Journal articles on the topic 'Sacred space – comparative studies'
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Silva Leite, João, Sérgio Fernandes, and Carlos Dias Coelho. "The Sacred Building and the City: Decoding the Formal Interface between Public Space and Community." Religions 15, no. 2 (February 18, 2024): 246. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rel15020246.
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The reflection on sacred places continues to assume significant relevance today in urban space production. The public value of sacred buildings has consolidated over time an aggregating sense of community, representing spaces for meeting and sharing. Their historical relevance as spaces for meditation represents for mankind places of personal reflection, while they have always played an important role in the city and in its symbolic and spatial structure. Thus, starting from the hypothesis that the sacred space is affirmed as an interface, because it welcomes the individual and serves the community, we examine the architectural features that enhance this ambivalence, exposing transition systems between private and collective spaces, seeking to systematize essential composition matrices for new urban spaces for public use. Assuming Lisbon as a framework, this article proposes a comparative reading between two paradigmatic buildings—Sagrado Coração de Jesus Church and the New Mosque of Lisbon—with similar goals according to the relationship between architecture, place sacrality, and the urban public space. Methodologically, drawing is used as an interpretative tool and, through formal decomposition, this article tries to demonstrate that these buildings are the result of a reflection deeply determined by the value of the place’s identity in the city’s public space system. According to these case studies, sacred buildings are conceived based on formal and spatial links that are rooted in Lisbon’s urban layout. It is sacred buildings that are at the origin of urban places for public use. Each one of these buildings share an idea of architecture with an urban and public role which integrates the objects with the shape of the city and contradicts the tendency for the dissociation between urban elements. In a way, they can be considered paradigmatic examples of architecture with an urban vocation.
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Wang, Weiqiao. "Food and Monastic Space: From Routine Dining to Sacred Worship—Comparative Review of Han Buddhist and Cistercian Monasteries Using Guoqing Si and Poblet Monastery as Detailed Case Studies." Religions 15, no. 2 (February 14, 2024): 217. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rel15020217.
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Through an exploration of meal regulations, dining rituals, and monastic rules of Han Buddhist and Cistercian monks, this article discusses how food affects space formation, layout organization, and site selection in monastic venues. The dining rituals, such as guotang and the Refectory, transform daily routines into acts of worship and practice, particularly within the palace-like dining spaces. Monastic rules and the concept of cleanliness influence the layout of monastic spaces, effectively distinguishing between sacred and secular areas. The types of food, influenced by self-sufficiency and food taboos, impact the formation of monasteries in the surrounding landscape, while the diligent labor of monks in cultivating the wilderness contributes to the sanctity of the venues. By employing anthropology as a tool for field observation and considering architectural design as a holistic mindset, this article concludes that due to the self-sufficiency of monastic lives, monks establish a sustainable agri-food space system. This ensures that food production, waste management, water utilization, food processing, and meal consumption can be sustainable practices. Food taboos are determined by the understanding of purity in both religions, leading to the establishment of a distinct spatial order for food between the sacred and secular realms. Ultimately, ordinary meals are consumed within extraordinary dining spaces, providing monks with a silent and sacred eating atmosphere. Under the overall influence of food, both monasteries have developed their own food spatial systems, and the act of dining has transformed from a daily routine to a sacred worship.
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Nuraini, Cut, Bhakti Alamsyah, Novalinda Novalinda, Peranita Sagala, and Abdi Sugiarto. "Planning With ‘Three-World Structures’: A Comparative Study of Settlements in Mountain Villages." Journal of Regional and City Planning 34, no. 1 (April 30, 2023): 55–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.5614/jpwk.2023.34.1.4.
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Mountain peoples’ basic understanding of the world is based on binary space concepts such as top-down, left-right, east-west, sacred-profane, and others, which form a threefold division structure that places people in the middle of their environment. Mountain settlements in several places in Indonesia that still emphasize this primitive understanding or classification are interesting to study in terms of their similarities and differences. This study aimed to compare three cases of settlements, namely Singengu Mandailing village in North Sumatra, Tenganan village in Bali, and Kampung Naga in West Java in terms of their understanding of binary space concepts that constitute this threefold division structure and their application in the planning of the community’s living environment. This study is a theoretical dialogue between the concept of binary space (bincar-bonom) in Singengu Mandailing village and two other local concepts that are similar, namely kangin-kauh (sunrise-sunset) in Tenganan village and timur-barat (east-west) in Kampung Naga. This qualitative study used data from the literature and the analysis was carried out following a qualitative descriptive research procedure. Based on previous research, each case has its own data, which the authors used to uncover differences and similarities in the binary space concepts from the three study cases. The authors employed a spatial matrix image to depict the position of each settlement element in the three cases, allowing the similarities and differences to be seen. The findings of the study show that Tenganan, Kampung Naga, and Singengu Mandailing have striking similarities in terms of addressing the middle point, namely as an axis or axis point. The difference lies in the filler elements and their value. The mountain village of Bali interprets the sacred-profane binary concept similarly to the mountain village of Mandailing, except in terms of the direction of sunrise-sunset. The settlement arrangement of Tenganan Pageringsingan village at the macro, meso, and micro scales defines the direction of the sunrise and sunset as a profane direction, whereas in Singengu village, the direction of the sunrise is a sacred direction and the direction of the sunset is a profane direction. As for the Singengu and the Naga communities, they understand the middle point to be related to the direction of the sunrise and sunset in opposite directions, so there are differences in treating certain artifacts, especially cemeteries. The binary space that influences the process of forming rural settlements in the mountains can be: (1) the physical setting due to natural/geographical conditions, (2) the cosmology and belief systems adhered to, and (3) the people’s socio-cultural life. Rural settlements in the mountains can also be said to emphasize the natural aspect of the mountains with all of their spatial shaping potential. The study’s findings further show that the local people’s understanding of their living space patterns has been carried over from previous generations to the present day. This suggests that settlement planning for local communities, particularly in mountainous areas where hereditary beliefs still exist, must be approached in a specific way. In future planning projects, different locations require different planning approaches.
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Wang, Weiqiao. "Comparative Review of Worship Spaces in Buddhist and Cistercian Monasteries: The Three Temples of Guoqing Si (China) and the Church of the Royal Abbey of Santa Maria de Poblet (Spain)." Religions 12, no. 11 (November 8, 2021): 972. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rel12110972.
