Journal articles on the topic 'Route caching'

This paper proposes an elaborate route prefix caching scheme for fast packet forwarding in named data networking (NDN) which is a next-generation Internet structure. The name lookup is a crucial function of the NDN router, which delivers a packet based on its name rather than IP address. It carries out a complex process to find the longest matching prefix for the content name. Even the size of a name prefix is variable and unbounded; thus, the name lookup is to be more complicated and time-consuming. The name lookup can be sped up by using route prefix caching, but it may cause a problem when non-leaf prefixes are cached. The proposed prefix caching scheme can cache non-leaf prefixes, as well as leaf prefixes, without incurring any problem. For this purpose, a Bloom filter is kept for each prefix. The Bloom filter, which is widely used for checking membership, is utilized to indicate the branch information of a non-leaf prefix. The experimental result shows that the proposed caching scheme achieves a much higher hit ratio than other caching schemes. Furthermore, how much the parameters of the Bloom filter affect the cache miss count is quantitatively evaluated. The best performance can be achieved with merely 8-bit Bloom filters and two hash functions.

The World Wide Web has been considered as a large distributed information system based development and use of computer technology that both provide access to shared data objects. En-Cache techniques are important for reducing Internet access latency, network traffic, and server load in different networks. In this paper, we survey the state-of-art techniques used in En-route Caching and discuss the recent development.

In-network caching is one of the key features of information-centric networks (ICN), where forwarding entities in a network are equipped with memory with which they can temporarily store contents and satisfy en route requests. Exploiting in-network caching, therefore, presents the challenge of efficiently coordinating the forwarding of requests with the volatile cache states at the routers. In this paper, we address information-centric networks and consider in-network caching specifically for Named Data Networking (NDN) architectures. Our proposal departs from the forwarding algorithms which primarily use links that have been selected by the routing protocol for probing and forwarding. We propose a novel adaptive forwarding strategy using reinforcement learning with the random neural network (NDNFS-RLRNN), which leverages the routing information and actively seeks new delivery paths in a controlled way. Our simulations show that NDNFS-RLRNN achieves better delivery performance than a strategy that uses fixed paths from the routing layer and a more efficient performance than a strategy that retrieves contents from the nearest caches by flooding requests.

In the location aware services, past mobile device cache invalidation-replacement practises used are ineffective if the client travel route varies rapidly. In addition, in terms of storage expense, previous cache invalidation-replacement policies indicate high storage overhead. These limitations of past policies are inspiration for this research work. The paper describes the models to solve the aforementioned challenges using two different approaches separately for predicting the future path for the user movement. In the first approach, the most prevalent Sequential Pattern Mining & Clustering (SPMC) technique is used to pre-process the user's movement trajectory and find out the pattern that appears frequently. In the second approach, frequent patterns are forwarded into the Mobility Markov Chain & Matrix-(MMCM) algorithm leading to a reduction in the size of candidate sets and, therefore, efficiency enhancement of mining sequence patterns. Analytical results show significant caching performance improvement compared to previous caching policies.

In this paper, we design and implement a P2P cooperative proxy caching system based on a novel P2P cooperative proxy caching scheme. To effectively locate the cached web documents, a TTL-based routing protocol is proposed to manage the query and response messages in the P2P cooperative proxy cache system. Furthermore, we design a predict query-route algorithm to improve the TTL-based routing protocol by adding extra information in the query message packets. To select a suitable cache replacement algorithm for the P2P cooperative proxy cache system, three different cache replacement algorithms, LRU, LFU and SIZE, are evaluated using web trace based performance studies on the implemented P2P cooperative proxy cache system. The experimental results show that LRU is an overall better cache replacement algorithm for the P2P proxy cache system although SIZE based cache replacement approach produces slightly better cache hit ratio when cache size is very small. The performance studies also demonstrate that the proposed message routing protocols significantly improve the performance of the P2P cooperative proxy cache system, in terms of cache hit ratio, byte hit ratio, user request latency, and the number of query messages generated in the proxy cache system, compared to the flooding based message routing protocol.

Security incidents such as natural disasters and power outages can cause inter-domain routing system regional failures, significantly impact the Internet’s safety. Reducing the impact of security incidents is essential for maintaining the stability of the Internet. One of the major impacts of security incidents is that many UPDATE messages will generate, which may easily cause network oscillations. This paper presents the UPDATE messages analysis during the six security incidents and finds that many duplicates and invalid messages are the leading cause of network instability. To effectively process these UPDATE messages, this paper proposes an UPDATE message preprocessing algorithm by analyzing the UPDATE operating mechanism to remove duplicate and invalid messages. Aiming at the problem of slow route search in existing route update methods using software-defined networking (SDN), this paper designs a RIB hierarchical structure for multi-level retrieval and proposes SMSEI-SDN combination with current route update strategies. Experimental results show that when a security incident occurs, by removing duplicate and invalid messages, SMSEI-SDN can reduce the total number of messages by an average of 19% and a maximum of 34.9% within the 60 s of caching time. Besides, SMSEI-SDN can reduce the routing update time by more than 99.98% compared to existing methods. This work provides insights for network operators and researchers interested in security incident impact suppression in the inter-domain routing system.

