Journal articles: 'Root sytem architecture'

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Atger, Claire, and Claude Edelin. "Premières données sur l'architecture comparée des systèmes racinaires et caulinaires." Canadian Journal of Botany 72, no. 7 (July 1, 1994): 963–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/b94-122.

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Since 1970, the architectural analysis of woody plants has given much information about structural and functional organization of tree crowns, their development, and reiteration patterns. In this study, we have extended this method to tree root systems. We describe the whole architecture of three species and we compare their root system and crown architectural patterns. Key words: architecture, tree, root system, crown, whole plant.

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Godoy, Eduardo P., Rubens A. Tabile, Robson R. D. Pereira, Giovana T. Tangerino, Arthur J. V. Porto, and Ricardo Y. Inamasu. "Design and implementation of an electronic architecture for an agricultural mobile robot." Revista Brasileira de Engenharia Agrícola e Ambiental 14, no. 11 (November 2010): 1240–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s1415-43662010001100015.

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A current trend in the agricultural area is the development of mobile robots and autonomous vehicles for remote sensing. One of the major challenges in the design of these robots is the development of the electronic architecture for the integration and control of the devices. Recent applications of mobile robots have used distributed architectures based on communication networks. A technology that has been widely used as an embedded network is the CAN protocol. The implementation of the ISO11783 standard represents the standardization of the CAN for application in agricultural machinery. This work describes the design and implementation of an electronic architecture for a mobile agricultural robot. The discussions are focused on the developed architecture, the wireless communication system for teleoperation and the distributed control based on CAN protocol and ISO11783. The evaluation of the developed system was based on the analysis of performance parameters such as motor response and architectural time delay obtained with the robot operation. The results show that the developed architecture can be applied for teleoperation and distributed control of agricultural robots meeting the requirements for accurate robot movement and an acceptable response time for robot control commands and supervision.

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Morita, Shigenori, and Jun Abe. "Grasping root system architecture." Root Research 23, no. 4 (2014): 99–106. http://dx.doi.org/10.3117/rootres.23.99.

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Ziegler, Clare, Rosemary J. Dyson, and Iain G. Johnston. "Model selection and parameter estimation for root architecture models using likelihood-free inference." Journal of The Royal Society Interface 16, no. 156 (July 2019): 20190293. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2019.0293.

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Plant root systems play vital roles in the biosphere, environment and agriculture, but the quantitative principles governing their growth and architecture remain poorly understood. The ‘forward problem’ of what root forms can arise from given models and parameters has been well studied through modelling and simulation, but comparatively little attention has been given to the ‘inverse problem’: what models and parameters are responsible for producing an experimentally observed root system? Here, we propose the use of approximate Bayesian computation (ABC) to infer mechanistic parameters governing root growth and architecture, allowing us to learn and quantify uncertainty in parameters and model structures using observed root architectures. We demonstrate the use of this platform on synthetic and experimental root data and show how it may be used to identify growth mechanisms and characterize growth parameters in different mutants. Our highly adaptable framework can be used to gain mechanistic insight into the generation of observed root system architectures.

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Tsybulnyk, Serhii, Viktoriia Nakoryk, and Diana Pivtorak. "DESIGN OF THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE AUTOMATED SYSTEM FOR CREATING THE ACCOMPANYING DOCUMENTATION OF THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS." Bulletin of Kyiv Polytechnic Institute. Series Instrument Making, no. 67(1) (June 30, 2024): 77–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.20535/1970.67(1).2024.306737.

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Background. The architecture of the automated system is the main source of quality of software and software-hardware systems. It determines how quickly and efficiently a developer is able to analyze, understand, test, extend, and maintain an automated system. Changes in the system architecture have a high cost due to its complexity and the possibility of destruction during expansion. At present, most of the knowledge and information about the design decisions on which the architecture is based are implicitly embedded in it, which leads to problems during the development process, in particular, during the programmatic implementation of its structural elements. It is determined that, despite the long way that the evolution of systems architecture has passed, today there are very few objective, repeatable and empirically based methodologies and tools for the design and analysis of architecture. As a rule, software architects are programmers who have decades of experience in software development practice. Given their experience, they clearly understand that errors in the architecture design are the root causes of lower-level problems that manifest in the software code. Most often, a programmer feels when the architecture of his project is of low quality, because there are a large number of technical flaws, the number of which only increases with time. But most projects continue to be implemented, which leads to a decrease in the quality of the finished automated system. Objective. The purpose of this work is to design and document the software architecture of the automated system for creating the accompanying documentation of the educational process in order to take the first step towards understanding the relationships and the impact of the adopted project decisions on the code base. Conclusions. To achieve the goal, a class of multi-level architectures was chosen, among which the three-level architecture is the most common. Features of implementation of open and closed three-level architectures are considered. On the basis of the MVC architectural template, an architectural project of an automated system for creating accompanying documentation of the educational process has been developed. The main subsystems and data elements are documented.

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Chen, Ying L., Vanessa M. Dunbabin, Art J. Diggle, Kadambot H. M. Siddique, and Zed Rengel. "Development of a novel semi-hydroponic phenotyping system for studying root architecture." Functional Plant Biology 38, no. 5 (2011): 355. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/fp10241.

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A semi-hydroponic bin system was developed to provide an efficient phenotyping platform for studying root architecture. The system was designed to accommodate a large number of plants in a small area for screening genotypes. It was constructed using inexpensive and easily obtained materials: 240 L plastic mobile bins, clear acrylic panels covered with black calico cloth and a controlled watering system. A screening experiment for root traits of 20 wild genotypes of narrow-leafed lupin (Lupinus angustifolius L.) evaluated the reliability and efficiency of the system. Root architecture, root elongation rate and branching patterns were monitored for 6 weeks. Significant differences in both architectural and morphological traits were observed among tested genotypes, particularly for total root length, branch number, specific root length and branch density. Results demonstrated that the bin system was efficient in screening root traits in narrow-leafed lupin, allowing for rapid measurement of two-dimensional root architecture over time with minimal disturbance to plant growth and without destructive root sampling. The system permits mapping and digital measurement of dynamic growth of taproot and lateral roots. This phenotyping platform is a desirable tool for examining root architecture of deep root systems and large sets of plants in a relatively small space.

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Nicola, Silvana. "Understanding Root Systems to Improve Seedling Quality." HortTechnology 8, no. 4 (October 1998): 544–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.21273/horttech.8.4.544.