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Although the two parallel architectural forms, Han Buddhists and the Cistercian monasteries, seem, on the surface, to be very different—belonging to different religions, different cultural backgrounds, and different ways of construction—they share many similarities in the internal institutional model of monks’ lives and the corresponding architectural core values. The worship space plays the most significant role in both monastic life and layout. In this study, the Three Temples of Guoqing Si and the Church of the Royal Abbey of Santa Maria de Poblet are used as examples to elucidate the connotations behind the architectural forms, in order to further explore how worship spaces serve as an intermediary between deities, monks, and pilgrims. Based on field research and experience of monastic life, this comparative study highlights two fundamental similarities between the Three Temples and the Church: First, both worship spaces are derived from imperial prototypes, have a similar priority of construction, occupy the most important place in both sacred venues, and both serve as a reference for the development of monastic layout. Second, both worship spaces are composed of a similar programmed functional layout, including similar space dominators as well as itineraries. Beyond the surface similarities, this article further analyzes the reasons behind the three differences found. Due to their different understanding of deities, both worship spaces show different ways of worship, images of deities, and distances towards them.
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Geraerts, Jaap. "Competing Sacred Spaces in the Dutch Republic: Confessional Integration and Segregation." European History Quarterly 51, no. 1 (January 2021): 7–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0265691420981844.
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In the Dutch Republic, the Reformed Church enjoyed the exclusive religious use of church buildings. Formerly, these churches had belonged to Catholics, who were forced to establish their own (semi-clandestine) places of worship known as schuilkerken or huiskerken. As such, Reformed Protestant and Catholics each had their own religious infrastructure and competing sacred spaces. Employing a comparative perspective and a conceptual distinction between churches as legal, sacred and social spaces, this article studies the myriad of relationships between Catholics, their former (parish) churches, and their schuilkerken. It argues that clandestine Catholic churches were never able to replace parish churches completely since the latter continued to be used by Dutch Catholics to exercise legal rights, express and forge social hierarchies, and at times even to practise their faith. While the existence of competing sacred spaces could cause confessional strife and signifies a degree of segregation, at the same time the enduring ties between Catholics and their former churches indicate a level of confessional integration in seventeenth-century Dutch society.
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Talmon-Heller, Daniella, and Miriam Frenkel. "Religious Innovation under Fatimid Rule: Jewish and Muslim Rites in Eleventh-Century Jerusalem." Medieval Encounters 25, no. 3 (July 3, 2019): 203–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15700674-12340044.
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Abstract This paper describes religious innovations introduced by Muslims in the (arguably) holy month of Rajab, and by Jews on the High Holidays of the month of Tishrei, in eleventh-century Jerusalem. Using a comparative perspective, and grounding analysis in the particular historical context of Fatimid rule, it demonstrates how the convergence of sacred space and sacred time was conducive to “religious creativity.” The Muslim rites (conducted on al-Ḥaram al-Sharīf / the Temple Mount) and the Jewish rites (on the Mount of Olives) shared a particular concern with the remission of sins and supplication on behalf of others, and a cosmological world view that envisioned Jerusalem as axis mundi. The Jewish rite was initiated “from above” by the political-spiritual leadership of the community, was dependent on Fatimid backing, and was inextricably tied to specific sites. The Muslim rite sprang “from below” and spread far, to be practiced in later periods all over the Middle East.
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Karahan, Anne. "Byzantine Visual Culture: Conditions of “Right” Belief and Some Platonic Outlooks." NUMEN 63, no. 2-3 (March 9, 2016): 210–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15685276-12341421.
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Monumental picture programs of Byzantine churches exist within a spatial and liturgical setting of rituals that depend on circumstances that create a distinction from profane to sacred. The core theme is the epic narrative of the holy drama of the incarnated son, i.e., the image of God (eikon tou theou), acknowledged as indivisibly as much human as divine. In a Byzantine religious sense, images of Christ prove the incarnation, yet human salvation depends on faith in the incarnation but also in the transcendent unknowable God. From the perspective of visual culture, the dilemma is that divine nature is, in a religious sense, transcendent and unknowable, beyond words and categorizations, unintelligible, as opposed to human nature, which is intelligible. This article concerns the strategy of Byzantine visual culture to weave together expressible and inexpressible in order to acknowledge “right belief,” without trespassing the theology and mode of thought of the church fathers on the triune mystery of the Christian God and the incarnation. In a Byzantine religious sense, circumscribed by time and space, the human condition is inconsistent with cognition ofwhat God is. Nonetheless, salvation depends on faith inthat God is, a “fact” acknowledged through holy images. Particular theoretical and methodological focus will be on how the three fourth-century Cappadocian fathers and Dionysius the Areopagite, but also Maximus the Confessor discuss God’s unintelligibility but also intelligibility, with some comparative Platonic outlooks.
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Krasulina, Zh M., and O. Yu Nikonova. "HOLY SOURCES AND FOLK RELIGIOSITY OF THE ORTHODOX POPULATION OF THE URALS IN 1954 – 1964." Вестник Пермского университета. История, no. 4(55) (2021): 99–109. http://dx.doi.org/10.17072/2219-3111-2021-4-99-109.
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The tradition of attributing mythological and religious meanings to natural phenomena, the formation of a ritual culture associated with trees, stones, water sources, atmospheric phenomena, etc., refers to the most ancient sacred practices of human communities. This stimulated philosophical, cultural, and anthropological studies of this phenomenon in the context of Orthodox culture, aimed at identifying the relations between pagan and Christian symbols and rituals and analyzing the problem of dual faith among the Orthodox population of Russia. Historical studies of the manifestations of folk religiosity are still at the stage of generalizing empirical material. The subject of the article is a study of folk religious practices in the historical context of Khrushchev’s anti-religious campaign. The focus of the study is on the Orthodox traditions of venerating water sources. The specificity of the approach is the analysis of the elements of folk religiosity (using the example of the veneration of “holy sources”) as a manifestation of everyday practices of adaptation and survival of believers in the USSR. Despite the banishment of religion from public space in the era of Nikita Khrushchev, belief in miracles and miraculous healings and visits to holy places were common not only among Orthodox Soviet people, but also among those who were considered “atheists”. Regional features of folk religion in the Urals were the redefinition of holy places in the multi-ethnic space of the region and the use of water sources for folk medicine in an underdeveloped health care system. For certain categories of Soviet citizens (former priests, monks and nuns, marginalized elements, etc.), the sphere of folk religiosity was a space for the realization of subjectivity, different from the “normative” one. As a result of a comparative-historical approach, it is shown that the practices of venerating holy sources in the Urals fit into the all-union framework of the phenomenon.
