseem, Syed, and Donald Creasia. "Comparative binding and toxicity of saxitoxin and saxitoxinol in mice and in cultured cells." IUBMB Life 41, no. 2 (February 1997): 377–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15216549700201391.

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41

Akbar, Muhamad Afiq, Nurul Yuziana Mohd Yusof, Fathul Karim Sahrani, Gires Usup, Asmat Ahmad, Syarul Nataqain Baharum, Nor Azlan Nor Muhammad, and Hamidun Bunawan. "Insights into Alexandrium minutum Nutrient Acquisition, Metabolism and Saxitoxin Biosynthesis through Comprehensive Transcriptome Survey." Biology 10, no. 9 (August 25, 2021): 826. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/biology10090826.

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The toxin-producing dinoflagellate Alexandrium minutum is responsible for the outbreaks of harmful algae bloom (HABs). It is a widely distributed species and is responsible for producing paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins. However, the information associated with the environmental adaptation pathway and toxin biosynthesis in this species is still lacking. Therefore, this study focuses on the functional characterization of A. minutum unigenes obtained from transcriptome sequencing using the Illumina Hiseq 4000 sequencing platform. A total of 58,802 (47.05%) unigenes were successfully annotated using public databases such as NCBI-Nr, UniprotKB, EggNOG, KEGG, InterPRO and Gene Ontology (GO). This study has successfully identified key features that enable A. minutum to adapt to the marine environment, including several carbon metabolic pathways, assimilation of various sources of nitrogen and phosphorus. A. minutum was found to encode homologues for several proteins involved in saxitoxin biosynthesis, including the first three proteins in the pathway of saxitoxin biosynthesis, namely sxtA, sxtG and sxtB. The comprehensive transcriptome analysis presented in this study represents a valuable resource for understanding the dinoflagellates molecular metabolic model regarding nutrient acquisition and biosynthesis of saxitoxin.

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42

Ahmad, S., H. D. Allescher, H. Manaka, Y. Manaka, and E. E. Daniel. "[3H]saxitoxin as a marker for canine deep muscular plexus neurons." American Journal of Physiology-Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology 255, no. 4 (October 1, 1988): G462—G469. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpgi.1988.255.4.g462.

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The objectives of this study are 1) to examine the potential of [3H]saxitoxin binding as a marker for the neuronal membranes in canine small intestinal muscle membrane preparations, 2) to develop a synaptosomal preparation from deep muscular plexus, and 3) to partially characterize [3H]saxitoxin binding to this fraction. A purified synaptosomal fraction, relatively low in the smooth muscle plasma membrane marker enzyme 5'-nucleotidase but enriched in [3H]saxitoxin binding (2,592 fmol/mg), was obtained on sucrose density gradient. Vasoactive intestinal peptide immunoreactivity was also highest (51.82 pmol/mg protein) in this fraction. The binding was rapid at 20 degrees C with quick and complete dissociation after the addition of excess unlabeled tetrodotoxin (TTX). Scatchard analysis of the saturation binding data revealed a single population of binding sites (Bmax = 5,705 fmol/mg protein). The affinity constants calculated from the kinetic and saturation data were in close agreement (Kd = 0.26 and 0.69 nM, respectively). TTX competed for the binding (Ki = 2.1 nM), whereas veratridine and guanidinium hydrochloride did not. Monovalent and divalent cations had differential effects on the binding.

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43

Allescher, H. D., S. Ahmad, P. Kostka, C. Y. Kwan, and E. E. Daniel. "Distribution of opioid receptors in canine small intestine: implications for function." American Journal of Physiology-Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology 256, no. 6 (June 1, 1989): G966—G974. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpgi.1989.256.6.g966.