<p class="MDPI17abstract"><span lang="EN-US">Named data networking (NDN) is a network service evolving the Internet's host-based packet delivery model. The idea of NDN is to use named data for routing, which specifies what they are looking for, instead of using location addresses that determine where they expect it to be provided. This architecture is expected to solve many issues that are currently faced by transmission control protocol/internet protocol (TCP/IP) architecture, such as scalability, robustness, mobility, security, and etcetera. One of the problems is about handling producer mobility. Considering the explosion growth rate of Internet connection in public transport vehicles, this is a challenge that needs to be overcome. Therefore, we have proposed a new scheme called route optimization management of producer mobility (ROM-P) with new features such as distributing anchor points and caching by using the same data name and com-paring our previous scheme, efficient producer mobility support (EPMS). This paper shows the analysis result between the ROM-P and EPMS by using simulation. All simulations were conducted using ndnSIM 2.4 NS-3 based. Throughout the simulation ROM-P shows a promising development in better performing compares to EPMS.</span></p>

<p>The Named Data Networking NDN is one of the most proposed architecture for the new model of Internet communications based on contents distribution, called Information-Centric Network ICN. It is widely accepted by the research community since it has become dominant in ICN design that resolves TCP-IP based Internet problems such as bandwidth, delay, location dependent and congestion. Based on location host IP addresses, TCP-IP designed for Peer-to-Peer communication P2P. NDN architecture is oriented Content Centric Networking CCN, where the data is stored on routers and distributed to users from the nearest router. Cache capacities of routers are limited compared to forwarded contents. To move from TCP-IP model to CCN model, many papers propose several new contents distribution based architecture ICN. In this paper, we propose a novel strategy to optimize the use of network resources inspired from Network clustering and cluster head selection in MANETs. Specifically, the improved K-medoids cluster algorithm is used to divide the global network in clusters, where for each cluster; three routers are selected as content routers. The first is the main caching router as well as the second and the third are the secondary caching router. The caching router selection process relies on three relevant criteria consisting of the distance between a node and its cluster centroid, the number of neighbors, and the congestion level. Two Multi Attribute Decision–Making methods MADM are applied, namely TOPSIS and AHP. Performance analysis of our proposed strategy with the established criteria showed � its effectiveness and strong potential.<em></em></p>

The IP-based system cause inefficient content delivery process. This inefficiency was attempted to be solved with the Content Distribution Network. A replica server is located in a particular location, usually on the edge router that is closest to the user. The user’s request will be served from that replica server. However, caching on Content Distribution Network is inflexible. This system is difficult to support mobility and conditions of dynamic content demand from consumers. We need to shift the paradigm to content-centric. In Named Data Network, data can be placed on the content store on routersthat are closest to the consumer. Caching on Named Data Network must be able to store content dynamically. It should be selectively select content that is eligible to be stored or deleted from the content storage based on certain considerations, e.g. the popularity of content in the local area. This survey paper explains the development of caching techniques on Named Data Network that are classified into main points. The brief explanation of advantages and disadvantages are presented to make it easy to understand. Finally, proposed the open challenge related to the caching mechanism to improve NDN performance.

Ubiquitous caching is a feature shared by all proposed information-centric network (ICN) architectures. Prioritising storage resources to popular content in the network is a proven way to guarantee hit rates, reduce the number of hops forwarded, and reduce user request latency. An ideal ICN caching mechanism should make the best use of relevant information such as content information, network state, and user requirements to achieve optimal selection and have the ability to adaptively adjust the decision cache content for dynamic scenarios. Since router nodes have limited cache space, it is then useless to accurately predict the popularity of the content with very low popularity, as this content has no chance of being cached. A more effective approach is to focus on content with high popularity that influences caching decisions. As for different nodes, they have different sets of popular content, and using this property, this paper designs a caching method based on the popularity hierarchy with topological weights. The method considers managing the cached content in nodes with a hierarchy of popularity and improving their distribution in terms of the importance of the nodes’ position in the network. Finally, the scheme is simulated by changing the parameter settings under different actual topologies on the simulation platform to confirm the feasibility of the scheme.