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Dubakov, Leonid, and Wenjing Guo. "Modernization of the image of the Huli Jing and the transformational nature of Reality in V. O. Pelevin's novel «The Sacred Book of the Werewolf»." Филология: научные исследования, no. 8 (August 2023): 1–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.7256/2454-0749.2023.8.40661.
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The article analyzes the image of the Chinese werewolf fox, or Huli jing (Chinese: 狐狸精), in Victor Pelevin's novel «The Sacred Book of the Werewolf». The comparison of the main character of Pelevin's work with the images of Huli jing in classical Chinese texts is made. In the center of consideration is the nomination of the heroine, her appearance, habitat, the ability to turn around and impose a hassle, the nature of sexuality, lifestyle. It is established that the image of the werewolf fox in Pelevin is a synthetic image created on the basis of mainly two cultures – Chinese and Russian. At the same time, she was influenced by mystical, religious, cultural and literary Chinese traditions. The writer relies on the components of the image of the Huli jing, borrowed from Chinese books, but offers an expanded and reinterpreted version of them. Pelevin is primarily interested in the desire of the werewolf fox not for bodily, but for spiritual transformation, on the way to which his heroine, relying on eastern philosophy, studies the principles of her mind. The Huli jing of the «Sacred Book of the Werewolf» and the confusion that it induces act as a metaphor for reality as a whole (man, time, space, language, the outside world, etc.). The nature of reality, according to Pelevin's novel, is transformational at its core, and this feature of it is due to its illusory nature. The relevance of the article is determined by the high interest of domestic and foreign literary criticism in the work of Viktor Pelevin and comparative studies (in this case, affecting Russian and Chinese cultures). The novelty of the work is due to the expansion of the concept of werewolf in Pelevin's novel – from the bodily inversivity of the main character to the characteristics of various aspects of reality.
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Gladkova, D. V., and D. Yu Dorofeyev. "A visual-acoustic duet of painting and music in medieval aesthetics." E3S Web of Conferences 266 (2021): 05006. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202126605006.
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The purpose of this work is to study the visual and acoustic relationship of painting and music in the Middle Ages. When writing the article the authors focused on modern sources and used such important for the socio-humanitarian sciences methods of research as comparative, phenomenological, semiotic, art history, cultural studies and visual anthropology, which determined the interdisciplinary nature of the study, which focuses of the aesthetic specificity of the perception of the phenomenal image. The significance of the study lies in the fact that the results obtained allow to better understand the cultural foundations of the non-verbal way of perception, the peculiarities of medieval culture and aesthetics of Western Europe and its semiotic and symbolic forms, primarily in the perspective of the interaction of painting and music in the sacred and everyday spaces of the existence of medieval man.
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Smith, Philip, and Florian Stoll. "A Maximal Understanding of Sacrifice: Bataille, Richard Wagner, Pilgrimage and the Bayreuth Festival." Religions 12, no. 1 (January 11, 2021): 48. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rel12010048.
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This paper calls for a broad conception of sacrifice to be developed as a resource for cultural sociology. It argues the term was framed too narrowly in the classical work of Hubert and Mauss. The later approach of Bataille permits a maximal understanding of sacrifice as non-utilitarian expenditures of money, energy, passion and effort directed towards the experience of transcendence. From this perspective, pilgrimage can be understood as a specific modality of sacrificial activity. This paper applies this understanding of sacrifice and pilgrimage to the annual Bayreuth “Wagner” Festival in Germany. Drawing on a multi-year mixed-methods study involving ethnography, semi-structured interviews and historical research, the article traces sacrificial expenditures at the level of individual festival attendees. These include financial costs, arduous travel, dedicated research of the artworks, and disciplines of the body. Some are lucky enough to experience transcendence in the form of deep emotional experience, and a sense of contact with sacred spaces and forces. Our study is intended as an exemplary paradigm case that can be drawn upon analogically by scholars. We suggest that other aspects of social experience, including many that are more ‘everyday’, can be understood through a maximal model of sacrifice and that a rigorous, wider comparative sociology could be developed using this tool.
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Dudareva, M. A. "Sophia or Apophatic reality in Alexander Blok’s poem «A girl was singing in a church choir»." Solov’evskie issledovaniya, no. 3 (September 30, 2020): 129–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.17588/2076-9210.2020.3.129-139.
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The paper presents a coherent analysis of the famous poem by Alexander Blok «A Girl Was Singing in a Church Choir...» in an extensive historical and cultural context. Much attention is paid to the poetics of color, the colorative «white», which is characterized by semantic tension and brings the reader into the ontological space of the text. In the poem, the image of the girl is associated with white color and light, which shows that the heroine belongs to the higher, heavenly world and is opposed to «everyone» from the temple, which is in darkness. The play of light and shadow acquires a sacred nature and makes it possible to raise the question of the apophatic tradition, the appearance of «evening light» and «unfading light». The image of the heroine is also viewed from the perspective of the teaching on Sophia by Vladimir Solovyov, whose legacy was addressed by the poet. Blok draws parallels with the Russian folklore tradition, analyzing the last stanza, the image of a crying child. The appeal to folklore is fruitful, since Blok was well acquainted with oral folk art, as evidenced by the fact that he was the author of the article «Poetry of Conspiracies and Spells», written in the same period as the object of the current study, the poem «A Girl Was Singing in a Church Choir...». However, the authors of this paper interpret folklore not narrowly, but include in its field rituals, ceremonies, and pre-genre formations. The work is based on a holistic analysis of the artistic text using structural-typological, comparative, and systematic-comprehensive (culturological) research methods. These methods allow highlighting the ontological dimension in the poem, revising the views on the images of the girl and the child that have established in literary studies, avoiding unambiguousness in interpretation.
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Gennady, Karpenko. "“THE MYSTERIOUS AUTHOR” FROM SPASSKY: A LETTER FROM I. S. TURGENEV TO P. V. ANNENKOV DATED OCTOBER 14, 1853." Проблемы исторической поэтики 22, no. 2 (May 2024): 88–113. http://dx.doi.org/10.15393/j9.art.2024.13782.