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Root architecture can be very important in plant productivity. The importance of studies on root morphology and development is discussed to improve seedling growth. Root systems of dicotyledonous species are reviewed, with emphasis on differences between growth of basal and lateral roots. The presence of different types of roots in plant species suggests possible differences in function as well. The architecture of a root system related to its functions is considered. Classical methods for studying root systems comprise excavation of root system, direct observation, and indirect analyses. While the first method is destructive and the third is effective in understanding root architecture only on a relatively gross scale, observation methods allow the scientist a complete a nondestructive architectural study of a root system. The three groups are reviewed related to their potential to give valuable information related to the root architecture and development of the seedling, with emphasis on the availability of a medium-transparent plant-growing system, enabling nondestructive daily observations and plant measurements under controlled environmental conditions. Effects of CO2 enrichment on seedling growth is reviewed, emphasizing the effects of CO2 on root growth.

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Akikawa, Motohiro, and Masayuki Yamamura. "Materializing Architecture for Processing Multimodal Signals for a Humanoid Robot Control System." Journal of Advanced Computational Intelligence and Intelligent Informatics 25, no. 3 (May 20, 2021): 335–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.20965/jaciii.2021.p0335.

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In recent years, many systems have been developed to embed deep learning in robots. Some use multimodal information to achieve higher accuracy. In this paper, we highlight three aspects of such systems: cost, robustness, and system optimization. First, because the optimization of large architectures using real environments is computationally expensive, developing such architectures is difficult. Second, in a real-world environment, noise, such as changes in lighting, is often contained in the input. Thus, the architecture should be robust against noise. Finally, it can be difficult to coordinate a system composed of individually optimized modules; thus, the system is better optimized as one architecture. To address these aspects, a simple and highly robust architecture, namely memorizing and associating converted multimodal signal architecture (MACMSA), is proposed in this study. Verification experiments are conducted, and the potential of the proposed architecture is discussed. The experimental results show that MACMSA diminishes the effects of noise and obtains substantially higher robustness than a simple autoencoder. MACMSA takes us one step closer to building robots that can truly interact with humans.

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Maslard, Corentin, Mustapha Arkoun, Christophe Salon, and Marion Prudent. "Root architecture characterization in relation to biomass allocation and biological nitrogen fixation in a collection of European soybean genotypes." OCL 28 (2021): 48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/ocl/2021033.

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Soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr] is the legume with the largest cultivated area worldwide and its yield depends largely on symbiotic nitrogen fixation and root architecture. This study aimed to explore the genetic variability of root architectural traits and di-nitrogen fixing activity in a small collection of nine European cultivars belonging to the same maturity group during their early stages. New image analysis approaches were implemented to characterise root architecture at high throughput. Significant genetic variability was identified for the width of the root system, root density, and for nitrogen fixation. This study allowed us to highlight trade-offs among root and nodule traits, and structural and functional traits. Finally, both the image analysis approach and the results could be used for breeding programs of soybean, that could take into account the root system architecture, when the plant interacts in symbiosis with N2-fixing bacteria.

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Sombu, Alwin Suryono, Ryadi Adityavarman, and John Petrus Talan. "Physical systems - Balinese cultural meaning in Three Monkeys Restaurant architecture in Sanur Bali." ARTEKS : Jurnal Teknik Arsitektur 9, no. 1 (April 1, 2024): 59–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.30822/arteks.v9i1.2715.

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Bali's Sanur tourism sector is home to many well-known structures with unique, non-Balinese architectural styles. This paper aims to expose the Balinese physical-meaning system found in the Three Monkeys restaurant's architecture in Sanur. The approach is descriptive; first, the "physical" architecture is explained, followed by the "purpose of existence" and "essence." Open frontage, bottom level raised over the terrace, and an alang-alang roof supported by bamboo poles. There is an open figure to the left and north, with bamboo trees around it and a glass-block wall atop. a blend of Balinese traditional and modern architecture. The arrangement: an open pool acts as a mediator between the dining room, kitchen, and bathroom; the terrace is shaded by frangipani trees, and there is a place of prayer in the northeast corner. The upper rooms are conditioned, enclosed by glass walls, modern compared to the lower rooms. The terrace materials are traditional (alang-alang roof, parasol stone wall - bamboo), the lower dining room is a mix of traditional (bamboo wall, alang-alang roof, wooden furniture) and modern (polished concrete floor, glass-block wall), and the upper room is modern (frameless glass wall, stainless-steel railing). The traditional-modern Balinese blend is displayed through the building's figure, layout and materials.

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Morris, Emily C., Marcus Griffiths, Agata Golebiowska, Stefan Mairhofer, Jasmine Burr-Hersey, Tatsuaki Goh, Daniel von Wangenheim, et al. "Shaping 3D Root System Architecture." Current Biology 27, no. 17 (September 2017): R919—R930. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2017.06.043.

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CERITOGLU, Mustafa, Figen CERITOGLU, Murat ERMAN, and Harun BEKTAS. "Root system variation of pulse crops at early vegetative stage." Notulae Botanicae Horti Agrobotanici Cluj-Napoca 48, no. 4 (December 22, 2020): 2182–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.15835/nbha48412054.

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Grain legumes known as “Pulse crops” are economically and nutritionally one of the most important crop families after cereals. Climate change and abiotic stress factors are limiting yield potential in these crops. Root system architecture, a neglected field, is promising for improved environmental adaptability and higher growth potential. Genotypes with deep and dense root system may cope better with water and nutrient limitations. This study aimed to evaluate 12 common cultivars from six different legume species. Root system architectures were evaluated under controlled conditions in a plexiglass system at the early vegetative stage. Roots were divided into four depth zones (0, 5, 10, 15> cm), and inter and intra species diversity were analysed. Significant diversity was obtained within and between the species. Bean, chickpea, and broad bean constituted deeper and dense root systems while lentil, soybean, and pea formed non-dense and shallower root systems. There was a significant correlation between earliness and early vegetative root vigour. The results of the study may provide a better understanding of the root system architectures of each species-genera. The results presented here may shed light on the selection of root traits in legume breeding programs.

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Bilokon, O. S. "Software Architecture of Navigation Systems for Control Modules of Robotics." Èlektronnoe modelirovanie 45, no. 5 (October 10, 2023): 103–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.15407/emodel.45.05.103.

