Journal articles on the topic 'Robert Karasek'

Objetivo. Evaluar el apoyo social del profesorado percibido por estudiantes de enfermería durante su servicio social profesional. Método. Estudio observacional, trasversal, descriptivo, correlacional, analítico. Muestra constituida por el 100% de la población en estudio, 63 estudiantes. Instrumento: cuestionario sobre el contenido del trabajo de Karasek. Para el análisis descriptivo se calculó la media y la desviación estándar de las variables numéricas apoyo social, control laboral, demandas psicológicas y estrés laboral; la correlación bivariada se llevó a cabo mediante la técnica de Pearson; el análisis del modelo de ecuaciones estructurales se realizó mediante el método de máxima verosimilitud. Resultados. En promedio se registraron niveles altos de apoyo social, niveles altos de control laboral, niveles moderados de demandas psicológicas y niveles moderados de estrés laboral. La correlación bivariada demuestra que a mayor apoyo social del profesorado menor es el estrés laboral de los estudiantes de enfermería durante su servicio social. En el modelo de ecuaciones estructurales se analizó la relación entre el apoyo social y el control laboral, los índices de ajuste del modelo fueron aceptables. Conclusiones. Se aceptó la hipótesis de estudio establecida mediante el modelo conceptual: el apoyo social del profesorado es un factor antecedente al control laboral de los estudiantes de enfermería que realizan servicio social, variable con valencia positiva del cuestionario de contenido del trabajo de Robert Karasek.

A cross-sectional study to assess job strain and its associated factors among lecturers of the School of Medical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) and Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM) was undertaken between August 2001 and May 2002. The original English version of the Job Content Questionnaire (JCQ) version 1.7 (revised 1997) by Robert Karasek based on the Job Strain Model was self-administered to 73 (response rate 58.4%) and 80 (response rate 41.7%) lecturers in the medical faculties of USM and UKM respectively. The prevalence of job strain (defined by low decision latitude and high psychological demand) in USM and UKM was 23.3% and 17.5%, respectively; the difference was not significant ( p ≥ 0.05). Analysis showed that the associated factors of job strain in USM lecturers were psychological stressors (adjusted OR 1.2, 95% CI: 1.0, 1.4), created skill (adjusted OR 0.4, 95% CI: 0.2, 0.8), working in clinical-based departments (adjusted OR 18.9, 95% CI:1.6, 22.7). The risk factors of job strain in UKM lecturers were created skill (adjusted OR 0.3, 95% CI: 0.1, 0.9), psychological stressors (adjusted OR 1.2, 95% CI: 1.0,1.5) and co-worker support (adjusted OR 0.3, 95% CI: 0.1, 0.9). We conclude psychological stressors and created skill were non-protective and protective, respectively, against job strain in both USM and UKM lecturers. Asia Pac JPublic Health 2004; 16(1): 32- 40.

Artiklen gennemgår forskningslitteraturen om sammenhængen mellem medarbejderdeltagelse og -indflydelse og arbejdsmiljø. Hovedparten af litteraturen peger i retning af en positiv sammenhæng, således som det også er 'kanoniseret' i Robert Karaseks indfl ydelsesrige krav-kontrol model. Samtidig synes nyere forskning i psykosociale arbejdsmiljøproblemer at stille spørgsmålstegn ved modellens antagelse om, at høj jobkontrol kan kompensere for høje krav i arbejdet. Artiklen diskuterer, hvilke forhold og forandringer der kan være årsager til, at en høj grad af medarbejderdeltagelse og -indflydelse ikke længere nødvendigvis sikrer et godt arbejdsmiljø; ligeledes rejser den en række spørgsmål til den fremtidige forskning på området1.

Journal of Education and Training Studies (JETS) would like to acknowledge the following reviewers for their assistance with peer review of manuscripts for this issue. Many authors, regardless of whether JETS publishes their work, appreciate the helpful feedback provided by the reviewers. Their comments and suggestions were of great help to the authors in improving the quality of their papers. Each of the reviewers listed below returned at least one review for this issue.Reviewers for Volume 6, Number 6 Brenda L. Shook, National University, USACagla Atmaca, Pamukkale University, TurkeyChris Prince Udochukwu Njoku, University of Nigeria, NigeriaErica D. Shifflet-Chila, Michigan State University, USAErkut Tutkun, Uludağ University, TurkeyFahrettin Sanal, Necmettin Erbakan University, TurkeyIntakhab Khan, King Abdulaziz University, Saudi ArabiaJohn Bosco Azigwe, Bolgatanga Polytechnic, GhanaKun-Hsi Liao, Taiwan Shoufu University, TaiwanMeral Seker, Alanya Alaaddin Keykubat University, TurkeyMin Gui, Wuhan University, ChinaOzgur Demirtas, Inonu University, TurkeyOzkan Kırmızı-Karabuk University, TurkeyRichard H. Martin, Mercer University, USASandro Sehic, Oneida BOCES, USAŞerife Vatansever, Uludağ University, TurkeyStamatis Papadakis, University of Crete, GreeceYeliz Doğru, İzmir Katip Çelebi University, Turkey Robert SmithEditorial AssistantOn behalf of,The Editorial Board of Journal of Education and Training StudiesRedfame Publishing9450 SW Gemini Dr. #99416Beaverton, OR 97008, USAURL: http://jets.redfame.com