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In the article, the letter of I. S. Turgenev to P. V. Annenkov dated October 14, 1853, which structurally comprises a “physiological essay” about a “little man” and an Easter poem allegedly written by this “little man,” and in fact — by a “mysterious author,” is analyzed. The letter is considered as a letter-work that has already overcome the narrow framework of the epistolary genre during the writer’s life and has become a discussed text. In Turgenev studies, however, the question of the biographical author of the Easter poem remains the main issue in examining the letter: today, in the reader’s space, the poem de facto functions as a work of both Turgenev and Lermontov. The “prosaic” part of the letter about the painter-poet is considered by researchers to be preparatory material for a subsequent work. Meanwhile, the letter is a “cryptographic text,” and as a whole conceals a hidden “Pushkin code,” which is “read” thanks to numerous hints contained both in the letter itself, in its “prosaic” and poetic parts, and in the friendly correspondence between Turgenev and Annenkov. A comparative analysis of the two texts of the Easter poem prepared by the Turgenev academic group, one of which is in a letter dated October 14, 1853, and the other, in the Dubia section, revealed numerous discrepancies in these texts, as well as their significant deviation from the original text published in the Literary Gazette in 1840. In academic texts, all sacred words — the Glory of God, the Son of God — are graphically eliminated. Such eradication of religious and aesthetic feeling, “concealed” in the graphic “decapitation” of the names of Christ, again actualizes the issue of the need to publish the creative heritage of Russian classics in an authentic form.
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Diachok, Oksana, Larysa Shuldan, and Alina Yanbukhtina. "FEATURES AND COMPREHENSIVE STUDY OF SACRED BUILDINGS OF THE END OF 20 – EARLY 21 CENTURY (ON THE EXAMPLE OF THE CHURCH OF ST. PETER IN TERNOPIL)." Urban development and spatial planning, no. 77 (May 24, 2021): 181–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.32347/2076-815x.2021.77.181-195.
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The article examines some problems of temples of the late 20th - early 21st centuries, in which modern architectural ideas, modern design components appeared together with new design solutions. The study uses a set of general scientific (empirical and theoretical) and special research methods (method of visual and instrumental surveys, historical and comparative analysis, art analysis, method of thermal monitoring and calculation). A comprehensive study was conducted on the example of St. Peter's Church in Ternopil (architect Serhiy Hora, designer Józef Simels). It is established that its modern stylistic image, modern formative components are combined with the traditional plan, which has historically developed in church construction. The facilitation of the main load-bearing structures was made possible by the use of exceptional metal curved trusses and a reinforced concrete belt. A comprehensive analysis of the condition of the church building revealed a number of problems typical for churches of this period of construction: the progressive spread of efflorescence, mycological damage to the plaster, premature destruction of building materials and destruction of structures; loss of insulative properties of structures and increase in energy consumption, deterioration of acoustic characteristics in the church space, loss of uniformity of sound distribution over its area. The dependence of these problems on changes in temperature and humidity in the temple building has been established. According to the results of instrumental research, a correlation analysis was performed to assess the degree of relationship between the distribution of moisture and temperature with the peculiarities of operation, the nature of operation and the level of thermal insulation of enclosing structures. The consequences of further moistening of the inner surfaces of the fences have been established: consequences for the interior; microclimatic (hygienic) consequence; constructive consequences; effects on energy consumption and acoustic effects. As a result of the calculations, recommendations for troubleshooting were provided. Using in this context a systematic interpretation of case studies, the study of actions that would help increase the level of comfort in churches and their preservation, the authors propose a reconstruction with an assessment of the quality of intervention at each stage.
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Oleksin, Danylo. "MYTHO-LOGIC IN NON-CLASSICAL HUMANITIES REFLECTIONS ON MYTH: METHODOLOGICAL ASPECT." UKRAINIAN CULTURAL STUDIES, no. 2 (13) (2023): 36–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.17721/ucs.2023.2(13).07.
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Over the past century, a lot of conceptual reflections on myth have been accumulated; however, there has been no attempt to systematically objectify and catalog such investigations. The relevance of research can be divided into two loci: the general and the particular. The general relevance is based on the high level of entwinement of myth and its motifs within contemporary culture; the particular aspect is due to the need to objectify the 20th-century theories of myth and to define their general method (1), and to enrich cultural discourse with new works in the field of myth philosophy (2). The goal of the research is to overview the process of the emergence of myth science within the context of the late 19th-century re-mythologization as an ontological argument for cultural mythological research; to define mytho-logic as a synthetic method of non-classical interpretation of mythological material. Methods: comparative (in the analysis of 20th-century approaches to studying myth and defining the non-classical concept of myth). Objectives: to explore the components of myth science; to define the concept of re-mythologization; to argue for mytho-logic as a non-classical model for interpreting myth. Results: the components of myth science that represent a sum of non-classical approaches to studying "sacred narrative" (ritual, functional, sociological, psychoanalytic, structural, transcendental, and numinous approaches) have been investigated; the concept of re-mythologization as the actualization of myth as the object of scientific, philosophical, and artistic interest has been defined; the mytho-logic as a non-classical model of myth interpretation through its structure and logic has been justified. Conclusions: the study of myth has risen on the cognitive waves of the deep ocean of modern humanities to the heights of a problem-filled space of culture studies. Through this actualization, it has gained an interdisciplinary character and has become a dozens-of-definition concept that roams from realm to realm – just like the concept of "culture" itself. Principles of the mytho-logic can and should be expanded, as myth can be studied through any presented in myth science paths. This paradigm is not self-contained and provides variability and aspectuality in considering myth as a cultural universality, and thus is convenient and justified for use in the context of non-classical philosophy and contemporary cultural studies.
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Badmaev, Andrew A. "Images and Symbols of Small Cattle in the Mythological Representations and Rituals of the Buryats." Archaeology and Ethnography 20, no. 7 (2021): 157–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.25205/1818-7919-2021-20-7-157-168.