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The peculiarities of the software architecture of navigation systems of robotic control modules are considered. Particular attention is focused on the reproduced classifications of the characteristics of architectural solutions. The three-functional architecture of the Shakey robot, the architecture of R. Brooks (Subsumption), and Boltzmann's intellectual model were studied in detail. Three-level architectural system LAAS, multi-level architecture CLARAty, intelligent real-time control system CIRCA are also considered.

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Duque, Luis O. "Early root phenotyping in sweetpotato (Ipomoea batatas L.) uncovers insights into root system architecture variability." PeerJ 11 (July 19, 2023): e15448. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.15448.

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Background We developed a novel, non-destructive, expandable, ebb and flow soilless phenotyping system to deliver a capable way to study early root system architectural traits in stem-derived adventitious roots of sweetpotato (Ipomoea batatas L.). The platform was designed to accommodate up to 12 stems in a relatively small area for root screening. This platform was designed with inexpensive materials and equipped with an automatic watering system. Methods To test this platform, we designed a screening experiment for root traits using two contrasting sweetpotato genotypes, ‘Covington’ and ‘NC10-275’. We monitored and imaged root growth, architecture, and branching patterns every five days up to 20 days. Results We observed significant differences in both architectural and morphological root traits for both genotypes tested. After 10 days, root length, surface root area, and root volume were higher in ‘NC10-275’ compared to ‘Covington’. However, average root diameter and root branching density were higher in ‘Covington’. Conclusion These results validated the effective and efficient use of this novel root phenotyping platforming for screening root traits in early stem-derived adventitious roots. This platform allowed for monitoring and 2D imaging of root growth over time with minimal disturbance and no destructive root sampling. This platform can be easily tailored for abiotic stress experiments, and permit root growth mapping and temporal and dynamic root measurements of primary and secondary adventitious roots. This phenotyping platform can be a suitable tool for examining root system architecture and traits of clonally propagated material for a large set of replicates in a relatively small space.

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Colchado-López, Joel, R. Cristian Cervantes, and Ulises Rosas. "A Linear Model to Describe Branching and Allometry in Root Architecture." Plants 8, no. 7 (July 12, 2019): 218. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/plants8070218.

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Root architecture is a complex structure that comprises multiple traits of the root phenotype. Novel platforms and models have been developed to better understand root architecture. In this methods paper, we introduce a novel allometric model, named rhizochron index (m), which describes lateral root (LR) branching and elongation patterns across the primary root (PR). To test our model, we obtained data from 16 natural accessions of Arabidopsis thaliana at three stages of early root development to measure conventional traits of root architecture (e.g., PR and LR length), and extracted the rhizochron index (m). In addition, we tested previously published datasets to assess the utility of the rhizochron index (m) to distinguish mutants and environmental effects on root architecture. Our results indicate that rhizochron index (m) is useful to distinguish the natural variations of root architecture between A. thaliana accessions, but not across early stages of root development. Correlation analyses in these accessions showed that m is a novel trait that partially captures information from other root architecture traits such as total lateral root length, and the ratio between lateral root and primary root lengths. Moreover, we found that the rhizochron index was useful to distinguish ABA effect on root architecture, as well as the mutant pho1 phenotype. We propose the rhizochron index (m) as a new feature of the root architectural system to be considered, in addition to conventional traits in future investigations.

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Gifford, Miriam L., Guohua Xu, Lionel X. Dupuy, Kris Vissenberg, and Greg Rebetzke. "Root architecture and rhizosphere–microbe interactions." Journal of Experimental Botany 75, no. 2 (January 8, 2024): 503–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jxb/erad488.

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Abstract Plant roots fulfil crucial tasks during a plant’s life. As roots encounter very diverse conditions while exploring the soil for resources, their growth and development must be responsive to changes in the rhizosphere, resulting in root architectures that are tailor-made for all prevailing circumstances. Using multi-disciplinary approaches, we are gaining more intricate insights into the regulatory mechanisms directing root system architecture. This Special Issue provides insights into our advancement of knowledge on different aspects of root development and identifies opportunities for future research.

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Haber, Adam. "A Multi-Agent Control Architecture for a Rescue Robot." Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence 26, no. 1 (September 20, 2021): 2392–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1609/aaai.v26i1.8183.

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Cognitive architectures investigate the components and interactions neccessary for construction of an intelligent system. Despite much progress and theory, implementations of architectures are rare. This research presents a novel cognitive architecture grounded in the design of a control system for an autonomous rescue robot. Experiments are conducted in high-fidelity 3D simulation of a rescue environment based on NISTs RoboCup Rescue.

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Tang, Feng, Geng Sheng Rao, Qiang Chen, and Ping Zhang. "Open Robot Control Platform Based on LSOA." Applied Mechanics and Materials 341-342 (July 2013): 719–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.341-342.719.

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Aims to address the restrictions imposed by tranditional robot Control system development approach such as close structure, function immobility, lack of reconfiguration at run time, hard to guarantee. a lightweight service-oriented architectures (LSOA) for robot control system is proposed. The main features of this architecture include central control mode, message-based interaction and configuration system based on embedded database. This architecture provides good supports for runtime reconfiguration, and allows integrating different components with the aid of a configuration system. The experiment indicates that the LSOA approach can improve the flexibility, reconfiguration and agility of the system.

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Ramos-Rivera, Johnatan, Harianto Rahardjo, Daryl Lee Tsen-Tieng, Nong Xuefeng, and Fong Yok King. "Mechanical response of the real tree root architecture under lateral load." Canadian Journal of Forest Research 50, no. 7 (July 2020): 595–607. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/cjfr-2019-0332.

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The impact of climate change on tree stability is often associated with a higher risk of windthrow due to higher frequency and greater magnitude of extreme climatic conditions. Higher lateral loads due to an increase in maximum wind and rainfall reduce tree anchorage because of a decrease in soil matric suction and consequently the overall strength in the system of trunk, root, and soil. This study compared the mechanical response of trees with different root architectures using static loading tests conducted in the field and numerical analysis of laser-scanned root systems. For this case, mature trees of Khaya senegalensis (Desr.) A. Juss., Samanea saman (Jacq.) Merr., and Syzygium grande (Wight) Wight ex Walp. were tested and analyzed. The root system models consisted of root system architectures obtained using 3-D laser scanning. A parametric analysis was conducted by varying the modulus of elasticity of the soil (Es) from 2.5 to 25 MPa, and the results were compared with those of the static loading tests to obtain the overall mechanical responses of the root–soil systems. The results showed important dependencies of the mechanical responses of the root–soil system on the root architecture in withstanding the lateral load. The numerical models also allowed estimation of the effective leeward and windward anchorage zones with different soil elastic moduli and rooting architectures to define the extent of the tree root protection zones.