Journal of Education and Training Studies (JETS) would like to acknowledge the following reviewers for their assistance with peer review of manuscripts for this issue. Many authors, regardless of whether JETS publishes their work, appreciate the helpful feedback provided by the reviewers. Their comments and suggestions were of great help to the authors in improving the quality of their papers. Each of the reviewers listed below returned at least one review for this issue.Reviewers for Volume 7, Number 2Arlene Kent-Wilkinson, University of Saskatchewan, CanadaBenmarrakchi Fatimaezzahra, Chouaib Doukkali University, MoroccoCarmen Pérez-Sabater, Universitat Poltècnica de València, SpainEkrem Levent İlhan, University of Gazi, TurkeyErman Öncü, Karadeniz Technical University, TurkeyFatma Ozudogru, Usak University, TurkeyHanifi Parlar, İstanbul Commerce University, TurkeyHelena Reis, Polytechnic Institute of Leiria, PortugalHüseyin Gümüş, University of Mersin, Turkeyİbrahim Yaşar Kazu, Firat University, TurkeyIntakhab Khan, King Abdulaziz University, Saudi ArabiaJohn Bosco Azigwe, Bolgatanga Polytechnic, GhanaJohn Cowan, Edinburgh Napier University, UKJon S. Turner, Missouri State University, USAJonathan Chitiyo, University of Pittsburgh Bradford, USALorna T. Enerva, Polytechnic University of the Philippines, PhilippinesMaria Pavlis Korres, Hellenic Open University, GreeceMary Sciaraffa, Eastern Kentucky University, USAMassimiliano Barattucci, Ecampus University, ItalyMichael Wall, Independent Researcher in Music and Music Education, USARamazan Cansoy, Karabük University, TurkeyRichard Penny, University of Washington Bothell, USASadia Batool, Preston University Islamabad, PakistanSamson Chama, Alabama A & M University, USASandro Sehic, Oneida BOCES, USASenem Seda Şahenk Erkan, Marmara University, TurkeyShu-wen Lin, Sojo University, JapanStamatis Papadakis, University of Crete, Greece Robert SmithEditorial AssistantOn behalf of,The Editorial Board of Journal of Education and Training StudiesRedfame Publishing9450 SW Gemini Dr. #99416Beaverton, OR 97008, USAURL: http://jets.redfame.com

Journal of Education and Training Studies (JETS) would like to acknowledge the following reviewers for their assistance with peer review of manuscripts for this issue. Many authors, regardless of whether JETS publishes their work, appreciate the helpful feedback provided by the reviewers. Their comments and suggestions were of great help to the authors in improving the quality of their papers. Each of the reviewers listed below returned at least one review for this issue. Reviewers for Volume 6, Number 9Ajda Şenol Sakin, Uludag Univesity, TurkeyAvni Yildiz, Bülent Ecevit University, TurkeyBünyamin Aydin, Alaaddin Keykubat Üniversity, TurkeyChosang Tendhar, Long Island University (LIU), USAEmel Funda Türkmen, Afyon Kocatepe Univesity, TurkeyEmel Funda Türkmen, Afyon Kocatepe Univesity, TurkeyEsin Sahin Pekmez, Agean University, TurkeyGözde Ersöz, Namık Kemal University, TurkeyGülsüm Yuca, Aksaray University, TurkeyIntakhab Khan, King Abdulaziz University, Saudi ArabiaIoannis Syrmpas, University of Thessaly, GreeceJeyavel Sundaramoorthy, Gulbarga University Campus, IndiaJohn Bosco Azigwe, Bolgatanga Polytechnic, GhanaJon S. Turner, Missouri State University, USAKatya De Giovanni, University of Malta, MaltaKerim Gündogdu, Adnan Menderes University, TurkeyKerim Sözbir, Abant İzzet Baysal University, TurkeyMassimiliano Barattucci, Ecampus University, ItalyMehmet Aydin, Dicle University, TurkeyMehmet Inan, Marmara University, TurkeyMichail Kalogiannakis, University of Crete, GreeceMurat Taş, Manisa Celalbayar University, TurkeyNevzat Dinçer, University of Batman, TurkeyÖnder Şemşek, Abant İzzet Baysal University, TurkeyOzgur Demirtas, Inonu University, TurkeyOzkan Kırmızı, Karabuk University, TurkeySenem Seda Şahenk Erkan, Marmara University, TurkeySerdal Baltaci, Ahi Evran University, TurkeyŞirin Akbulut Demirci, Uludag Univesity, TurkeyTorok Marianna, University of Massachusetts Boston, USAYerlan Seisenbekov, Kazakh National Pedagogical University, Kazakhstan Robert SmithEditorial AssistantOn behalf of,The Editorial Board of Journal of Education and Training StudiesRedfame Publishing9450 SW Gemini Dr. #99416Beaverton, OR 97008, USAURL: http://jets.redfame.com

Journal of Education and Training Studies (JETS) would like to acknowledge the following reviewers for their assistance with peer review of manuscripts for this issue. Many authors, regardless of whether JETS publishes their work, appreciate the helpful feedback provided by the reviewers. Their comments and suggestions were of great help to the authors in improving the quality of their papers. Each of the reviewers listed below returned at least one review for this issue. Reviewers for Volume 6, Number 10Ahmet Hakan Hancer, TurkeyAhmet Turan Orhan, TurkeyAngelina Sánchez, Martí, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, SpainBerfin Serdil Örs, Adnan Menderes University, TurkeyBurcu GÜVENDİ, TurkeyCagla Atmaca, Pamukkale University, TurkeyCarmen Pérez-Sabater, Universitat Poltècnica de València, SpainEbru Çetin,Gazi University, TurkeyEbru Kilic Cakmak, TurkeyEnisa Mede, Bahcesehir University, TurkeyFroilan D. Mobo, Philippine Merchant Marine Academy, PhilippineHanifi Üzüm, Abant İzzet Baysal Universty, TurkeyHulya Yumru, Istanbul Aydın University, Turkeyİbrahim Yaşar Kazu, Firat University, Turkeyİlknur Özal Göncü, Gazi University, TurkeyIntakhab Khan, King Abdulaziz University, Saudi ArabiaJohn Bosco Azigwe, Bolgatanga Polytechnic, GhanaJohn Cowan, Edinburgh Napier University, UKJohn Jongho Park, University of Michigan, USAJon S. Turner, Missouri State University, USAJulide Inozu, Adana Cukurova University, TurkeyKadir Yıldız, Manisa Celal Bayar Universty, TurkeyKadir Yıldız, TurkeyKatya De Giovanni, University of Malta, MaltaLaura Bruno, The College of New Jersey, USALinda J. Rappel, Yorkville University/University of Calgary, CanadaMarcie Zaharee, The MITRE Corporation, USAMehmet Inan, Marmara University, TurkeyMeral Seker, Alanya Alaaddin Keykubat University, TurkeyMert Aydoğmuş, Karabuk University, TurkeyMutar Taş, TurkeyNevzat Demirci, Mersin University, TurkeyÖzkan Işık, Sakarya University, TurkeyPhil Sirinides, University of Pennsylvania, USASandro Sehic, Oneida BOCES, USAŞengül Atasoy, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan Universty, TurkeySimona Savelli, Università degli Studi Guglielmo Marconi, ItalySüleyman Gönülateş, Pamukkale University, TurkeyVeronica Rosa, University Rome, ItalyYalçın Dilekli, Aksaray University, Turkey Robert SmithEditorial AssistantOn behalf of,The Editorial Board of Journal of Education and Training StudiesRedfame Publishing9450 SW Gemini Dr. #99416Beaverton, OR 97008, USAURL: http://jets.redfame.com