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Purpose. The aim of the study is to identify a complex of Buryat mythological views about small cattle. Results. The first part of the article gives a general description of small cattle in traditional Buryat culture. It is noted that the Buryats noticed the morphological features and behavior of sheep and goats and transmitted these observations through the works of small genres of folklore. It is stated that in Buryat anthroponymy there are names associated with the names of small cattle. It is shown that the images of a ram and sheep were included in the concept of time and space. The Buryats used sheep meat and some of its internal organs for medicinal purposes. In the second part of the work, a comparative description of the images and symbols of small cattle in the traditional representations and rituals of the Buryats is given. The functions of small cattle in Buryat rites are considered. Based on the data of Buryat rites, the symbolism of these animals and their zoological characteristics are revealed. Conclusion. It is revealed that the images of a goat and ram / sheep are multi-valued and generally have a positive connotation associated with the fundamental values – the sky, celestial bodies, and so on. The goat endowed with heavenly, solar, fiery symbols is associated with the idea of fertility; marriage symbolism is inherent to the goat. The image of a ram / sheep is associated with the sky, stars, moon and fire. It was found that small cattle carry the symbol-ism of well-being. It is noted that the negative connotation of small cattle is due to the idea of them as messengers of death, misfortune and the decline in weather conditions. It is determined that in Buryat rites, small cattle were victims, sacrificed to the higher animal forces. It is revealed that the sacred status of the ram/sheep is more pronounced in the rites than that of the goat.
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Adlutskyi, H. "Semantic space of “Well-Tempered Clavier” of J. S. Bach as a basis of the performing concept." Culture of Ukraine, no. 74 (December 20, 2021): 35–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.31516/2410-5325.074.06.
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The relevance of the article is due to the issue of formation in a modern multicultural space of the new image of the executor — the carrier of new senses and cultural memory, as well as need for creative comprehension of the world treasury of musical art in the artistic realities of modernity and research on the specifics of its modern performing versions.
The purpose of the article is to outline the determinants and the specifics of the semantic space of “Well-Tempered Clavier” of J. S. Bach as conceptual basis of the performing concept.
The methodology of the article is based on the principles of a comparative approach, which enables the use of research tools for cultural studies and musicology, in particular historical, historical-contextual, genre, hermeneutical and semiological methods and approaches.
The results. The article outlines the following factors of conceptual polyphony of “Well-Tempered Clavier” as accumulation and artist experience of reflection and protecting the world in symbolic forms, the significance of the synthesis of arts and the unity of emotion, image and symbol on the parameters of baroque aesthetics, the connection of “Well-Tempered Clavier” with the creativity of the artist, resonance of symbolic forms with axiological structures of historical and cultural epochs. The article substantiates the significance in pluralistic symbolic field of the works: semantics of tonality and tempo, which acts as a construction of performing chronotope; sacred melos with perceptually fixed semantics, means of embodiment of which is citing, representation as complementary unity, allusion-variable reproduction; numeric symbolism; rhetorical figures, sound treatment — visualization of the musical process; fixed in the context of European art semantics — in particular “mirror in the mirror” (on micro — and macro levels of the of the music text organization); the genre “ambivalence”, which determines the superposition of different variants of “genre’s memory” and enables the creation of an artistic-reflective arch between the era of Baroque and postmodernism, designated be the leveling of the genre.
The scientific topicality of the article is due to the clarification and systematization of representations regarding the specifics of the semantic field of “Well-Tempered Clavier” of J. S. Bach and the positioning of conceptual polyphony of the work as the basis of performing concepts and text.
The practical significance of article is determined by a direct possibility of applying research results in the performing practice.
Conclusion. Performance of “Well-Tempered Clavier” of J. S. Bach on the basis of the interiorization of symbolic forms is a guarantee of its performing “reading” as an embodiment of the process of being human in a cross-cultural dialogue, deploying self-reflection in the space of a representation of postmodernism paradigm as a multidimensional cultural message, in which the axiological experience of humanity is concentrated and the eternal problems of its spiritual being are actualized.
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Bokser, Baruch M. "Approaching Sacred Space." Harvard Theological Review 78, no. 3-4 (October 1985): 279–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0017816000012402.
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Jonathan Z. Smith, in discussing the transformation of the notion of sacred space in Judaism and the shift from a “locative” type of religious activity to one not limited to a fixed place, points to the necessity “to take history … seriously” and to examine closely how that transformation took place. We can take up this charge and illuminate the larger processes at work by focusing on the narrower problem of the proper protocol required when approaching sacred space. This will enable us to see how the postbiblical tradition revises, while at the same time it preserves, the biblical model of a sacred center.
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Shagapova, G. R. "The buzzer: not just a toy." VESTNIK ARHEOLOGII, ANTROPOLOGII I ETNOGRAFII, no. 2(61) (June 15, 2023): 199–206. http://dx.doi.org/10.20874/2071-0437-2023-61-2-17.
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The article analyzes the buzzer toy for boys. It is very easy to make from a button with a rope passing through the two holes. In past times, it was made of wood, bone plate, leather. When the rope with the plate is twisted and sharply released, the toys make a specific sound. The name of the toy in many languages reflects its buzzing. The aim of this work is to study the geography of the buzzer game in the Old and New Worlds and to reconstruct the ritual that underlies the game. The main research methods are mapping and comparative-historical method. The source base is represented by published materials on the games of the peoples of the world, as well as the author's field materials from the Southern Urals. The following conclusions have been drawn: the toy is most commonly young male, all-season, and is associated with sound. Sound in archaic culture played an important role; it limits and structures space, establishes contacts between the worlds and protects a person from evil spirits. In most cases, the buzzer has lost its sacred meaning, but among the peoples of the North, Sibe-ria, and the Far East, the elements of the ritual are still tangible which makes it possible to reconstruct the male ritual. The ritual was aimed at weather change, and at influencing the existing state of affairs. The geography of the buzzer distribution in North America and Eurasia has been studied. It can be assumed that it came to the New World from Eurasia, shortly before the disappearance of Beringia. The agreement of details and specifics of its use suggest its connection with the ritual. Subsequently, the ritual spread together with tribes and cultures, and to date, all that has remained from the millennial ritual is just a noise toy in children’s hands.
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Aimukhambet, Zh A. "Thesaurus Analysis of «Eternal Image» in Abay’s Poetry." Keruen 74, no. 1 (March 15, 2022): 85–102. http://dx.doi.org/10.53871/2078-8134.2022.1-06.