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Gao, H. J., and H. Q. Yang. "Nitric oxide effect on root architecture development in Malus seedlings." Plant, Soil and Environment 57, No. 9 (August 30, 2011): 418–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.17221/209/2011-pse.

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 The time-dependent production of nitric oxide (NO) in roots induced by indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) and the effect of sodium nitroprusside (SNP) on root architecture development were investigated, using Malus hupehensis Rehd. seedlings. Following IBA application, a very rapid increase in NO formation and a subsequent second wave of NO burst was observed, which was related to the induction of lateral roots (LRs) and the organogenesis of lateral root primordia (LRP), respectively. The first NO burst was correlated with the second and the two peaks of NO burst induced by IBA were totally abolished by 3,3’,4’,5,7-pentahydroxyflavone (quercetin). Exogenous NO promoted the emergence and elongation of LR and inhibited the elongation of primary root (PR) in a dose-dependent manner: low concentrations of SNP promoted both the amounts and the elongation of LR but inhibited the elongation of LR and PR at higher concentrations. It was concluded that (i) the rapid production of NO induced by IBA was correlated with the IBA-induced initiation of LR; (ii) quercetin inhibition of IBA-induced LR formation was correlated with the quercetin inhibition of IBA-induced NO biosynthesis, and (iii) exogenous NO affects the development of root system architecture in a dose-dependent manner.

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Bensaci, Chaima, Youcef Zennir, Denis Pomorski, Fares Innal, and Yiliu Liu. "Distributed vs. Hybrid Control Architecture Using STPA and AHP - Application to an Autonomous Mobile Multi-robot System." International Journal of Safety and Security Engineering 11, no. 1 (February 28, 2021): 1–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.18280/ijsse.110101.

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Systems composed of a fleet of autonomous mobile robots are among the most complex control systems. This control complexity is at a high level especially when those robots navigate in hazardous and dynamic environments such as chemical analysis laboratories. These systems include different dangerous and harmful products (toxic, flammable, explosive...) with different quantity. In order to perform its mission on a regular basis, this multi-robot system can be controlled according to multiple architectures. We propose, firstly, to apply the System Theoretic Process Analysis (STPA) on two selected control architectures, namely distributed and hybrid architectures in order to obtain a set of loss scenarios for each kind of architecture. For further assessment, the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) is used to choose the best architecture. The proposed approach provides a risk analysis and a more practical comparison between the two control architectures of a mobile multi-robot system and facilitates decision-making, even in complex situations.

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Fitter, A. H., and T. R. Stickland. "Fractal Characterization of Root System Architecture." Functional Ecology 6, no. 6 (1992): 632. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2389956.

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Deak, Karen I., and Jocelyn Malamy. "Osmotic regulation of root system architecture." Plant Journal 43, no. 1 (May 16, 2005): 17–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-313x.2005.02425.x.

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Lynch, Jonathan. "1002 ADAPTATION OF BEAN SEEDLINGS TO LOW P AVAILABILITY." HortScience 29, no. 5 (May 1994): 573b—573. http://dx.doi.org/10.21273/hortsci.29.5.573b.

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Low P availability is a primary limitation to plant growth on most native soils. Crop genotypes differ substantially in their ability to grow in low P soils. Understanding the physiological basis for such variation would be useful in developing genotypes with superior P efficiency, which would have utility in low-input systems and might permit more. efficient fertilizer use in high-input systems. In common bean (Phasecolus vulgaris), growth under P stress is reduced because of increased C costs of the root system. Genetic contrasts in P efficiency were not associated with reduced shoot requirement, mycorrhizal associations, chemical interactions with specific soil P pools, or root system size, but were associated with root system architecture. SimRoot, an explicit geometric model of bean root growth, confirmed that architectural traits can influence the relationship of root C costs and P acquisition. Root growth responds dynamically to P stress, through changes in the proliferation of lateral roots and the geotropic response of basal roots. Differences in root architecture arising from these growth responses to P stress may account for genetic differences in P efficiency.

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Truong, Thomas, Anh Dinh, and Khan Wahid. "An Ultra-Wideband Frequency System for Non-Destructive Root Imaging." Sensors 18, no. 8 (July 26, 2018): 2438. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s18082438.

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Understanding the root system architecture of plants as they develop is critical for increasing crop yields through plant phenotyping, and ultra-wideband imaging systems have shown potential as a portable, low-cost solution to non-destructive imaging root system architectures. This paper presents the design, implementation, and analysis of an ultra-wideband imaging system for use in imaging potted plant root system architectures. The proposed system is separated into three main subsystems: a Data Acquisition module, a Data Processing module, and an Image Processing and Analysis module. The Data Acquisition module consists of simulated and experimental implementations of a non-contact synthetic aperture radar system to measure ultra-wideband signal reflections from concealed scattering objects in a pot containing soil. The Data Processing module is responsible for interpreting the measured ultra-wideband signals and producing an image using a delay-and-sum beamforming algorithm. The Image Processing and Analysis module is responsible for improving image quality and measuring root depth and average root diameter in an unsupervised manner. The Image Processing and Analysis module uses a modified top-hat transformation alongside quantization methods based on energy distributions in the image to isolate the surface of the imaged root. Altogether, the proposed subsystems are capable of imaging and measuring concealed taproot system architectures with controlled soil conditions; however, the performance of the system is highly dependent on knowledge of the soil conditions. Smaller roots in difficult imaging conditions require future work into understanding and compensating for unwanted noise. Ultimately, this paper sought to provide insight into improving imaging quality of ultra-wideband (UWB) imaging systems for plant root imaging for other works to be followed.

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Štofko, P., and M. Kodrík. "Comparison of the root system architecture between windthrown and undamaged spruces growing in poorly drained sites." Journal of Forest Science 54, No. 4 (April 29, 2008): 150–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.17221/3101-jfs.