Socioteknikken har siden 1950'erne dannet rammen om en reformbevægelse med henblik på at skabe 'det gode arbejde'. En reformbevægelse som betoner vigtigheden af og muligheden for at udvikle et arbejdsliv der skaber både produktivitet og trivsel. Dette temanummer beskæftiger sig med nye udviklinger indenfor socioteknikken. S ocioteknikken har gennemgået en lang udviklingsproces siden 1950'erne. Det oprindelige fokus var som navnet antyder, at skabe et godt samspil mellem virksomhedens sociale og tekniske system. Men i Nor-den fik især Thorsrud og Emerys jobpsykologiske krav-som blandt andet vægter udvikling, indflydelse, mening og læring i arbejdet-stor indflydelse på det skandinaviske arbejdslivs udvikling. De dannede grundlaget for nye forestillinger om design af både jobs og organisationer. Denne forståelse var også et af de vigtigste grundlag for Karaseks Krav-Kontrol model, som siden 1980'erne har dannet den forståelsesmæssige ramme for arbejdet for at forbedre det psykiske arbejdsmiljø (se også Hvidet al. 2010; Hasle og Sørensen 2013). Disse krav udgjorde også et vigtigt grundlag for nye paragdigmer for arbejdet formuleret først som 'det gode arbejde' (Hvid 1991) og efterfølgende som 'det udviklende arbejde' (Hvid & Møller 1998). I de senere år er der gjort mange bestræbelser på teoretisk at forny socio-teknikken og Krav-Kontrol modellen. Dette må ses i lyset af udviklingen i det moderne arbejde, hvor de sociale relationer i høj grad er under opbrud og samtidig kommer til at betyde stadig mere for udførelsen af arbejdet. For eksempel ledes der i højere grad igennem selvledelse og selvansvarliggørelse, ligesom der med øget kundeorientering, virtualisering og nedbrydning af virksomhedens grænser ses en udvikling mod mere komplekse sociale relationer, hvor den enkelte i stadig højere grad skal udøve sit arbejde gennem relationer med andre mennesker, og i stadig mindre grad kan nøjes med blot at udføre de opgaver som bliver tildelt af ledelsen. Det har blandt andet resulteret i et øget fokus på betydningen af sociale relationer på arbejdspladsen for arbejdsmiljø, trivsel og opgaveløsning. Det kommer fx til udtryk i nye koncepter såsom social kapital og relationel koordinering (Kristensen et al. 2013; Hasle et al. 2010; Olesen et al. 2008; Gittel 2009). Men også i forskellige forsøg på at videreudvikle Krav-Kontrol modellen så den i højere grad inddrager de sociale relationer i arbejdet (se fx Hvid 2010). De to begreber har forskellige rødder og udspringer af forskellige erkendelsesinteresser. Mens social kapital primært henter inspiration fra Robert Putnams ideer om fælles normer og sociale netværk som en ressource på (lokal)samfundsniveau, er Jody Gitells begreb om relationel koordinering ud-

Abstract Background: The adaptive immune system plays an important role in tumor evolution. A key source of cytotoxic T cell response in cancer is neoantigens, cancer cell specific mutations that result in mutant peptides that elicit a T cell mediated immune response. However, a mutation can only engender a neoantigen if the associated mutant peptide is presented to T cells by HLA molecules, and, as such, transcriptional repression or loss of the HLA genes can have important implications for immune evasion. Methods: We elucidate allele specific genomic and transcriptomic disruption to class I and II HLA genes. In whole exome sequencing (WES) data, our new tool (LOHHLA2.0) assesses loss of heterozygosity (LOH) status and somatic mutations. In RNA sequencing (RNAseq) data, LOHHLA2.0 quantifies allele specific expression and transcriptional repression referencing matched tumor adjacent normal samples. We applied LOHHLA2.0 to the TRACERx421 dataset, including 1554 WES tumor regions from 421 patients and 941 RNAseq regions from 357 tumor patients, 96 of which also had RNAseq from tumor adjacent normal samples. Results: We find that our method is more accurate than existing tools (RSEM) at calling gene level expression, e.g. in HLA-DPB1, RSEM under-calls HLA expression by a factor of two. 36% of TRACERx421 primary tumors harbored HLA LOH of at least one class I HLA gene, validating our previous findings in the TRACERx100 cohort. Strikingly, we found that 74% (71/96) of primary tumors with matched tumor adjacent normal tissue exhibited transcriptional repression of one or more class I HLA alleles, and 81% (78/96) exhibited class II allele transcriptional repression. Class I HLA transcriptional repression was more likely to occur subclonally than LOH. In a subset of tumors, we observed convergence upon disruption of the same allele through alternative mechanisms; with genomic loss in one tumor region and transcriptional repression in another region of the same tumor. Across the tumor regions, we found a concordance between HLA expression and immune infiltrate levels, with immune hot tumors exhibiting higher HLA class I expression. Conclusions: In this study, we find significant disruption to class I and II HLA expression adding to the diversity of immune evasion processes evident in early stage treatment naive NSCLC. Citation Format: Clare Puttick, Oriol Pich, Michelle Leung, Carlos Martinez-Ruiz, Robert Bentham, Rachel Rosenthal, Sonya Hessey, James R. Black, Emilia L. Lim, Katey Enfield, Emma Colliver, Krijn Dijkstra, Crispin T. Hiley, Takahiro Karasaki, Ariana Huebner, Maise Al Bakir, Thomas B. Watkins, Alexander M. Frankell, Simone Zaccaria, Mariam Jamal-Hanjani, Nicholas McGranahan, Charles Swanton. Pervasive allele specific transcriptional repression of the class I and II HLA genes in TRACERx non-small cell lung cancer [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research Annual Meeting 2022; 2022 Apr 8-13. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2022;82(12_Suppl):Abstract nr 1394.