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The article considers the «eternal image» in Abay’s poetry by the method of thesaurus analysis, based on the comparative method. Thesaurus analysis is especially important in the system of linguistic analysis. Although the terms “dictionary” and “thesaurus” are similar, the fact that the thesaurus has a wider range of meanings is confirmed by the findings of the researchers. It is known that the thesaurus analysis method is of particular importance in modern humanities. From this perspective, the features of thesaurus analysis in literary studies are systematized and the issue of “eternal image” is raised within the framework of this concept. There are special characteristics of “eternal images” such as capacity, high spiritual value, polyvalence, and wide dissemination, and in analyzing Abay’s poem “Yeskendir” (Alexander) attention is paid to these features. Comparative analysis is done on the plots of Yeskendir in eastern and western literature. In Abay’s poetry Alexander is a model of an eternal image, and in presenting his nature the poet’s position is shown. The content of the article also includes the fact that the story of Alexander the Great in the Holy Quran formed the basis of folklore and literary works and the personification of this “eternal image” in the historical and literary tradition. The analysis of the main character in the poems of Ferdowsi, Nizami, Zhami, Navoi and in the “Novel about Alexander” popular in Europe is presented and concluded. Although Yeskendir’s historical campaigns around the world eventually went into the depths of history, his glorious life continued in folklore and literature. The famous hero’s “literary campaign” to oriental literature was considered in the space of the eastern classical poets and Abay’s works. The analysis reveals that the plot lines, dating back to folklore heritage and sacred books, were reproduced in the works of great poets in a unique way. The scholars, who claim that the historical Alexander the Great and the legend hero Yeskendir Zulkarnaiyn are two different people in history, cannot provide any concrete evidence to support this point of view. The plots about Yeskendir that became the basis for the works of great artists unite these “two” Alexanders as one person. Considering that one of the main characteristics of eternal images is polyvalence, it was concluded that Yeskendir can be recognized as a composite image of a warrior and a victorious commander, who ruled the country. The contradictory nature of the “eternal image” in Abay’s poem “Yeskendir” and the reproduction of the legendary plot by the great poet in a new perspective is shown on the basis of thesaurus analysis.
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Dringelis, Liucijus, Evaldas Ramanauskas, Ingrida Povilaitienė, and Justina Mačiukėnaitė. "EXPLORATION AND RESPECTATION OF THE SPATIAL STRUCTURE OF CITIES, TOWNS, TOWNSHIPS AND VILLAGES AS A SIGNIFICANT FORMANT OF THEIR IDENTITY." Journal of Architecture and Urbanism 39, no. 1 (April 14, 2015): 79–100. http://dx.doi.org/10.3846/20297955.2015.1028509.
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Under the conditions of globalization and integration the issue of identity preservation with respect to the spatial structure of the Lithuanian cities, towns, townships and villages has been discussed by many authors. The need to protect the originality and identity of landscape in the countries of the world, their natural and cultural heritage, the spatial structure and architecture of the cities, towns, townships and villages under such complicated circumstances is considered in a number of national and international documents. On the basis of the carried out indoor research and field exploration the paper aims at the discussion of the most significant urbanistic, architectural, landscape and other features that form the specificity and identity of the Lithuanian cities, towns, townships and villages. The following specific features of the settlements have been analysed: the period when a settlement emerged, its visual interaction with the environment (panoramas, silhouettes), natural conditions (terrain line, water bodies, green spaces), plan and spatial structure (street network, building arrangement, squares, green spaces, etc.) and significant buildings (sacred, public and other buildings and constructions). Due to their significance and uniqueness all the mentioned features form the identity of the analysed object. The following objects were selected for the research: all towns (103), townships (249), church villages (301), villages as local administrative centres (97) and ordinary villages with adequate natural and cultural heritage (318), in all 1.068 settlements, or 5% from the total number of the country's settlements (21.043). On the basis of the carried out research, the paper analyses the historical development of Lithuanian cities, towns, townships and villages; the current demographical and urban status of the country's settlement system; defines the principles of settlement selection and identity research methods; discusses the research progress and the results obtained during the exploration of the specificity of the spatial structure of cities, towns, townships and villages. The analysis of the spatial structure of the country's largest cities has also been presented which reveals the violations of their most specific features (e.g. old towns, river valleys, etc.). The paper also offers a comparative analysis of the specificity of Lithuanian cities, towns, townships and villages and adequate types of settlements in foreign countries.
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Gilbert, Marlea M. "Hospitality in Sacred Space." Liturgy 25, no. 1 (October 27, 2009): 21–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/04580630903209801.
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Huffman, Walter C. "The Concept of Sacred Space." Liturgy 5, no. 4 (January 1986): 42–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/04580638609408086.
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Cunningham, Hilary, Benjamin Z. Kedar, and R. J. Werblowsky. "Sacred Space: Shrine, City, Land." Review of Religious Research 40, no. 3 (March 1999): 287. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3512379.
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CROSBY, VANESSA. "New Approaches to Sacred Space." Journal of Religious History 31, no. 4 (December 2007): 463–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9809.2007.00693.x.
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Shvets, Vladyslava. "STUDY OF ARTISTIC FOLK EDUCATION AS A CONDITION FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF PEDAGOGICAL TEACHING." Psychological and Pedagogical Problems of Modern School, no. 1(11) (April 30, 2024): 16–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.31499/2706-6258.1(11).2024.304898.
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The article is devoted to the problem of inconsistencies in the implementation of art education in the State Standard of General Secondary Education of Ukraine. To achieve this goal, the task was set to demonstrate the importance of public art education as the basis for the education of young people. The study was conducted using the methods of theoretical, empirical research and general methods of scientific research.The article analyzes the forms of non-formal art education introduced by cultural and artistic figures in 2004. Restoring the experience of ethnic festivals and preserving the traditions of artistic families becomes the basis for the implementation of the state standard of general secondary education. The comparative analysis demonstrates the importance of combining different approaches in the formation of public education in the country, preserving the spiritual, moral and ideological positions of young people. The experience of leading artistic families in popularizing art education in the region is analyzed. The influence of prominent artists on the formation of interest in Ukrainian culture among international partners is studied. An example of the assimilation of individual experience of artists to the challenges of life is given.The conclusions summarize the importance of combining art and public education for the formation of key competencies, harmonious personal development, and the reproduction of the sacred meaning of art education. It has been shown that the art education sector has a number of gaps in its implementation and future development. The task of the teacher is to develop the spiritual and psychological spheres of the individual; actualization of historical, cultural, artistic or ethnographic influence; formation of skills to look for hidden meaning in the language of art: understanding the non-verbal dialogue with the author, learning to decipher the composition code and learning to understand the principle of the universe, the laws of the world continuum through art; creating parallels during lessons, trying to fill the entire educational space with art (musical minutes during breaks, musical accompaniment during intellectual tasks, the use of stimulating visual content in the space of the educational institution, visiting the workshops of artists and sculptors, holding master classes in museums), which enhances informal education.It is assumed that the creation of an artistic educational product should have a gender aspect in the popularization of influence, the economic background that always surrounds the student and determines his or her artistic and aesthetic preferences. A successful combination of didactic tools of influence and the achievements of Ukrainian folk art can become a source for implementing a comprehensive process of psychotherapy for young people in the context of war and postwar.