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In the locality Hnilé Blatá (High Tatras Mts.) the parameters of root plates and the number, length and diameter of the individual root branches in windthrows and standing Norway spruces (<I>Picea abies </I>[L.] Karst.) were measured. Individual root branches were classified to 12 diameter classes according to their diameter measured in the middle of the root branch length. Using random sampling, 21 windthrows were selected. In their neighbourhood, another 21 undamaged trees were selected on the basis of their similarity in aboveground parameters and they were uprooted by a tractor winch. We found out significantly higher mean values of the vertical radius, the average width and theoretical surface of root plates in undamaged spruces. Mean values of root branch frequency in the first six diameter classes (up to 6 cm) were higher in undamaged spruces, but mean values of root branch frequency in the last five diameter classes (12.1–30.0 cm) were higher in windthrows. Mean values of the root branch length in the first six diameter classes were higher in undamaged spruces. Similarly, mean values of the total root branch length were higher in the first six diameter classes in undamaged spruces, but the mean values of the total root branch length were higher in the last six diameter classes (9.1–30.0 cm) in windthrows. Keywords: Norway spruce; stability; root system; windthrow

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Majhi, Prasanta Kumar, Sarita Pradhan, Partha Pratim Behera, Ritik Digamber Bisane, and Prashant Kumar Sharma. "Regulation and Expression of Phytohormones for Root Architectural Trait Development in Rice: A Review." International Journal of Environment and Climate Change 13, no. 10 (August 21, 2023): 740–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.9734/ijecc/2023/v13i102711.

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The root system architecture (RSA) in monocotyledonous plants like rice is consists of primary roots, lateral roots, seminal/crown roots, and root hairs. The soil nutrients also influence many physiological processes via various root parameters like root length, root diameter and root angle for growth and development. The variation in root system architecture in rice is influenced by the intrinsic factors (phytohormones, transcription factors) and extrinsic factors (light, temperature and moisture) and their collective effect. The phytohormones such as; auxin, cytokinin, abscisic acid and ethylene, and their mutual effects play vital role for root architectural trait development. Many genes/QTLs were identified in rice which are strong role player for root development. But the biochemical signaling pathways are not completely understood. The modern molecular tools like genome editing, sequencing and multi-omics (transcriptomics and proteomics) approaches and multi-disciplinary system biology studies can provide a better solution for this issue. To improve the sustainable food grain production under extreme environment, it is important to understand the physiological and biochemical mechanism of root development. Moreover, it is imperative to establish a resilient root system in rice cultivation in order to mitigate the overuse of chemical fertilizers, enhance nutrient efficiency, and improve climate resilience of the plant.

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ERMAN, Murat, Fatih ÇIĞ, Figen CERITOGLU, and Mustafa CERITOGLU. "Plant growth promoting bacteria enhances photosynthesis, nodulation and root system architecture in lentil under lead toxicity." Journal of Central European Agriculture 23, no. 3 (2022): 582–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.5513/jcea01/23.3.3577.

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SUN, Si-Min, Bei HAN, Lin CHEN, Wei-Nan SUN, Xian-Long ZHANG, and Xi-Yan YANG. "Root system architecture analysis and genome-wide association study of root system architecture related traits in cotton." Acta Agronomica Sinica 48, no. 5 (May 1, 2022): 1081–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.3724/sp.j.1006.2022.14067.

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González-Santamarta, Miguel Á., Francisco J. Rodríguez-Lera, Claudia Álvarez-Aparicio, Ángel M. Guerrero-Higueras, and Camino Fernández-Llamas. "MERLIN a Cognitive Architecture for Service Robots." Applied Sciences 10, no. 17 (August 29, 2020): 5989. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app10175989.

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Many social robots deployed in public spaces hide hybrid cognitive architectures for dealing with daily tasks. Mostly, two main blocks sustain these hybrid architectures for robot behavior generation: deliberative and behavioral-based mechanisms. Robot Operating System offers different solutions for implementing these blocks, however, some issues arise when both are released in the robot. This paper presents a software engineering approach for normalizing the process of integrating them and presenting them as a fully cognitive architecture named MERLIN. Providing implementation details and diagrams for established the architecture, this research tests empirically the proposed solution using a variation from the challenge defined in the SciRoc @home competition. The results validate the usability of our approach and show MERLIN as a hybrid architecture ready for short and long-term tasks, showing better results than using a by default approach, particularly when it is deployed in highly interactive scenarios.

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Krystyna, Zarzyńska, Boguszewska-Mańkowska Dominika, and Nosalewicz Artur. "Differences in size and architecture of the potato cultivars root system and their tolerance to drought stress." Plant, Soil and Environment 63, No. 4 (April 25, 2017): 159–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.17221/4/2017-pse.

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Drought can cause substantial yield losses, particularly for crops with shallow root systems, such as potato (Solanum tuberosum). This study tested whether root system architecture could affect potato yield under drought conditions. The following parameters of the roots were measured: depth range, total length, total area, surface area, average diameter, and total dry weight of the root system. These parameters in soil layers were also measured at different depths. Five potato cultivars from a group of mid-early cultivars were examined in this study. The same cultivars were tested under two conditions: control with optimal irrigation and drought stress treatment without irrigation for three weeks after the end of tuberization to check the tuber yield. Significant differences were observed among cultivars in the size of the root system and its architecture. The biggest differences in the individual layers of soil profile related to the diameter of the root, the root length, and the surface area. Also a relationship between the size of the root system and yield of tubers was found. The strongest correlations involved the root length and the root surface area with the decrease in tuber yield under the drought, then the dry root mass with the decrease in yield. These correlations were negative: the higher the value of the parameter, the smaller the observed decrease in yield. This showed a relationship between root length and mass with the decrease of yield; this relationship was stronger for roots in deeper layers than in the shallowest layers. Therefore, this study indicates that breeding potato cultivars with deep root systems might improve tuber yields under drought conditions.

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Lesmes-Vesga, Ricardo A., Liliana M. Cano, Mark A. Ritenour, Ali Sarkhosh, José X. Chaparro, and Lorenzo Rossi. "Rhizoboxes as Rapid Tools for the Study of Root Systems of Prunus Seedlings." Plants 11, no. 16 (August 9, 2022): 2081. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/plants11162081.