The major advantage of information-centric networking (ICN) lies in in-network caching. Ubiquitous cache nodes reduce the user’s download latency of content and the drain of network bandwidth, which enables efficient content distribution. Due to the huge cost of updating an entire network infrastructure, it is realistic for ICN to be integrated into an IP network, which poses new challenges to design a cache system and corresponding content router. In this paper, we firstly observed that the behavior pattern of data requests based on a name resolution system (NRS) makes an ICN cache system implicitly form a hierarchical and nested structure. We propose a complete design and an analytical model to characterize an uncooperative hierarchical ICN caching system compatible with IP. Secondly, to facilitate the incremental deployment of an ICN cache system in an IP network, we designed and implemented a cache-supported router with multi-terabyte cache capabilities. Finally, the simulation and measurement results show the accuracy of proposed analytical model, the significant gains on hit ratio, and the access latency of the hierarchical ICN cache system compared with a flat cache system based on naming routing, as well as the high performance of the implemented ICN router.

The basic design of the Named Data Networking (NDN) architecture is shown to incur problems, in that Interests (content requests) may go unanswered even if content is available in the network, and Pending Interest Tables (PIT) are shown to provide limited performance benefits in the presence of in- network caching. A new approach to content-centric networking is introduced that eliminates the need to maintain PITs while providing the benefits sought by NDN. Content-Centric Networking with Data Answer Routing Table (CCN-DART) replaces PITs with Data Answer Routing Tables (DARTs) to forward Interests that do not state their sources. The size of a DART is proportional to the number of routes used by Interests traversing a router, rather than the number of Interests traversing a router. It is shown that undetected Interest loops cannot occur in CCN-DART, and that Interests and responses to them are forwarded correctly independently of the state of the network. The results of simulation experiments comparing CCN-DART with NDN using the ndnSIM simulation tool show that CCN-DART attains similar or better latencies than NDN when no looping problems occur in NDN, while using a similar number of Interests and storing an order of magnitude fewer forwarding entries.

Content-Centric Networking (CCN) is proposed to make content, instead of the content locations, as the first-class entity in future Internet. Content can be cached in CCN routers for better data delivery, which makes in-router caching system more important. Content Store (CS) is the CCN in-router cache that caches all the data packets traversing a CCN router. Nowadays the throughput of IP routers can reach up to hundreds or even thousands of Gbps, which makes it a great challenge to design CS architecture in CCN routers to support high read/write throughput. In this paper, via aggregating the interest packets that request for the same data packets, we propose an aggregation scheme system, which can help to reduce the read overhead of the CS in CCN routers.

One key feature of named data networks (NDN) is supporting in-network caching to increase the content distribution for today’s Internet needs. However, previously cached contents may be threatened by side-channel timing measurements/attacks. For example, one adversary can identify previously cached contents by distinguishing between uncached and cached contents from the in-network caching node, namely the edge NDN router. The attacks can be mitigated by the previously proposed methods effectively. However, these countermeasures may be against the NDN paradigm, affecting the content distribution performance. This work studied the side-channel timing attack on streaming over NDN applications and proposed a capable approach to mitigate it. Firstly, a recent side-channel timing attack, designated by brute-force, was implemented on ndnSIM using the AT&T network topology. Then, a multi-level countermeasure method, designated by detection and defense (DaD), is proposed to mitigate this attack. Simulation results showed that DaD distinguishes between legitimate and adversary nodes. During the attack, the proposed DaD multi-level approach achieved the minimum cache hit ratio (≈0.7%) compared to traditional countermeasures (≈4.1% in probabilistic and ≈3.7% in freshness) without compromising legitimate requests.

NDN is one of the new emerging future internet architectures which brings up new solutions over today’s internet architecture, facilitating content distribution, in-network caching, mobility support, and multicast forwarding. NDNs ubiquitous in-network caching allows consumers to access data directly from the intermediate router’s cache. However, it opens content privacy problems since data packets replicated in the router are always accessible by every consumer. Sensitive contents in the routers should be protected and accessed only by authorized consumers. Although the content protection problem can be solved by applying an encryption-based access control policy, it still needs an efficient content distribution scheme with lower computational overhead and content retrieval time. We propose an efficient and secure content distribution (ES_CD), by combining symmetric encryption and identity-based proxy re-encryption. The analysis shows that our proposed scheme achieves content retrieval time reduction up to 20% for the cached contents in our network simulation environment and a slight computational overhead of less than 19 ms at the content producer and 9 ms at the consumer for 2 KB content. ES_CD provides content confidentiality and ensures only legitimate consumers can access the contents during a predefined time without requiring a trusted third party and keeping the content producer always online.