Abstract Background: Lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) is a morphologically and genetically diverse disease. The prognostic impact of LUAD histological patterns have been described, such as solid growth pattern and poor outcomes, though their underlying biology is poorly understood. Furthermore, the genomic characteristics and evolutionary constraints in relation to the inter- and intra- tumoral variance of histological patterns in primary and metastatic disease are unknown. Methods: Pathological classification of 246 patients with LUAD from the TRACERx 421 cohort was performed at the whole tumor (diagnostic samples) and multi-regional sample level (matched for tumor whole exome sequencing and RNA sequencing). Circulating tumor DNA (ctDNA) data was also integrated to determine the relationship between pathological subtypes and ctDNA detection. Results: Chromosomal instability, characterized by fraction of the genome affected by subclonal copy number alterations was significantly correlated with proportion of high-grade patterns, namely solid, cribriform and micropapillary (Spearman’s Rho 0.27, p<0.001). Analysis of somatic copy number alterations (SCNAs) and driver mutation profiles showed that specific SCNAs were associated with a predominant growth pattern, such as 3q arm gains in predominantly cribriform and solid pattern tumors. Multiregional analysis of tumors with mixed patterns showed higher grade regions to be associated with a higher frequency of LOH and expression of proliferation-related pathway genes, suggesting intra-tumoral sequential evolution from low to high grade growth patterns. No recurrent subclonal mutations or SCNAs were found to associate with progression from low to high grade patterns. The growth pattern in metastatic tumors tended to show similar or a higher-grade pattern compared with primary tumor regions harboring metastasizing clones (seeding regions). The growth pattern of the seeding regions in the primary tumor was not necessarily higher grade compared with their non-seeding counterparts. Finally, the proportion of solid pattern in the primary tumor and the presence of necrosis were found to be strongly associated with pre-operative ctDNA detection, while histological ‘spread through air spaces’ (STAS) was identified in 92% (12/13) of pre-operative ctDNA-negative tumors that subsequently were associated with recurrence. Patients with both pre-operative detectable ctDNA and STAS had a particularly poor prognosis. Conclusion: These data reveal insights into the association between morphological and molecular heterogeneity in LUAD, describe key features of tumor evolutionary tendencies and demonstrate the utility of detailed tumor morphological assessment integrated with molecular characterization and ctDNA detection. Citation Format: Takahiro Karasaki, David A. Moore, Selvaraju Veeriah, Cristina Naceur-Lombardelli, Antonia Toncheva, Maise Al Bakir, Thomas B. Watkins, Oriol Pich, Alexander M. Frankell, Emilia Lim, Mark S. Hill, Kristiana Grigoriadis, Carlos Martinez-Ruiz, James R. Black, Clare Puttick, Dhruva Biswas, Ariana Huebner, Michelle Dietzen, Emma Colliver, Claudia Lee, Nnenna Kanu, Sadegh Mohammad Saghafinia, Francisco Gimeno Valiente, Christopher Abbosh, Crispin T. Hiley, Simone Zaccaria, Nicolai J. Birkbak, Allan Hackshaw, TRACERx Consortium, Teresa Marafioti, Roberto Salgado, John Le Quesne, Andrew G. Nicholson, Nicholas McGranahan, Charles Swanton, Mariam Jamal-Hanjani. Evolutionary characterisation of lung adenocarcinoma pathological subtypes in TRACERx [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research Annual Meeting 2022; 2022 Apr 8-13. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2022;82(12_Suppl):Abstract nr 6091.

Um aumento no número de horas gastas na força de trabalho e o estresse no trabalho têm sido fatores proeminentes no aumento dos problemas de saúde. Nas organizações o conceito de trabalho possui interface importante como perfil da gestão e o trabalho ocupa um papel central na formação das subjetividades dos gestores. Esta pesquisa objetivou, por meio do Job Content Questionnaire (JCQ), identificar e descrever o nível das escalas 'demanda', 'controle' e 'apoio' institucionais aliados ao contexto de trabalho e à realização profissional da gestão da socioeducação no Distrito Federal. Através de correlações, avaliaram-se as relações sociais no trabalho, a saúde mental e o impacto na qualidade de vida e no desenvolvimento de burnout, aliados à precarização do ambiente de trabalho. A amostra deste estudo foi constituída por 48 gestores que concluíram todas as questões, sobre: itens sociodemográficos; níveis de saúde física, mental, burnout; e contexto de trabalho. Entretanto, neste artigo em especial, focou-se na avaliação do instrumental proposto por Robert Karasek acerca da satisfação no trabalho. Nos resultados, verificou-se que, independente da hierarquização de cargos, o controle e o apoio institucional tiveram a mesma influência nos gestores que apresentaram diferentes níveis de burnout. Em relação ao burnout e à qualidade de vida, constatou-se que, quanto mais esgotados emocionalmente, pior o quadro geral de saúde e ainda que, quanto pior a saúde mental, menos realizados pessoalmente estariam os gestores. Sobre a qualidade de vida, quanto menos capacidade funcional, piores os aspectos sociais dos gestores. Acerca das condições de trabalho, 77% (37 de 48 participantes) afirmaram que há repetição frequente das mesmas atividades e, com relação à escala demanda, cerca de 66% (32 de 48 participantes) precisam rotineiramente realizar seu trabalho de maneira célere, fatos que podem levar à piora do quadro de saúde mental. De forma geral, este artigo visou possibilitar a identificação de elementos que possam suscitar em instrumento político, fundamentado em reflexões sobre a saúde do gestor no campo do trabalho. Com isso, é possível desembocar em ideias e práticas, poderão ser revistas inter-relações, relações de poder, ações políticas e formas de gestão de acordo com a estrutura e cultura organizacional, e mobilização/interesse da equipe gestora.