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Rootstocks are fundamental for peach production, and their architectural root traits determine their performance. Root-system architecture (RSA) analysis is one of the key factors involved in rootstock selection. However, there are few RSA studies on Prunus spp., mostly due to the tedious and time-consuming labor of measuring below-ground roots. A root-phenotyping experiment was developed to analyze the RSA of seedlings from ‘Okinawa’ and ‘Guardian’™ peach rootstocks. The seedlings were established in rhizoboxes and their root systems scanned and architecturally analyzed. The root-system depth:width ratio (D:W) throughout the experiment, as well as the root morphological parameters, the depth rooting parameters, and the root angular spread were estimated. The ‘Okinawa’ exhibited greater root morphological traits, as well as the other parameters, confirming the relevance of the spatial disposition and growth pattern of the root system.

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Saleem, Muhammad, Audrey D. Law, Mohammad Radhi Sahib, Zahida H. Pervaiz, and Qingming Zhang. "Impact of root system architecture on rhizosphere and root microbiome." Rhizosphere 6 (June 2018): 47–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rhisph.2018.02.003.

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Iqbal, Muhammad, Bhakti Yudho Suprapto, Hera Hikmarika, Hermawati Hermawati, and Suci Dwijayanti. "Design of Real-Time Face Recognition and Emotion Recognition on Humanoid Robot Using Deep Learning." Jurnal Ecotipe (Electronic, Control, Telecommunication, Information, and Power Engineering) 9, no. 2 (October 6, 2022): 149–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.33019/jurnalecotipe.v9i2.3044.

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A robot is capable of mimicking human beings, including recognizing their faces and emotions. However, current studies of the humanoid robot have not been implemented in the real-time system. In addition, face recognition and emotion recognition have been treated as separate problems. Thus, for real-time application on a humanoid robot, this study proposed a combination of face recognition and emotion recognition. Face and emotion recognition systems were developed concurrently in this study using convolutional neural network architectures. The proposed architecture was compared to the well-known architecture, AlexNet, to determine which architecture would be better suited for implementation on a humanoid robot. Primary data from 30 respondents was used for face recognition. Meanwhile, emotional data were collected from the same respondents and combined with secondary data from a 2500-person dataset. Surprise, anger, neutral, smile, and sadness were among the emotions. The experiment was carried out in real-time on a humanoid robot using the two architectures. Using the AlexNet model, the accuracy of face and emotion recognition was 87 % and 70 %, respectively. Meanwhile, the proposed architecture achieved accuracy rates of 95 % for face recognition and 75 % for emotion recognition, respectively. Thus, the proposed method performs better in terms of recognizing faces and emotions, and it can be implemented on a humanoid robot.

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TZAFESTAS, ELPIDA S., SPYROS N. RAPTIS, and SPYROS G. TZAFESTAS. "MULTI-AGENT ROBOT ARCHITECTURES: THE DECOMPOSITION ISSUE AND A CASE STUDY." International Journal on Artificial Intelligence Tools 07, no. 02 (June 1998): 163–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s021821309800010x.

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In this paper, some fundamental issues of modern multi-agent robot architectures are discussed. It is argued that the multi-agent approach provides the necessary flexibility and adaptivity for such architectures, and that the primary issue in designing a multi-agent robot architecture is the selection of the granularity level, i.e., the decision on decomposing the overall desired functionality physically or across tasks. It is explained why at the various system levels different decomposition grains are needed; physical components, tasks or hybrid. This granularity decision is made on the basis of specific criteria of control localization, knowledge decoupling and interaction minimization so as to identify the decision points of the overall functionality. The above criteria lead to a dual composition-decomposition relation, which provides a good basis for system scaling. The paper specializes the discussion to a proposed neuro-fuzzy multi-agent architecture, which is then applied to design the local path planning system of an indoor mobile robot.

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Douglas, D. A. "Clonal architecture of Salix setchelliana (gravel bar willow) in Alaska." Canadian Journal of Botany 69, no. 3 (March 1, 1991): 590–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/b91-080.

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Clones of Salix setchelliana were excavated to describe the architecture of this prostrate clonal species and to determine if there are architectural parameters or clonal growth forms that vary with clonal age. The species' gravel-bar habitat, a mosaic of previous river channels, is unpredictable in time and variable in space. Clones are composed of vertical shoots connected by horizontal roots. Because clones expand by peripheral growth of their root systems, the six studied clones could be placed in order of apparent increasing age, primarily on the basis of size. Substrate was removed by hand and the horizontal root systems mapped. Data on shoots, root branch angles, and root peripheral growing points were recorded. Several density parameters were calculated and examined for trends along the sequence of apparent increasing clonal age. Most measures of shoot density increased along this sequence, as did horizontal root system density and the linear density of horizontal root system branching points. Clones appear to change in time from a "guerrilla" growth form of environmental exploration to more of a "battalion" growth form with increased branching of the underground system. Key words: willow, clonal, architecture, Alaska, Salix.

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Osmont, Karen S., Richard Sibout, and Christian S. Hardtke. "Hidden Branches: Developments in Root System Architecture." Annual Review of Plant Biology 58, no. 1 (June 2007): 93–113. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.arplant.58.032806.104006.

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Lavenus, Julien, Soazig Guyomarc’h, and Laurent Laplaze. "PIN Transcriptional Regulation Shapes Root System Architecture." Trends in Plant Science 21, no. 3 (March 2016): 175–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tplants.2016.01.011.

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Hochholdinger, Frank. "Untapping root system architecture for crop improvement." Journal of Experimental Botany 67, no. 15 (August 2016): 4431–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jxb/erw262.

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Mattupalli, Chakradhar, Anand Seethepalli, Larry M. York, and Carolyn A. Young. "Digital Imaging to Evaluate Root System Architectural Changes Associated with Soil Biotic Factors." Phytobiomes Journal 3, no. 2 (January 2019): 102–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/pbiomes-12-18-0062-r.