We present a complete, fully automatic solution based on genetic algorithms for the optimization of discrete product placement and of order picking routes in a warehouse. The solution takes as input the warehouse structure and the list of orders and returns the optimized product placement, which minimizes the sum of the order picking times. The order picking routes are optimized mostly by genetic algorithms with multi-parent crossover operator, but for some cases also permutations and local search methods can be used. The product placement is optimized by another genetic algorithm, where the sum of the lengths of the optimized order picking routes is used as the cost of the given product placement. We present several ideas, which improve and accelerate the optimization, as the proper number of parents in crossover, the caching procedure, multiple restart and order grouping. In the presented experiments, in comparison with the random product placement and random product picking order, the optimization of order picking routes allowed the decrease of the total order picking times to 54%, optimization of product placement with the basic version of the method allowed to reduce that time to 26% and optimization of product placement with the methods with the improvements, as multiple restart and multi-parent crossover to 21%.

Other than separately investing the energy efficiency (EE) merits of information-centric networking’s (ICN’s) caching and sharing (CS) mechanism in wireless communications, here we comprehensively compare the EE performances of ICN’s CS mechanism in different scenarios. A modified system model is first proposed while introducing the CS mechanism into the in-network router, base station (BS), and neighboring user sides. Afterwards, the system achievable sum rate as well as the power consumptions in wireless and wired sections is investigated. The EE performances of different scenarios are finally obtained by dividing the achievable sum rate by the consumed power. While comparing the three scenarios, numerical results demonstrate that the optimal place to cache the content is mainly determined by the distance and hub number of the core routers that passed.

AbstractLoad balancing is a mechanism to distribute client requests among several service instances. It enables resource utilization, lowers response time, and increases user satisfaction. In Named-Data Networking (NDN) and NDN-like architectures, load balancing becomes crucial when dynamic services are present, where relying solely on forwarding strategies can overload certain service instances while others are underutilized especially with the limited benefit of on-path caching when it comes to services. To understand the challenges and opportunities of load balancing in NDN, we analyze conventional load balancing in IP networks, and three closely related fields in NDN: congestion control, forwarding strategies, and data center management. We identify three possible scenarios for load balancing in NDN: facade load balancer, controller for Interest queues, and router-based load balancing. These different solutions use different metrics to identify the load on replicas, have different compliance levels with NDN, and place the load balancing functionality in different network components. From our findings, we propose and implement a new lightweight router-based load balancing approach called the communicating vessels and experimentally show how it reduces service response time and senses server capabilities without probing.

The domain of information-centric networking (ICN) is expanding as more devices are becoming a part of connected technologies. New methods for serving content from a producer to a consumer are being explored, and Named Data Networking (NDN) is one of them. The NDN protocol routes the content from a producer to a consumer in a network using content names, instead of IP addresses. This facility, combined with content caching, efficiently serves content for very large networks consisting of a hybrid and ad hoc topology with both wired and wireless media. This paper addresses the issue of the quality-of-service (QoS) dimension for content delivery in NDN-based networks. The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) classifies QoS traffic as (prompt, reliable), prompt, reliable, and regular, and assigns corresponding priorities for managing the content. QoS-linked privileged content caching (QLPCC) proposes strategies for Pending Interest Table (PIT) and content store (CS) management in dedicated QoS nodes for handling priority content. QoS nodes are intermediately resourceful NDN nodes between content producers and consumers which specifically manage QoS traffic. The results of this study are compared with EQPR, PRR probability cache, and Least Frequently Used (LFU) and Least Fresh First (LFF) schemes, and QLPCC outperformed the latter-mentioned schemes in terms of QoS-node CS size vs. hit rate (6% to 47%), response time vs, QoS-node CS size (65% to 90%), and hop count vs. QoS-node CS size (60% to 84%) from the perspectives of priority traffic and overall traffic. QLPCC performed predictably when the NDN node count was increased from 500 to 1000, showing that the strategy is scalable.

With the development of new technologies and applications, such as the Internet of Things, smart cities, 5G, and edge computing, traditional Internet Protocol-based (IP-based) networks have been exposed as having many problems. Information-Centric Networking (ICN), Named Data Networking (NDN), and Content-Centric Networking (CCN) are therefore proposed as an alternative for future networks. However, unlike IP-based networks, CCN routing is non-deterministic and difficult to optimize due to frequent in-network caching replacement. This paper presents a novel probe-based routing algorithm that explores real-time in-network caching to ensure the routing table storing the optimal paths to the nearest content provider is up to date. Effective probe-selections, Pending Interest Table (PIT) probe, and Forwarding Information Base (FIB) probe are discussed and analyzed by simulation with different performance measurements. Compared with the basic CCN, in terms of qualitative analysis, the additional computational overhead of our approach is O(NCS + Nrt + NFIB ∗ NSPT) and O(NFIB) on processing interest packets and data packets, respectively. However, in terms of quantitative analysis, our approach reduces the number of timeout interests by 6% and the average response time by 0.6 s. Furthermore, although basic CCN and our approach belong to the same Quality of Service (QoS) category, our approach outperforms basic CCN in terms of real values. Additionally, our probe-based approach performs better than RECIF+PIF and EEGPR. Owing to speedup FIB updating by probes, our approach provides more reliable interest packet routing when accounting for router failures. In summary, the results demonstrate that compared to basic CCN, our probe-based routing approach raises FIB accuracy and reduces network congestion and response time, resulting in efficient routing.