Until the 1980s research into computer technology was developing outside of a context of media culture. Until the 1970s the computer was seen as a highly effective calculator and a tool for the use in government, military and economic life. Its popular image from the 1940s to 1950s was that of a calculator. At that time the computer was a large machine which only white lab-coated engineers could understand. The computer was studied as a technical instrument, not from the viewpoint of the user. The peculiar communication between the user -- engineers at this point -- and the machine was described in caricatures like those in Electric Media (Brown & Marks 100). Many comics handled the issue of understanding. In one cartoon one engineer asks another: "Do you ever feel that it is trying to tell us something?" And in Robert Sherman Townes's novel "Problem of Emmy", the computer (Emmy) acts out of control and prints the words: "WHO AM I WHO AM I WHO AM I?". In these examples the man-machine relationship was taken under consideration, but the attitude towards the relationship was that of a master-tool way. The user was pronouncedly in control and the machine just a passive tool. After the 1980s the image of the computer was turning into that of a playful toy and a game machine, thanks to the game houses' and marketing departments' efforts. Suddenly the player was playing with the computer, and even fairly often got beaten by it. That definitely raises feelings towards the machine! The playing situation was so intensive that the player did not often pay any attention to the interface, and the roles were not so clear anymore. This was a step towards the idea of natural communication between human and machine. Later science fiction influenced depictions of virtual reality, and haptic interfaces mediated the ideas into reality. In this paper I will discuss the man-machine relationship from the viewpoint of interface design. My expertise is in electronic games, and thus I will use examples from the game industry. This paper is a sidetrack of RAID -- Research of Adaptive User Interface Design, which was going on at the University of Lapland, Finland in 1995-1999. The RAID project was about research into adaptive interface design from the viewpoint of media archaeology, electronic games, toys and media art. Early Visions Already in the 1960s, MIT professor J.C.R. Licklider wrote about man-machine symbiosis. He saw that "man machine symbiosis is an expected development in cooperative interaction between men and electronic computers". He believed that it would lead to a new kind of cooperative partnership between man and machine (9). Licklider's visions are important, because the relationship between man and machine was seen generally differently at those days. At the time of the first mainframe computers in the 1940s, man and machine were seen as separate entities from the viewpoint of data processing. The operator put in data to the machine, which processed it by its own language which only the machine and very few engineers could understand. Fear -- a fearful affection -- has affected the development of machines and the idea of man-machine relationships throughout the decades. One reason for this is that the ordinary person had no contact to the computer. That has led to fears that when cooperating with the machine, the user will become enslaved by it, or sucked into it, as in Charlie Chaplin's film Modern Times (1936). The machine captivates its user's body, punishes it and makes its movement impossible at the end. Or the machine will keep the body's freedom, but adapt its functions to work by the automatic rhythm: the human body will be subordinated to the machine or made a part of it. What Is the Interface? In reality there still is a mediator between the user and the machine: the interface. It is a connector -- a boundary surface -- that enables the user to control the machine. There has been no doubt who is in charge of whom, but the public image of the machine is changing from "computer as a tool" to "computer as an entertainment medium". That is also changing the somewhat fearful relationship to the computer, because such applications place the player much more intensively immersed in the game world. The machine as a tool does not lose its meaning but its functionality and usability are being developed towards more entertainment-like attributes. The interface is an environment and a structural system that consists of the physical machine, a virtual programming environment, and the user. The system becomes perfect when all its parts will unite as a functional, interactive whole. Significant thresholds will arise through the hapticity of the interface, on one hand questioning the bodily relationship between user and machine and on the other hand creating new ways of being with the machine. New haptic (wearable computing) and spatial (sensors in a reactive space) interfaces raise the question of man-machine symbiosis from a new perspective. Interfaces in a Game World In games the man-machine relationship is seen with much less emotion than when using medical applications, for example. The strength of electronic games is in the goal-oriented interaction. The passivity of older machines has been replaced by the information platform where the player's actions have an immediate effect in the virtual world. The player is already surrounded by the computer: at home sitting by the computer holding a joystick and in the arcades sometimes sitting inside the computer or even being tied up with the computer (as in gyroscope VR applications). The symbiosis in game environments is essential and simple. During the 1980s and 1990s a lot of different virtual reality gear variants were developed in the "VR boom". Some systems were more or less masked arcade game machines that did not offer any real virtuality. Virtuality was seen as a new way of working with a machine, but most of the applications did not support the idea far enough. Neither did the developers pay attention to interface design nor to new ways of experiencing and feeling pleasure through the machine. At that time the most important thing was to build a plausible "virtual reality system". Under the futuristic cover of the machine there was usually a PC and a joystick or mouse. Usually a system could easily be labelled as a virtual theater, a dome or a cabin, which all refer to entertainment simulators. At the beginning of the 1990s, data glasses and gloves were the most widely used interfaces within the new interaction systems. Later the development turned from haptic interfaces towards more spatial ideas -- from wearable systems to interaction environments. Still there are only few innovative applications available. One good example is Vivid Group's old Mandala VR system which was later in the 1990s developed further to the Holopod system. It has been promoted as the interface of the future and new way of being with the computer. As in the film Modern Times so also with Holopod the player is in a way sucked inside the game world. But this time with the user's consent. Behind the Holopod is Vivid Group's Mandala VGC (Video Gesture Control) technology which they have been developing since 1986. The Mandala VGC system combines real time video images of the player with the game scene. The player in the real world is the protagonist in the game world. So the real world and the game world are united. That makes it possible to sense the real time movement as well as interaction between the platform and the player. Also other manufacturers like American Holoplex has developed similar systems. Their system is called ThunderCam. Like Konami's Dance Dance Revolution, it asks heavy physical involvement in the Street Fighter combat game. Man-Man and