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Root system architecture is critical for plant growth, which is influenced by several edaphic, environmental, genetic, and biotic factors including beneficial and pathogenic microbes. Studying root system architecture and the dynamic changes that occur during a plant’s lifespan, especially for perennial crops growing over multiple growing seasons, is still a challenge because of the nature of their growing environment. We describe the utility of an imaging platform called RhizoVision Crown to study root system architecture of alfalfa, a perennial forage crop threatened by Phymatotrichopsis root rot (PRR) disease. Phymatotrichopsis omnivora is the causal agent of PRR disease that reduces alfalfa stand longevity. During the lifetime of the stand, PRR disease rings enlarge and the field can be categorized into three zones based upon plant status: asymptomatic, disease front and survivor. To study root system architectural changes associated with PRR, a 4-year-old 25.6-ha alfalfa stand infested with PRR was selected at the Red River Farm, Burneyville, OK during October 2017. Line transect sampling was conducted from four actively growing PRR disease rings. At each disease ring, six line transects were positioned spanning 15 m on either side of the disease front with one alfalfa root crown sampled at every 3 m interval. Each alfalfa root crown was imaged with the RhizoVision Crown platform using a backlight and a high-resolution monochrome CMOS camera enabling preservation of the natural root system integrity. The platform’s image analysis software, RhizoVision Analyzer, automatically segmented images, skeletonized, and extracted a suite of features. Data indicated that the survivor plants compensated for damage or loss to the taproot through the development of more lateral and crown roots, and that a suite of multivariate features could be used to automatically classify roots as from survivor or asymptomatic zones. Root growth is a dynamic process adapting to ever changing interactions among various phytobiome components. By utilizing the low-cost, efficient, and high-throughput RhizoVision Crown platform, we quantified these changes in a mature perennial forage crop.

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Zulfiqar, Alveena, Beenish Jehan Azhar, Aroosa Zeb, Asyia Zeenat, Sitwat Aman, Scott A. Heckerthorn, and Samina N. Shakeel. "Screening of Rice Varieties based on Remodeling of Root Architecture Linked to Enhanced Phosphorus Transporters and Ethylene Signaling for Better Phosphorous Acquisition under Limiting Conditions." Sains Malaysiana 50, no. 6 (June 30, 2021): 1621–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.17576/jsm-2021-5006-10.

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Root architectural modifications in response to altered nutrient level can be used as selection marker for better adapted rice varieties. In this study, we screened six local rice varieties commonly grown in Pakistan, using their unique root architecture and several molecular markers to identify best adapted local variety under phosphorus limiting conditions. Our data showed that rice variety with significant changes in its three-dimensional root architecture system (RSA) and enhanced expression of phosphorus transporters (OsPT2, OsPT4 and OsPT6) is the best variety to handle stress as compared to other varieties. Along with development of screening strategy/method, our data provided evidence that phosphorus starvation leads to upregulation of stress hormone ethylene, which regulates root elongation and root hair development therefore facilitating root architecture modification. We then further checked, how to mitigate or enhance phosphorus starvation responses by application of hormones exogenously, our results showed that ethylene application/treatment enhances phosphorus starvation responses, whereas cytokinin on the other hand reverses deficiency effects which implicates hormonal cross talk is key to modulate P-deficiency responses in rice. This study provides an easy and quick method of analysis of root architecture as physiological marker for rice screening and improve crop yield by selecting best adapted variety for P deficient soils. In future, detail study for understanding phytohormone mediated transcriptomic changes in response to nutrient deficiency and in correlation with physiological response will help to select better adapted varieties that will eventually result in increase of rice yield.

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Rao, Shiwangni, Roger Armstrong, Viridiana Silva-Perez, Abeya T. Tefera, and Garry M. Rosewarne. "Pulse Root Ideotype for Water Stress in Temperate Cropping System." Plants 10, no. 4 (April 3, 2021): 692. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/plants10040692.

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Pulses are a key component of crop production systems in Southern Australia due to their rotational benefits and potential profit margins. However, cultivation in temperate cropping systems such as that of Southern Australia is limited by low soil water availability and subsoil constraints. This limitation of soil water is compounded by the irregular rainfall, resulting in the absence of plant available water at depth. An increase in the productivity of key pulses and expansion into environments and soil types traditionally considered marginal for their growth will require improved use of the limited soil water and adaptation to sub soil constrains. Roots serve as the interface between soil constraints and the whole plant. Changes in root system architecture (RSA) can be utilised as an adaptive strategy in achieving yield potential under limited rainfall, heterogenous distribution of resources and other soil-based constraints. The existing literature has identified a “‘Steep, Deep and Cheap” root ideotype as a preferred RSA. However, this idiotype is not efficient in a temperate system where plant available water is limited at depth. In addition, this root ideotype and other root architectural studies have focused on cereal crops, which have different structures and growth patterns to pulses due to their monocotyledonous nature and determinant growth habit. The paucity of pulse-specific root architectural studies warrants further investigations into pulse RSA, which should be combined with an examination of the existing variability of known genetic traits so as to develop strategies to alleviate production constraints through either tolerance or avoidance mechanisms. This review proposes a new model of root system architecture of “Wide, Shallow and Fine” roots based on pulse roots in temperate cropping systems. The proposed ideotype has, in addition to other root traits, a root density concentrated in the upper soil layers to capture in-season rainfall before it is lost due to evaporation. The review highlights the potential to achieve this in key pulse crops including chickpea, lentil, faba bean, field pea and lupin. Where possible, comparisons to determinate crops such as cereals have also been made. The review identifies the key root traits that have shown a degree of adaptation via tolerance or avoidance to water stress and documents the current known variability that exists in and amongst pulse crops setting priorities for future research.

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Lobet, Guillaume, Michael P. Pound, Julien Diener, Christophe Pradal, Xavier Draye, Christophe Godin, Mathieu Javaux, et al. "Root System Markup Language: Toward a Unified Root Architecture Description Language." Plant Physiology 167, no. 3 (January 22, 2015): 617–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1104/pp.114.253625.

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Wang, Jun-bang, Xiu-juan Zhang, and Chu Wu. "Advances in experimental methods for root system architecture and root development." Journal of Forestry Research 26, no. 1 (January 15, 2015): 23–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11676-015-0017-0.

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Lee, Joo-Ho, Noriaki Ando, and Hideki Hashimoto. "Mobile Robot Architecture in Intelligent Space." Journal of Robotics and Mechatronics 11, no. 2 (April 20, 1999): 165–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.20965/jrm.1999.p0165.

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We propose a concept for constructing an intelligent mobile system, stating why a new mobile architecture is needed in intelligent space. Intelligent space is expected to be an authentic future environment. Intelligent space is a room or area with sensors, a network, and computers. If the environment gets intelligence, it is no long a distinct part of an intelligent mobile system and the mobile system becomes a physical agent of intelligent space. Our experiments show what is possible for a mobile robot in intelligent space.