Named data networking (NDN) is a novel communication paradigm that employs names rather than references to the location of the content. It exploits in-network caching among different nodes in a network to provide the fast delivery of content. Thus, it reduces the backhaul traffic on the original producer and also eliminates the need for a stable connection between the source (consumer) and destination (producer). However, a bottleneck or congestion may still occur in very crowded areas, such as shopping malls, concerts, or stadiums, where thousands of users are requesting information from a device that resides at the edge of the network. This paper provides an analysis of content delivery in terms of the interest satisfaction rate (ISR) in ultra-dense network traffic situations and presents a final and an adequate statistical model based on multiple linear regression (MLR) to enhance ISR. A four-way factorial design was used to generate the dataset by performing simulations in ndnSIM. The results show that there is no significant interaction between four predictors: number of nodes (NN), number of interests (NI) per second, router bandwidth (RB), and router delay (RD). Moreover, the NI has a negative effect, and log(RB) has a positive effect on the ISR. The NN less than 10 has a significantly higher effect on the ISR compared with other nodes’ densities.

To access location-based service (LBS) and query surrounding points of interest (POIs), smartphone users typically use built-in positioning functions of their phones when traveling at unfamiliar places. However, when a query is submitted, personal information may be leaked when they provide their real location. Current LBS privacy protection schemes fail to simultaneously consider real map conditions and continuous querying, and they cannot guarantee privacy protection when the obfuscation algorithm is known. To provide users with secure and effective LBSs, we developed an unchained regional privacy protection method that combines query logs and chained cellular obfuscation areas. It adopts a multiuser anonymizer architecture to prevent attackers from predicting user travel routes by using background information derived from maps (e.g., traffic speed limits). The proposed scheme is completely transparent to users when performing continuous location-based queries, and it combines the method with actual road maps to generate unchained obfuscation areas that conceal the actual locations of users. In addition to using a caching approach to enhance performance, the proposed scheme also considers popular tourist POIs to enhance the cache data hit ratio and query performance.

As one of the candidates for future network architecture, Information-Centric Networking (ICN) has revolutionized the manner of content retrieval by transforming the communication mode from host-centric to information-centric. Unlike a traditional TCP/IP network, ICN uses a location-independent name to identify content and takes a receiver-driven model to retrieve the content. Moreover, ICN routers not only perform a forwarding function but also act as content providers due to pervasive in-network caching. The network traffic is more complicated and routers are more prone to congestion. These distinguished characteristics pose new challenges to ICN transmission control mechanism. In this paper, we propose an effective transmission scheme by combining the receiver-driven transport protocol and the router-driven congestion detection mechanism. We first outline the process of content retrieval and transmission in an IP-compatible ICN architecture and propose a practical receiver-driven transport protocol. Then, we present an early congestion detection mechanism applied on ICN routers based on an improved Active Queue Management (AQM) algorithm and design a receiver-driven congestion control algorithm. Finally, experiment results show that the proposed transmission scheme can maintain high bandwidth utilization and significantly reduce transmission delay and packet loss rate.

Information-centric networking is the developing model envisioned by an increasing body of the data communication research community, which shifts the current network paradigm from host centric to data centric, well-known to information-centric networking (ICN). Further, the ICN adopts different types of architectures to extend the growth of the Internet infrastructure, e.g., name-based routing and in-network caching. As a result, the data can be easily routed and accessed within the network. However, when the producer generates contents for authentic consumers, then it is necessary for him/her to have a technique for content confidentiality, privacy, and access control. To provide the previously mentioned services, this paper presents a certificateless proxy reencryption scheme (CPRES) based on the hyperelliptic curve for access control in the content-centric network (CCN). Using certificateless PRE, the power of the key generation center (KGC) is limited to only the generation of partial keys to secure the access to the content. With the help of these partial keys, the producer further calculates keys for encryption and reencryption process. The simulation results show that the proposed scheme provides secure access to content during end-to-end communication. Moreover, the proposed CPRES scheme outperforms in terms of low computational energy and efficient utilization of communication bandwidth.