Man-Machine Cooperation One of the most important elements in electronic games has been reaction ability. Now the playing is turning closer to a new sport. Different force feedback systems combined with haptic interfaces will create much more diverse examples of action. For example, the Japanese Konami corporation has developed a haptic version of a popular Playstation dance game where karaoke and an electronic version of the Twister game are combined. Besides new man-machine cooperative applications, there are also under development some multi-user environments where the user interacts with the computer-generated world as well as with other players. The Land of Snow and Ice has been under development for about a year now in the University of Lapland, Finland. It is a tourism project that is supposed to be able to create a sensation of the arctic environment throughout the year. Temperature and atmosphere are created with the help of refrigerating equipment. In the space there are virtual theatre and enhanced ski-doo as interfaces. The 3-D software makes the sensation very intense, and a hydraulic platform extends the experience. The Land of Snow and Ice is interesting from the point of view of the man-machine relationship in the way that it brings a new idea to the interface design: the use of everyday objects as interfaces. The machine is "hidden" inside an everyday object and one is interacting and using the machine in a more natural way. For example, the Norwegian media artist Stahl Stenslie has developed "an 'intelligent' couch through which you communicate using your body through tactile and visual stimuli". Besides art works he has also talked about new everyday communication environments, where the table in a café could be a communication tool. One step towards Stenslie's idea has already become reality in Lasipalatsi café in Helsinki, Finland. The tables are good for their primary purpose, but you can also surf the Internet and read your e-mail with them, while drinking your tea. These kind of ideas have also been presented within 'intelligent home' speculations. Intelligent homes have gained acceptance and there are already several intelligent homes in the world. Naturally there will always be opposition, because the surface between man and machine is still a very delicate issue. In spite of this, I see such homogeneous countries as Finland, for example, to be a good testing ground for a further development of new man-machine interaction systems. Pleasure seems to be one of the key words of the future, and with the new technology, one can make everyday routines easier, pleasure more intense and the Internet a part of social communication: within the virtual as well as in real world communities. In brief, I have introduced two ideas: using games as a testing ground, and embedding haptic and spatial interfaces inside everyday objects. It is always difficult to predict the future and there are always at least technology, marketing forces, popular culture and users that will affect what the man-machine relationship of the future will be like. I see games and game interfaces as the new developing ground for a new kind of man-machine relationship. References Barfield, W., and T.A. Furness. Virtual Environments and Advanced Interface Design. New York: Oxford UP, 1995. Brown, Les, and Sema Marks. Electric Media. New York: Hargrove Brace Jovanovich, 1974. Burdea, G., and P. Coiffet. Virtual Reality Technology. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1994. Greelish, David. "Hictorically Brewed Magazine. A Retrospective." Classic Computing. 1 Sep. 1999 <http://www.classiccomputing.com/mag.php>. Huhtamo, Erkki. "Odottavasta Operaattorista Kärsimättömäksi Käyttäjäksi. Interaktiivisuuden Arkeologiaa." Mediaevoluutiota. Eds. Kari Hintikka and Seppo Kuivakari. Rovaniemi: U of Lapland P, 1997. Jones, Steve, ed. Virtual Culture: Identity and Communication in Cybersociety. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 1997. Kuivakari, Seppo, ed. Keholliset Käyttöliittymät. Helsinki: TEKES, 1999. 1 Sep. 1999 <http://media.urova.fi/~raid>. Licklider, J.C.R. "Man-Computer Symbiosis." 1960. 1 Sep. 1999 <http://memex.org/licklider.pdf>. Picard, Rosalind W. Affective Computing. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT P, 1997. "Return of the Luddites". Interview with Kirkpatrick Sale. Wired Magazine June 1995. Stenslie, Stahl. Artworks. 1 Sep. 1999 <http://sirene.nta.no/stahl/>. Citation reference for this article MLA style: Sonja Kangas. "From Haptic Interfaces to Man-Machine Symbiosis." M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 2.6 (1999). [your date of access] <http://www.uq.edu.au/mc/9909/haptic.php>. Chicago style: Sonja Kangas, "From Haptic Interfaces to Man-Machine Symbiosis," M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 2, no. 6 (1999), <http://www.uq.edu.au/mc/9909/haptic.php> ([your date of access]). APA style: Sonja Kangas. (1999) From haptic interfaces to man-machine symbiosis. M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 2(6). <http://www.uq.edu.au/mc/9909/haptic.php> ([your date of access]).

In 1956, John Cage predicted that “in the future, records will be made from records” (Duffel, 202). Certainly, musical creativity has always involved a certain amount of appropriation and adaptation of previous works. For example, Vivaldi appropriated and adapted the “Cum sancto spiritu” fugue of Ruggieri’s Gloria (Burnett, 4; Forbes, 261). If stuck for a guitar solo on stage, Keith Richards admits that he’ll adapt Buddy Holly for his own purposes (Street, 135). Similarly, Nirvana adapted the opening riff from Killing Jokes’ “Eighties” for their song “Come as You Are”. Musical “quotation” is actively encouraged in jazz, and contemporary hip-hop would not exist if the genre’s pioneers and progenitors had not plundered and adapted existing recorded music. Sampling technologies, however, have taken musical adaptation a step further and realised Cage’s prediction. Hardware and software samplers have developed to the stage where any piece of audio can be appropriated and adapted to suit the creative impulses of the sampling musician (or samplist). The practice of sampling challenges established notions of creativity, with whole albums created with no original musical input as most would understand it—literally “records made from records.” Sample-based music is premised on adapting audio plundered from the cultural environment. This paper explores the ways in which technology is used to adapt previous recordings into new ones, and how musicians themselves have adapted to the potentials of digital technology for exploring alternative approaches to musical creativity. Sampling is frequently defined as “the process of converting an analog signal to a digital format.” While this definition remains true, it does not acknowledge the prevalence of digital media. The “analogue to digital” method of sampling requires a microphone or instrument to be recorded directly into a sampler. Digital media, however, simplifies the process. For example, a samplist can download a video from YouTube and rip the audio track for editing, slicing, and manipulation, all using software within the noiseless digital environment of the computer. Perhaps it is more prudent to describe sampling simply as the process of capturing sound. Regardless of the process, once a sound is loaded into a sampler (hardware or software) it can be replayed using a MIDI keyboard, trigger pad or sequencer. Use of the sampled sound, however, need not be a faithful rendition or clone of the original. At the most basic level of manipulation, the duration and pitch of sounds can be altered. The digital processes that are implemented into the Roland VariOS Phrase Sampler allow samplists to