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Yang, Shuo, Xinjun Mao, Sen Yang, and Zhe Liu. "Towards a hybrid software architecture and multi-agent approach for autonomous robot software." International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems 14, no. 4 (July 1, 2017): 172988141771608. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1729881417716088.

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To support robust plan execution of autonomous robots in dynamic environments, autonomous robot software should include adaptive and reactive capabilities to cope with the dynamics and uncertainties of the evolving states of real-world environments. However, conventional software architectures such as sense-model-plan-act and behaviour-based paradigms are inadequate for meeting the requirements. A lack of sensing during acting in the sense-model-plan-act paradigm makes the software slow to react to run-time contingencies, whereas the behaviour-based architectures typically fall short in planning of long-range steps and making optimized plan adaptations. This article proposes a hybrid software architecture that maintains both adaptivity and reactivity of robot behaviours in dynamic environments. To implement this architecture, we further present the multi-agent development framework known as AutoRobot, which views the robot software as a multi-agent system in which diverse agent roles collaborate to achieve software functionalities. To demonstrate the applicability and validity of our concrete framework and software architecture, we conduct an experiment to implement a typical case, for example, a robot that autonomously picks up and drops off dishes for remote guests, which requires the robot to plan and navigate in a highly dynamic environment and can adapt its behaviours to unexpected situations.

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Zhu, Jinming, Shawn M. Kaeppler, and Jonathan P. Lynch. "Topsoil foraging and phosphorus acquisition efficiency in maize (Zea mays)." Functional Plant Biology 32, no. 8 (2005): 749. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/fp05005.

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In soybean and common bean, enhanced topsoil foraging permitted by shallow root architectures is advantageous for phosphorus acquisition from stratified soils. The importance of this phenomenon in graminaceous crops, which have different root architecture and morphology from legumes, is unclear. In this study we evaluated the importance of shallow roots for phosphorus acquisition in maize (Zea mays L.). In a field study, maize genotypes with shallower roots had greater growth in low phosphorus soil than deep-rooted genotypes. For physiological analysis, four maize genotypes differing in root shallowness in the field were grown in solid media with stratified phosphorus availability in a controlled environment. Of the four genotypes, one shallow and one deep genotype were also inoculated with arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM). Shallower genotypes had significantly greater growth and phosphorus accumulation compared with deeper genotypes at low phosphorus availability. Mycorrhizal colonisation altered root shallowness under low phosphorus conditions, increasing shallowness substantially in a deep-rooted genotype but slightly decreasing shallowness in a shallow-rooted genotype. Mycorrhizal colonisation increased phosphorus acquisition under low phosphorus availability. Respiration costs of roots and shoots of phosphorus-efficient genotypes were significantly lower under low phosphorus conditions compared with inefficient genotypes. The physiological efficiency of phosphorus acquisition, expressed as root respiration per unit of phosphorus acquisition, was greater in shallow rooted genotypes. Our results demonstrate that genetic variation for root shallowness exists in maize, that phosphorus and AM can modulate root shallowness independently, and that a shallower root system is beneficial for plant performance in maize at low phosphorus availability. We propose that root architectural traits that enhance topsoil foraging are important traits for improved phosphorus acquisition efficiency of annual grain crops such as maize in addition to legumes.

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Danjon, Frédéric, Hayfa Khuder, and Alexia Stokes. "Deep Phenotyping of Coarse Root Architecture in R. pseudoacacia Reveals That Tree Root System Plasticity Is Confined within Its Architectural Model." PLoS ONE 8, no. 12 (December 27, 2013): e83548. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0083548.

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Wen, Tiancheng. "Research on Architecture Design of Mobile Video Surveillance System in Information Room Based on Intelligent Robot Technology." Wireless Communications and Mobile Computing 2022 (September 10, 2022): 1–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2022/6479000.

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With the gradual development of information technology, the idea of combining mobile robot and wireless remote control technology is adopted to build a wireless network platform between a computer and robot. At present, there are conditions to realize this idea. In this idea, the wireless data transmission can be realized on the platform. Users can remotely control and access the monitoring system of the computer room and set up alarm systems and detectors, so as to monitor the working conditions of the robot at the computer terminal, truly realize the man-machine coordination, and ensure that the robot can complete the specified tasks well in various complex environments. This research first deeply analyzes the current development status and existing problems of the information room monitoring technology and then puts forward the mobile video monitoring system architecture of the information room based on the intelligent robot monitoring technology. The system architecture integrates computer technology, network technology, and control technology. With the continuous updating of technology, video surveillance has also entered the mobile era. Combined with the timely monitoring video acquisition system of mobile robots, it solves the current working environment for many industries and enterprises. Using robot chassis technology, it designs the corresponding bottom hardware control and upper equipment to achieve data acquisition with related equipment. The mobile video surveillance system solves the problems encountered by the traditional video surveillance system and can monitor video images through remote operation and centrally monitors the operation status of the equipment in the room and the environmental status of the room, which is more conducive to improving the management efficiency. It provides a new idea to ensure the safe and stable operation of various equipment and systems in various places.

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Day, Susan, P. Eric Wiseman, Sarah Dickinson, and J. Roger Harris. "Contemporary Concepts of Root System Architecture of Urban Trees." Arboriculture & Urban Forestry 36, no. 4 (July 1, 2010): 149–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.48044/jauf.2010.020.

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Knowledge of the extent and distribution of tree root systems is essential for managing trees in the built environment. Despite recent advances in root detection tools, published research on tree root architecture in urban settings has been limited and only partially synthesized. Root growth patterns of urban trees may differ considerably from similar species in forested or agricultural environments. This paper reviews literature documenting tree root growth in urban settings as well as literature addressing root architecture in nonurban settings that may contribute to present understanding of tree roots in built environments. Although tree species may have the genetic potential for generating deep root systems (>2 m), rooting depth in urban situations is frequently restricted by impenetrable or inhospitable soil layers or by underground infrastructure. Lateral root extent is likewise subject to restriction by dense soils under hardscape or by absence of irrigation in dry areas. By combining results of numerous studies, the authors of this paper estimated the radius of an unrestricted root system initially increases at a rate of approximately 38 to 1, compared to trunk diameter; however, this ratio likely considerably declines as trees mature. Roots are often irregularly distributed around the tree and may be influenced by cardinal direction, terrain, tree lean, or obstacles in the built environment. Buttress roots, tap roots, and other root types are also discussed.

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Journal articles on the topic 'Root sytem architecture'

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