In order to improve cache hit efficiency and reduce network response delay in Vehicular Named Data Networking (VNDN) environment, a routing strategy based on content type awareness and a collaborative content pre-caching strategy based on content popularity prediction for probabilistic caching were proposed. Firstly, an appropriate route-forwarding strategy is selected according to the message characteristics and whether the destination node is known. Then, unsupervised learning topic model Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) is used to dynamically predict the request preference of vehicle users. Secondly, the topological relationship between different devices in the Internet of vehicles and the predicted vehicle user preferences are used to accurately and effectively predict the popularity of content, so as to reduce the redundancy of content files cached by network devices and maximize the cache hit ratio. Simulation results show that compared with other content caching strategies, this content pre-caching strategy can effectively improve cache performance.

This study aims to build a router in a computer network using a proxy, implement an external proxy server on a mikrotik router and implement caching on a local network. In this study, the action research method will be used, where the action research method can provide an overview of the stages of research that the writer needs, because the writer requires an analysis or diagnosis of the system that is currently running. The results of this study indicate that an external proxy server using clearOS linux with the squid application can be applied to a proxy router with a transparent proxy, so that clients to connect to the internet network at PT. Mega Maju Perkasa Bengkulu City must pass a proxy server first. The caching system can store caches of sites accessed by clients, from the tests that have been carried out there are data reports with 50 cache hits and 11% cache stored. In addition, the application of an external proxy server on the proxy router does not reduce the quality of service on network at PT. Mega Maju Perkasa Bengkulu City

The complexity of System on Chip (SoC) is increasing with the scale of ICs, and Network on Chip (NoC) has become one of the most important solutions for SoC communication. As a significant point of NoC, research of routers and routing algorithms is receiving more and more attention from researchers and research institutes. This paper proposes a high-speed router on-chip router, which adopts wormhole switching mechanism, output queuing caching strategy, Credit-based flow control mechanism and Round-Robin arbitration mechanism, and the entire operation of the router is a two-stage flow. The selection of adaptive and deterministic routing algorithms can be done automatically, and finally, the performance parameters are evaluated.

Multipath routing for mobile Ad hoc networks is a technique of concurrent management and utilization of multiple paths for transmitting distributed data evenly across the nodes instead of routing all the traffic along a single path, potentially resulting in longer lifetime along with the benefits of better transmission performance, fault tolerance, increased bandwidth and improved security. In this paper, a secure multipath anonymous routing protocol (abbreviated as SMART) has been proposed. SMART uses non cryptographic ways to help the source find the routes to the destination and dynamic onion routing to intimate the source about these routes. It includes a mechanism of key caching and defines a minimum battery protection threshold for each node to help increase the network lifetime to some extent. In effect SMART is an attempt to strike a balance between the anonymity, security and energy consumption in a network.

Mobile adhoc networks (MANETs) have drawn attention to multitudinous consideration because of the univerality of mobile devices as well as the developments in wireless era. MANET is a peer-to-peer multi hop cellular wireless era community which does not have both difficult and speedy infrastructure and a relevant server. Every vertex of a MANET performs like a router and communicates with every unique. There exist numerous information duplication strategies which were presented to reduce the execution squalor. All are concluded that everyone cell vertices cooperate completely from the perspective of sharing their memory vicinity. But, via a few methods few vertices might additionally behave selfishly and determine simplest to cooperate in part or never with different vertices. The selfish vertices ought to then lessen the overall information approachability within the network. From this work, we try to take a look at the influence of selfish vertices in a mobile ad hoc community in terms of reproduction issuance i.e Selfish nodes are dealt with in replica allocation.

Geo-fencing application is a class of location-based service that provide mobile users with services, i.e. information or functionality, when the users are within certain geographical areas. In this paper, we present an architecture for geo-fencing applications that allow information provisioning from multiple providers based on users’ locations. The architecture includes a central component called service router whose main task is to forward information requests from the users’ mobile applications to targeted information providers. The architecture assumes that information is stored in specific content management systems (CMSs). We also present a location-based request forwarding mechanism for the service router. Every request from the applications must include the users’ location coordinates. These coordinates are used to determine to which information provider the request should be forwarded. In addition, the forwarding mechanism includes a caching mechanism to make efficient the forwarding process. The architecture and forwarding mechanism are implemented in RESTful Web Services. This architecture offers three main benefits, i.e.: (i) natural fit to real-world situation, in which each area is administered by an authority, (ii) scalability by delegating the routing tasks to a composition of service routers in a hierarchical architecture, and (iii) consistent presentation by allowing the mobile applications to restructure and reformat information from the providers.