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Distribution of the binding sites for [3H]diprenorphine, a non-selective opiate ligand, was studied in membrane fractions from longitudinal muscle/myenteric plexus and circular muscle containing deep muscular plexus. [3H]saxitoxin was used as a marker for neuronal plasma membranes and 5'-nucleotidase as a marker for smooth muscle plasma membranes. Saxitoxin binding correlated strongly with diprenorphine binding, but 5'-nucleotidase correlated poorly with diprenorphine or saxitoxin binding in these fractions. Opiate binding sites in membranes of myenteric and deep muscular plexus were of high affinity (Kd = 0.12 and 0.18 nM, respectively) with maximum binding capacity of 400 and 500 fmol/mg protein, respectively. Competition experiments using subtype-selective opiate ligands indicated that all three subtypes of opiate receptors were present in the same ratio of 40-45% mu-subtypes, 40-45% delta-subtypes, and 10-15% kappa-subtypes on both plexuses. Opiate receptors of canine small intestine, therefore, are located primarily or exclusively on nerves with similar distributions in nerve membranes containing only axonal varicosities (deep muscular plexus) as in those containing neurons, dendrites, and varicosities (myenteric plexus).

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44

Tsuchiya, Shigeki, Yuko Cho, Keiichi Konoki, Kazuo Nagasawa, Yasukatsu Oshima, and Mari Yotsu-Yamashita. "Synthesis and identification of proposed biosynthetic intermediates of saxitoxin in the cyanobacterium Anabaena circinalis (TA04) and the dinoflagellate Alexandrium tamarense (Axat-2)." Org. Biomol. Chem. 12, no. 19 (2014): 3016–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c4ob00071d.

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45

Thomas-Tran, Rhiannon, and J. Du Bois. "Mutant cycle analysis with modified saxitoxins reveals specific interactions critical to attaining high-affinity inhibition of hNaV1.7." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 113, no. 21 (May 9, 2016): 5856–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1603486113.

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Improper function of voltage-gated sodium channels (NaVs), obligatory membrane proteins for bioelectrical signaling, has been linked to a number of human pathologies. Small-molecule agents that target NaVs hold considerable promise for treatment of chronic disease. Absent a comprehensive understanding of channel structure, the challenge of designing selective agents to modulate the activity of NaV subtypes is formidable. We have endeavored to gain insight into the 3D architecture of the outer vestibule of NaV through a systematic structure–activity relationship (SAR) study involving the bis-guanidinium toxin saxitoxin (STX), modified saxitoxins, and protein mutagenesis. Mutant cycle analysis has led to the identification of an acetylated variant of STX with unprecedented, low-nanomolar affinity for human NaV1.7 (hNaV1.7), a channel subtype that has been implicated in pain perception. A revised toxin-receptor binding model is presented, which is consistent with the large body of SAR data that we have obtained. This new model is expected to facilitate subsequent efforts to design isoform-selective NaV inhibitors.

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46

Chen, Hongxia, Youn Kim, Sam-Rok Keum, Sung-Hoon Kim, Heung-Jin Choi, Jaebeom Lee, Won An, and Kwangnak Koh. "Surface Plasmon Spectroscopic Detection of Saxitoxin." Sensors 7, no. 7 (July 16, 2007): 1216–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s7071216.

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47

Wiese, Maria, Paul M. D’Agostino, Troco K. Mihali, Michelle C. Moffitt, and Brett A. Neilan. "Neurotoxic Alkaloids: Saxitoxin and Its Analogs." Marine Drugs 8, no. 7 (July 20, 2010): 2185–211. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/md8072185.

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48

Belykh, O. I., A. S. Gladkikh, E. G. Sorokovikova, I. V. Tikhonova, S. A. Potapov, and T. V. Butina. "Saxitoxin-Producing cyanobacteria in Lake Baikal." Contemporary Problems of Ecology 8, no. 2 (March 2015): 186–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1134/s199542551502002x.

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49

Gawley, Robert E., Sandra Pinet, Claudia M. Cardona, Probal K. Datta, Tong Ren, Wayne C. Guida, Jason Nydick, and Roger M. Leblanc. "Chemosensors for the Marine Toxin Saxitoxin." Journal of the American Chemical Society 124, no. 45 (November 2002): 13448–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ja027507p.

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50

Watanabe, Ryuichi, Ritsumi Samusawa-Saito, and Yasukatsu Oshima. "Development of Saxitoxin-Conjugated Affinity Gels." Bioconjugate Chemistry 17, no. 2 (March 2006): 459–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/bc049699e.

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