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Bräunlein, Peter. "Sacred Space in Early Modern Europe." Journal of Religion in Europe 1, no. 2 (2008): 244–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/187489108x311559.
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Smart, Anthony. "Bede, Wearmouth-Jarrow and Sacred Space." International journal for the Study of the Christian Church 14, no. 1 (January 2, 2014): 22–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1474225x.2014.883476.
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Heilman, Samuel C., and Seth D. Kunin. "God's Place in the World: Sacred Space and Sacred Place in Judaism." Jewish Quarterly Review 91, no. 3/4 (January 2001): 475. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1455566.
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Allen, Mark. "The Rothko Chapel: Profane or Sacred Space?" Religions 14, no. 7 (June 29, 2023): 853. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rel14070853.
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Despite the atheism of renowned abstract expressionist painter Mark Rothko, the artist was commissioned by Christians to create a sacred space that was originally intended to be used by religious believers: the Rothko Chapel in Houston, Texas. The project started out as a collaboration between Rothko and another atheist: famed architect Phillip Johnson, who designed several prominent religious spaces throughout his distinguished career. While Johnson removed himself from the Chapel project early on, Rothko would have carried his conceptual vision all the way to the end if it were not for his tragic suicide just prior to the Chapel’s completion. Using as a guide the criteria for sacred space set forth in the classic work The Sacred and The Profane by famed historian Mircea Eliade, I will consider the question of how a religious space designed by non-believers can be rightly considered sacred, as well as ways in which it falls short.
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Desir, Dowoti. "Vodou: A Sacred Multidimensional, Pluralistic Space." Teaching Theology and Religion 9, no. 2 (April 2006): 91–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9647.2006.00268.x.
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Leibman, Laura. "Sephardic sacred space in colonial America." Jewish History 25, no. 1 (November 30, 2010): 13–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10835-010-9126-7.
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Wenell, Karen. "Contested Temple Space and Visionary Kingdom Space in Mark 11-12." Biblical Interpretation 15, no. 3 (2007): 323–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156851507x184900.
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AbstractIn Mark 11-12 sacred space is being reformulated in a way that does not emphasize the central role of the Jerusalem temple. The action and teachings which are placed in the temple in the narrative show a conflict of values, making the temple a contested space. Mark's Gospel is part of the shaping of these ideas, and though not fully worked out in a comprehensive spatial worldview, the notion of the kingdom of God and the heavenly location of God as Father suggest a visionary space to which followers might order and orient their lives. It is out of this conflict of values that new notions of sacred space are able to emerge.
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Gojnik, Zorana Sokol. "Space as Symbol in Sacred Architecture. The Problem of Christian Sacred Architecture." Resourceedings 2, no. 3 (November 12, 2019): 136. http://dx.doi.org/10.21625/resourceedings.v2i3.638.
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In contemporary research (theoretical and architectural projects) of Christian sacred architecture it has been observed that there is a lack of understanding of the phenomenon of space as one of the symbols of sacred architecture.The goal of this paper is to point out the importance of observing the space (architecture) as a sacred symbol, because a problem has been recognised, dealing with the lack of fundemantel definition in the interpretation of the sacred space.In this paper, the research will be carried out by a comparative analysis of the religious concepts of the great religions of Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, as well as their materialisation through space.The expected result of the research is to confirm the hypothesis that space, as well as rituals, images, artistic works, etc. in sacred architecture has the role of a symbol. Space has the task of keeping the basic concepts of religions and of being a mediator of the experience of faith.
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Fiorenza. "Introduction: Comparative Feminist Studies of Sacred Texts/Scriptures." Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion 30, no. 2 (2014): 57. http://dx.doi.org/10.2979/jfemistudreli.30.2.57.
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Lipsitz, George. "Conjuring Sacred Space in Gulf Coast Cities." Journal of the American Academy of Religion 86, no. 2 (February 1, 2018): 497–525. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jaarel/lfx087.
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Williams, P. "Review essay. Sacred space in North America." Journal of the American Academy of Religion 70, no. 3 (September 1, 2002): 593–609. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jaar/70.3.593.
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Kennedy, John. "Book Review: Sacred History and Sacred Geography: Spiritual Journeys in Time and Space." Theology 113, no. 873 (May 2010): 229–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0040571x1011300328.
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Mansour, Nesrine. "The Holy Light of Cyberspace: Spiritual Experience in a Virtual Church." Religions 13, no. 2 (January 26, 2022): 121. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rel13020121.
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Digital technology became a substantial component of daily life activities where people grew less dependent on the constraints of the physical world. Recent developments of new media platforms have led to important changes in religious practices, resulting in digital religion. However, there is a lack of empirical research assessing the effect on the spiritual experience. Some elements of sacred architecture, light for instance, influence the perception and experience of space. Light is a symbol of the sacred as it uplifts the worshiper’s soul and contributes to the transcendental experience. This paper proposes an analysis of a contemporary space, cyberspace, in framing the sacred experience. The focus is on light and its effect on the spiritual experience in a virtual church. The method employs an empirical approach, adapted from the social sciences scholarship, to examine the extent of the spiritual experience(s) manifested by the participants as emotional responses to the sacred space. The findings highlight people’s experiences of the cyber-sacred space and offer insights into the design of those spaces. This spiritual event could be considered a spiritual appreciation of architectural elements translated as subjective emotional responses to virtual sacred architecture. Such study bridges the research of architecture and social sciences in creating a platform for the empirical exploration of virtual ‘built’ environments. It provides a quantitative approach to a phenomenological concept of digital religion and the future of spiritual practices related to virtual sacred architecture. The importance of the study lies on the designed methodology to assess the effect of light on the spiritual experience in virtual sacred architecture.