The Virtual and the Physical The structure of virtual space is a product of the Internet’s geography and technology. Debates around the nature of the virtual — culture, society, economy — often leave out this connection to “fibre”, to where and how we are physically linked to each other. Rather than signaling the “end of geography” (Mitchell 1999), the Internet reinforces its importance with “real world” physical and logical constraints shaping the geography of cyberspace. To contest the nature of the virtual world requires understanding and contesting the nature of the Internet’s architecture in the physical world. The Internet is built on a physical entity – the telecommunications networks that connect computers around the world. In order to participate on the Internet, one needs to connect to these networks. In an information society access to bandwidth determines the haves from the have-nots (Mitchell 1999), and bandwidth depends upon your location and economics. Increasingly, the new generation Internet distributes bandwidth unevenly amongst regions, cities, organizations, and individuals. The speed, type, size and quality of these networks determine the level and nature of participation available to communities. Yet these types of choices, the physical and technical aspects of the network, are the ones least understood, contested and linked to “real world” realities. The Technical is the Political Recently, the US government proposed a Total Information Awareness surveillance system for all digital communications nationally. While technically unworkable on multiple fronts, many believed that the architecture of the Internet simply prevented such data collection, because no physical access points exist through which all data flows. In reality, North America does have central access points – six to be exact – through which all data moves because it is physically impossible to create redundant systems. This simple factor of geography potentially shapes policies on speech, privacy, terrorism, and government-business relations to name just a few. These are not new issues or challenges, but merely new technologies. The geography of infrastructure – from electricity, train and telephone networks to the architectures of freeways, cities and buildings – has always been as much social and political as technical. The technology and the social norms embedded in the network geography (Eischen, 2002) are central to the nature of cyberspace. We may wish for a utopian vision, but the hidden social assumptions in mundane ‘engineering’ questions like the location of fibre or bandwidth quality will shape virtual world. The Changing Landscape of the Internet The original Internet infrastructure is being redesigned and rebuilt. The massive fibre-optic networks of the Internet backbones have been upgraded, and broadband access technologies – cable modem, Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) and now wireless Wi-Fi – are being installed closer to homes and businesses. New network technologies and protocols enable the network to serve up data even faster than before. However, the next generation Internet architecture is quite different from the popular utopian vision described above. The Internet is being restructured as an entertainment and commerce medium, driven by the convergence of telecommunications technologies and commercialization. It is moving towards a broadcast model where individual consumers have access to less upstream bandwidth than downstream, with the symmetry of vendor and customer redesigned and built to favor content depending on who provides, requests and receives content. This Internet infrastructure has both physical and logical components – the telecommunications networks that comprise the physical infrastructure and the protocols that comprise the logical infrastructure of the software that runs the Internet. We are in the process of partitioning this infrastructure, both physical and logical, into information conduits of different speeds and sizes. Access to these conduits depends on who and where you are. These emerging Internet infrastructure technologies – Broadband Access Networks, Caching and Content Delivery Networks, Quality of Service and Policy Protocols – are shaped by geographical, economic and social factors in their development, deployment and use. The Geography of Broadband These new broadband networks are being deployed initially in more privileged, densely populated communities in primary cities and their wealthy suburbs (Graham, 2000). Even though many have touted the potential of Wi-Fi networks to bring broadband to underserved areas, initial mappings of wireless deployment show correlation between income and location of hotspots (NYCWireless, 2003). Equally important, the most commonly deployed broadband technologies, cable modem and ADSL, follow a broadcast model by offering more downstream bandwidth than upstream bandwidth. Some cable companies limit upstream bandwidth even further to 256 Kbps in order to discourage subscribers from setting up home servers. The asymmetry of bandwidth leads to asymmetry of information flows where corporations produce information and users content. Internet Infrastructure: Toll Roads and the Priority of Packets The Internet originally was designed around ‘best effort’ service: data flows through the networks as packets, and all packets are treated equally. The TCP/IP protocols that comprise the Internet’s logical infrastructure (Lessig, 101) govern how data is transferred across the physical networks. In the Internet’s original design, each packet is routed to the best path known, with the transport quality level dependent on network conditions. However, network congestion and differing content locations lead to inconsistent levels of quality. In order to overcome Internet “bottlenecks”, technologies such as content caching and Quality of Service (QoS) protocols have been developed that allow large corporate customers to bypass the public infrastructure, partitioning the Internet into publicly and privately accessible data conduits or throughways. Since access is based on payment, these private throughways can be thought of as the new toll roads of the Internet. Companies such as Akamai are deploying private ‘content delivery’ networks. These networks replicate and store content in geographically dispersed servers close to the end users, reducing the distance content data needs to traverse. Large content providers pay these companies to store and serve their content on these networks. Internet Service Providers (ISPs) offer similar services for internal or hosted content. The Internet’s physical infrastructure consists of a system of interconnected networks. The major ISPs’ networks interconnect at Network Access Point (NAPs) the major intersections of the Internet backbone. Congestion at these public intersection points has resulted in InterNAP building and deploying private network access points (P-NAPs). Akamai content delivery network (Akamai, 2000) and InterNAP’s P-NAPs (InterNAP, 2000) deployment maps reveal a deployment of private infrastructure to a select group of highly-connected U.S. cities (Moss & Townsend, 2000), furthering the advantage these ‘global cities’ (Graham, 1999) have over other cities and regions. QoS protocols allow ISPs to define differing levels of service by providing preferential treatment to some amount of the network traffic. Smart routers, or policy routers, enable network providers to define policies for data packet treatment. The routers can discriminate between and prioritize the handling of packets based on destination, source, the ISP, data content type, etc. Such protocols and policies represent a departure from the original peer-to-peer architecture of data equality with ‘best-effort’. The ability to discriminate and prioritize data traffic is being built into the system, with economic and even political factors able to shape the way packets and content flow through the network. For example, during the war on Iraq, Akamai Technologies canceled its service contract with the Arabic news service Al Jazeera (CNET, 2003). Technology, Choices and Values To address the social choices underpinning seemingly benign technical choices of the next generation Internet, we need to understand the economic, geographic and social factors guiding choices about its design and deployment. Just as the current architecture of the Internet reflects the values of its original creators, this next generation Internet will reflect our choices and our values. The reality is that decisions with very long-term impacts will be made with or without debate. If any utopian vision of the Internet is to survive, it is crucial to embed the new architectures with specific values by asking difficult questions with no pre-defined or easy answers. These are questions that require social debate and consensus. Is the Internet fundamentally a public or private space? Who will have access? What information and whose information will be accessible? Which values and whose values should form the basis of the new infrastructure? Should the construction be subject to market forces alone or should ideas of social equity and fairness be embedded in the technology? Technologists, policy makers (at both national and local levels), researchers and the general public all have a part in determining the answers to these questions. Policymakers need to link future competition and innovation with equitable access for all citizens. Urban planners and local governments need to link infrastructure, economic sustainability and equity through public and public-private investments – especially in traditionally marginalized areas. Researchers need to continue mapping the complex interactions of investment in and deployment of infrastructure across the disciplines of economics, technology and urban planning. Technologists need to consider the societal implications and inform the policy debates of the technologies they build. Communities need to link technical issues with local ramifications, contesting and advocating with policymakers and corporations. The ultimate geography of cyberspace will reflect the geography of fibre. Understanding and contesting the present and future reality requires linking mundane technical questions with the questions of values in exactly these wider social and political debates. Works Cited Akamai. See <http://www.akamai.com/service/network.php> Eischen, Kyle. ‘The Social Impact of Informational Production: Software Development as an Informational Practice’. Center for Global, International and Regional Studies Working Paper #2002-1. 2002. UC Santa Cruz. <http://cgirs.ucsc.edu/publications/workingpapers/> Graham, Stephen. “Global Grids of Glass: On Global Cities, Telecommunications and Planetary Urban Networks.” Urban Studies. 1999. 36 (5-6). Graham, Stephen. “Constructing Premium Network Spaces: Reflections on Infrastructure Networks and Contemporary Urban Development.” International Journal of Urban and Regional Research. 2000. 24(1) March. InterNAP. See <http://www.internap.com/html/news_05022000.htm> Junnarkar, Sandeep. “Akamai ends Al-Jazeera server support”, CNET News.com, April 4, 2003. See <http://news.com.com/1200-1035-995546.php> Lessig, Lawrence. Code and Other Laws of Cyberspace. New York: Basic Books, 1999. Mitchell, William. City of Bits. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1999. Mosss, Mitchell L. and Anthony M. Townsend. “The Internet Backbone and the American Metropolis.” The Information Society Journal. 16(1): 35-47. Online at: <http://www.informationcity.org/research/internet-backbone-am... ...erican-metropolis/index.htm> Public Internet Project. “802.11b Survey of NYC.” <http://www.publicinternetproject.org/> Links http://cgirs.ucsc.edu/publications/workingpapers/ http://news.com.com/1200-1035-995546.html http://www.akamai.com/service/network.html http://www.informationcity.org/research/internet-backbone-american-metropolis/index.htm http://www.internap.com/html/news_05022000.htm http://www.publicinternetproject.org/ Citation reference for this article Substitute your date of access for Dn Month Year etc... MLA Style Eischen, Emy Tseng & Kyle. "The Geography of Cyberspace" M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture< http://www.media-culture.org.au/0308/03-geography.php>. APA Style Eischen, E. T. &. K. (2003, Aug 26). The Geography of Cyberspace. M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture, 6,< http://www.media-culture.org.au/0308/03-geography.php>