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Fine, Steven. "God's Place in the World: Sacred Space and Sacred Place in Judaism." Journal of Jewish Studies 50, no. 2 (October 1, 1999): 319. http://dx.doi.org/10.18647/2210/jjs-1999.
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Rine, Holly Anne. "Onondaga Lake as Sacred Space and Contested Space." Review of International American Studies 16, no. 1 (August 28, 2023): 187–221. http://dx.doi.org/10.31261/rias.13185.
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Onondaga Lake, located in what is now Central New York, is the sacred place of the founding of the Haudenosaunee Confederacy. It is where the Peacemaker paddled his stone canoe and established the Great Law of Peace that has stood for centuries. In 1654 Simon Le Moyne, S. J. arrived on the shores of Onondaga Lake. In 1656 the French government, in accordance with the Christian Doctrine of Discovery, granted the Jesuits rights to the lake and the surrounding land, much prized for its abundant salt springs. They built a mission to lay claim to both the land and the souls who occupied it. It is this moment that sets off the contest for control of the lake and the history. The lake remains the sacred center of the Confederacy, which has survived despite attempts to eradicate it. The future of both is dependent on the recognition of its sacred status by those who have seen the lake as a source of profit and power as well as a convenient dumping ground. This is the story of that struggle.
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Jameson, Michael H. "Sacred space and the city: Greece and Bhaktapur." International Journal of Hindu Studies 1, no. 3 (December 1997): 485–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11407-997-0020-y.
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Barnes, Liberty. "Holiday Gifting at a Children’s Hospital: Sacred Ritual, Sacred Space." Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 48, no. 5 (December 26, 2018): 591–618. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0891241618820110.
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Every Christmas season children’s hospitals in the United States are flooded with gift donations. Businesses, service organizations, and the public deliver carloads of new toys, puzzles, games, books, electronics, sports equipment, art supplies, cosmetics, blankets, and clothing for sick children. The practice is so common and widespread that donors rarely ask whether they may donate, what types of donations are welcome, and when and where they should deliver their donations. Based on ethnographic observations of holiday gifting at University Children’s Hospital, a nationally ranked pediatric hospital on the West Coast, the purpose of this paper is to investigate the implicit cultural beliefs that guide holiday gifting practices. Eschewing the popular rhetoric of American hyper-consumption and hedonism, I use a Durkheimian framework to argue that holiday gifting in children’s hospital is a sacred ritual. The data presented describe the wide-ranging variety of donors—from Boy Scouts to nightclub strippers—who journey to the hospital bearing gifts. Drawing on sacred conceptualizations of childhood and gifting in American culture, I argue that children’s hospitals are more than medico-scientific institutions. They represent sacred unifying spaces and the heart of their local communities where individuals and organizations come to privately and publicly reaffirm their moral commitments to society through holiday gifting.
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Butler, Anthea. "When nowhere becomes sacred the mojave desert cross and sacred space." Material Religion 7, no. 2 (July 2011): 272–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.2752/175183411x13070210372625.
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Lassner, J. "Sacred Space in Israel and Palestine." Journal of Church and State 55, no. 4 (November 4, 2013): 796–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jcs/cst066.
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Gianotti, Timothy J. "Sacred Acts, Sacred Time, Sacred Space, John Walbridge, Oxford: George Ronald, 1996." Iranian Studies 32, no. 2 (1999): 278–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021086200001638.
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Iagafova, Ekaterina, and Valeriia Bondareva. "Chuvash Village Sacred Spaces in the Samara Trans-Volga Region." Journal of Ethnology and Folkloristics 16, no. 2 (December 1, 2022): 160–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/jef-2022-0017.
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Abstract The article* examines the sacred landscape in the space of Chuvash villages in the Samara Trans-Volga region. A sacred space is understood as a territory that, from the point of view of local people, has special properties and performs certain functions in their spiritual practices. Among the Samara Chuvash, represented in the majority by Orthodox communities, in the minority by pagans and Muslims, there are sites of various confessional origins as well as varying degrees of functionality and relevance in modern ritual practice from a actively used to completely forgotten. The article describes various types of sacred objects1 found in Chuvash villages in the Samara Trans-Volga region in the context of relevant religious practices, showing the attitude of the villagers to sacred sites and their significance in the formation of the religiosity of the Chuvash population in the region. The purpose of the research is to identify the principles of the sacralisation of space, its semantic characteristics, and the specificity and purpose of sacred sites. The object of study is cult sites associated with the natural-geographical environment and formed in close relationship with it (for example places of prayers and pilgrimage), as well as those arising in the course of human activities to create man-made sacred-spatial environments. The study showed that sacred sites make up an integral part of the religious space in Chuvash villages in the Samara Trans-Volga region, and set its spatial coordinates. These objects reflect both general ethnic traditions and local-historical plots associated with a specific area and its people. The formation of the sacred landscape took place with the development of new land, in the course of which a traditional model of the microcosm of the Chuvash peasant was created. The research is based on the archival, published and field material of the authors.
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Lubin, Timothy. "Beyond Sacred Violence: A Comparative Study of Sacrifice." Numen 57, no. 3-4 (2010): 539–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156852710x501388.
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Kletter, Raz. "Sacred Time, Sacred Space: Archaeology and the Religion of Israel. Barry M. Gittlen." Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 329 (February 2003): 99–101. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1357832.
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Bakker, Hans. "Construction and Reconstruction of Sacred Space in Vārānasī." Numen 43, no. 1 (1996): 32–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1568527962598368.
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AbstractIt is widely believed that Vārānasī (Benares) ranks among the oldest holy cities on earth. Archaeological and textual sources, however, begin only to testify to the construction of sacred space in the first millennium AD. A significant discrepancy is found between the archaeological data (mainly seals) and early textual sources belonging to the 5th to 8th centuries. While seals provide us with the names of temples that apparently were frequented by the ordinary pilgrim, the oldest Māhātmya text that has recently become available, three chapters of the ‘original’ Skandapurāna, depicts Vārānasī as a place of ascetics and yogis. The spheres of devotion and world-renouncing are further complicated in the 11th and 12th centuries, when Vārānasī is made the political capital of the Gāhadavāla dynasty. Inscriptions reveal yet another dimension of sacred space, that of state ritual. After the destruction of the town by the Muslim conquerors, a process of reconstruction sets in during the 13th and 14th centuries, resulting eventually in the sacred Vārānasī as we know it today.