eliminate the pitch or melodic quality of a sampled phrase. The phrase can then be melodically redefined as the samplist sees fit: adapted to a new tempo, key signature, and context or genre. Similarly, software such as Propellerhead’s ReCycle slices drum beats into individual hits for use with a loop sampler such as Reason’s Dr Rex module. Once loaded into Dr Rex, the individual original drum sounds can be used to program a new beat divorced from the syncopation of the original drum beat. Further, the individual slices can be subjected to pitch, envelope (a component that shapes the volume of the sound over time) and filter (a component that emphasises and suppresses certain frequencies) control, thus an existing drum beat can easily be adapted to play a new rhythm at any tempo. For example, this rhythm was created from slicing up and rearranging Clyde Stubblefield’s classic break from James Brown’s “Funky Drummer”. Sonic adaptation of digital information is not necessarily confined to the auditory realm. An audio editor such as Sony’s Sound Forge is able to open any file format as raw audio. For example, a Word document or a Flash file could be opened with the data interpreted as audio. Admittedly, the majority of results obtained are harsh white noise, but there is scope for serendipitous anomalies such as a glitchy beat that can be extracted and further manipulated by audio software. Audiopaint is an additive synthesis application created by Nicolas Fournel for converting digital images into audio. Each pixel position and colour is translated into information designating frequency (pitch), amplitude (volume) and pan position in the stereo image. The user can determine which one of the three RGB channels corresponds to either of the stereo channels. Further, the oscillator for the wave form can be either the default sine wave or an existing audio file such as a drum loop can be used. The oscillator shapes the end result, responding to the dynamics of the sine wave or the audio file. Although Audiopaint labours under the same caveat as with the use of raw audio, the software can produce some interesting results. Both approaches to sound generation present results that challenge distinctions between “musical sound” and “noise”. Sampling is also a cultural practice, a relatively recent form of adaptation extending out of a time honoured creative aesthetic that borrows, quotes and appropriates from existing works to create new ones. Different fields of production, as well as different commentators, variously use terms such as “co-creative media”, “cumulative authorship”, and “derivative works” with regard to creations that to one extent or another utilise existing works in the production of new ones (Coombe; Morris; Woodmansee). The extent of the sampling may range from subtle influence to dominating significance within the new work, but the constant principle remains: an existing work is appropriated and adapted to fit the needs of the secondary creator. Proponents of what may be broadly referred to as the “free culture” movement argue that creativity and innovation inherently relies on the appropriation and adaptation of existing works (for example, see Lessig, Future of Ideas; Lessig, Free Culture; McLeod, Freedom of Expression; Vaidhyanathan). For example, Gwen Stefani’s 2004 release “Rich Girl” is based on Louchie Lou and Michie One’s 1994 single of the same title. Lou and One’s “Rich Girl”, in turn, is a reggae dance hall adaptation of “If I Were a Rich Man” from Fiddler on the Roof. Stefani’s “na na na” vocal riff shares the same melody as the “Ya ha deedle deedle, bubba bubba deedle deedle dum” riff from Fiddler on the Roof. Samantha Mumba adapted David Bowie’s “Ashes to Ashes” for her second single “Body II Body”. Similarly, Richard X adapted Tubeway Army’s “Are ‘Friends’ Electric?’ and Adina Howard’s “Freak Like Me” for a career saving single for Sugababes. Digital technologies enable and even promote the adaptation of existing works (Morris). The ease of appropriating and manipulating digital audio files has given rise to a form of music known variously as mash-up, bootleg, or bastard pop. Mash-ups are the most recent stage in a history of musical appropriation and they epitomise the sampling aesthetic. Typically produced in bedroom computer-based studios, mash-up artists use software such as Acid or Cool Edit Pro to cut up digital music files and reassemble the fragments to create new songs, arbitrarily adding self-composed parts if desired. Comprised almost exclusively from sections of captured music, mash-ups have been referred to as “fictional pop music” because they conjure up scenarios where, for example, Destiny’s Child jams in a Seattle garage with Nirvana or the Spice Girls perform with Nine Inch Nails (Petridis). Once the initial humour of the novelty has passed, the results can be deeply alluring. Mash-ups extract the distinctive characteristics of songs and place them in new, innovative contexts. As Dale Lawrence writes: “the vocals are often taken from largely reviled or ignored sources—cornball acts like Aguilera or Destiny’s Child—and recast in wildly unlikely contexts … where against all odds, they actually work”. Similarly, Crawford argues that “part of the art is to combine the greatest possible aesthetic dissonance with the maximum musical harmony. The pleasure for listeners is in discovering unlikely artistic complementarities and revisiting their musical memories in mutated forms” (36). Sometimes the adaptation works in the favour of the sampled artist: George Clinton claims that because of sampling he is more popular now than in 1976—“the sampling made us big again” (Green). The creative aspect of mash-ups is unlike that usually associated with musical composition and has more in common with DJing. In an effort to further clarify this aspect, we may regard DJ mixes as “mash-ups on the fly.” When Grandmaster Flash recorded his quilt-pop masterpiece, “Adventures of Grandmaster Flash on the Wheels of Steel,” it was recorded while he performed live, demonstrating his precision and skill with turntables. Modern audio editing software facilitates the capture and storage of sound, allowing mash-up artists to manipulate sounds bytes outside of “real-time” and the live performance parameters within which Flash worked. Thus, the creative element is not the traditional arrangement of chords and parts, but rather “audio contexts”. If, as Riley pessimistically suggests, “there are no new chords to be played, there are no new song structures to be developed, there are no new stories to be told, and there are no new themes to explore,” then perhaps it is understandable that artists have searched for new forms of musical creativity. The notes and chords of mash-ups are segments of existing works sequenced together to produce inter-layered contexts rather than purely tonal patterns. The merit of mash-up culture lies in its function of deconstructing the boundaries of genre and providing new musical possibilities. The process of mashing-up genres functions to critique contemporary music culture by “pointing a finger at how stifled and obvious the current musical landscape has become. … Suddenly rap doesn’t have to be set to predictable funk beats, pop/R&B ballads don’t have to come wrapped in cheese, garage melodies don’t have to recycle the Ramones” (Lawrence). According to Theodor Adorno, the Frankfurt School critic, popular music (of his time) was irretrievably simplistic and constructed from easily interchangeable, modular components (McLeod, “Confessions”, 86). A standardised and repetitive approach to musical composition fosters a mode of consumption dubbed by Adorno “quotation listening” and characterised by passive acceptance of, and obsession with, a song’s riffs (44-5). As noted by Em McAvan, Adorno’s analysis elevates the producer over the consumer, portraying a culture industry controlling a passive audience through standardised products (McAvan). The characteristics that Adorno observed in the popular music of his time are classic traits of contemporary popular music. Mash-up artists, however, are not representative of Adorno’s producers for a passive audience, instead opting to wrest creative control from composers and the recording industry and adapt existing songs in pursuit of their own creative impulses. Although mash-up productions may consciously or unconsciously criticise the current state of popular music, they necessarily exist in creative symbiosis with the commercial genres: “if pop songs weren’t simple and formulaic, it would be much harder for mashup bedroom auteurs to do their job” (McLeod, “Confessions”, 86). Arguably, when creating mash-ups, some individuals are expressing their dissatisfaction with the stagnation of the pop industry and are instead working to create music that they as consumers wish to hear. Sample-based music—as an exercise in adaptation—encourages a Foucauldian questioning of the composer’s authority over their musical texts. Recorded music is typically a passive medium in which the consumer receives the music in its original, unaltered form. DJ Dangermouse (Brian Burton) breached this pact to create his Grey Album, which is a mash-up of an a cappella version of Jay-Z’s Black Album and the Beatles’ eponymous album (also known as the White Album). Dangermouse says that “every kick, snare, and chord is taken from the Beatles White Album and is in their original recording somewhere.” In deconstructing the Beatles’ songs, Dangermouse turned the recordings into a palette for creating his own new work, adapting audio fragments to suit his creative impulses. As Joanna Demers writes, “refashioning these sounds and reorganising them into new sonic phrases and sentences, he creates acoustic mosaics that in most instances are still traceable to the Beatles source, yet are unmistakeably distinct from it” (139-40). Dangermouse’s approach is symptomatic of what Schütze refers to as remix culture: an open challenge to a culture predicated on exclusive ownership, authorship, and controlled distribution … . Against ownership it upholds an ethic of creative borrowing and sharing. Against the original it holds out an open process of recombination and creative transformation. It equally calls into question the categories, rifts and borders between high and low cultures, pop and elitist art practices, as well as blurring lines between artistic disciplines. Using just a laptop, an audio editor and a calculator, Gregg Gillis, a.k.a. Girl Talk, created the Night Ripper album using samples from 167 artists (Dombale). Although all the songs on Night Ripper are blatantly sampled-based, Gillis sees his creations as “original things” (Dombale). The adaptation of sampled fragments culled from the Top 40 is part of Gillis’ creative process: “It’s not about who created this source originally, it’s about recontextualising—creating new music. … I’ve always tried to make my own songs” (Dombale). Gillis states that his music has no political message, but is a reflection of his enthusiasm for pop music: “It’s a celebration of everything Top 40, that’s the point” (Dombale). Gillis’ “celebratory” exercises in creativity echo those of various fan-fiction authors who celebrate the characters and worlds that constitute popular culture. Adaptation through sampling is not always centred solely on music. Sydney-based Tom Compagnoni, a.k.a. Wax Audio, adapted a variety of sound bytes from politicians and media personalities including George W. Bush, Alexander Downer, Alan Jones, Ray Hadley, and John Howard in the creation of his Mediacracy E.P.. In one particular instance, Compagnoni used a myriad of samples culled from various media appearances by George W. Bush to recreate the vocals for John Lennon’s Imagine. Created in early 2005, the track, which features speeded-up instrumental samples from a karaoke version of Lennon’s original, is an immediate irony fuelled comment on the invasion of Iraq. The rationale underpinning the song is further emphasised when “Imagine This” reprises into “Let’s Give Peace a Chance” interspersed with short vocal fragments of “Come Together”. Compagnoni justifies his adaptations by presenting appropriated media sound bytes that deliberately set out to demonstrate the way information is manipulated to present any particular point of view. Playing the media like an instrument, Wax Audio juxtaposes found sounds in a way that forces the listener to confront the bias, contradiction and sensationalism inherent in their daily intake of media information. … Oh yeah—and it’s bloody funny hearing George W Bush sing “Imagine”. Notwithstanding the humorous quality of the songs, Mediacracy represents a creative outlet for Compagnoni’s political opinions that is emphasised by the adaptation of Lennon’s song. Through his adaptation, Compagnoni revitalises Lennon’s sentiments about the Vietnam War and superimposes them onto the US policy on Iraq. An interesting aspect of sampled-based music is the re-occurrence of particular samples across various productions, which demonstrates that the same fragment can be adapted for a plethora of musical contexts. For example, Clyde Stubblefield’s “Funky Drummer” break is reputed to be the most sampled break in the world. The break from 1960s soul/funk band the Winstons’ “Amen Brother” (the B-side to their 1969 release “Color Him Father”), however, is another candidate for the title of “most sampled break”. The “Amen break” was revived with the advent of the sampler. Having featured heavily in early hip-hop records such as “Words of Wisdom” by Third Base and “Straight Out of Compton” by NWA, the break “appears quite adaptable to a range of music genres and tastes” (Harrison, 9m 46s). Beginning in the early 1990s, adaptations of this break became a constant of jungle music as sampling technology developed to facilitate more complex operations (Harrison, 5m 52s). The break features on Shy FX’s “Original Nutta”, L Double & Younghead’s “New Style”, Squarepusher’s “Big Acid”, and a cover version of Led Zepplin’s “Whole Lotta Love” by Jane’s Addiction front man Perry Farrell. This is to name but a few tracks that have adapted the break. Wikipedia offers a list of songs employing an adaptation of the “Amen break”. This list, however, falls short of the “hundreds of tracks” argued for by Nate Harrison, who notes that “an entire subculture based on this one drum loop … six seconds from 1969” has developed (8m 45s). The “Amen break” is so ubiquitous that, much like the twelve bar blues structure, it has become a foundational element of an entire genre and has been adapted to satisfy a plethora of creative impulses. The sheer prevalence of the “Amen break” simultaneously illustrates the creative nature of music adaptation as well as the potentials for adaptation stemming from digital technology such as the sampler. The cut-up and rearrangement aspect of creative sampling technology at once suggests the original but also something new and different. Sampling in general, and the phenomenon of the “Amen break” in particular, ensures the longevity of the original sources; sampled-based music exhibits characteristics acquired from the source materials, yet the illegitimate offspring are not their parents. Sampling as a technology for creatively adapting existing forms of audio has encouraged alternative approaches to musical composition. Further, it has given rise to a new breed of musician that has adapted to technologies of adaptation. Mash-up artists and samplists demonstrate that recorded music is not simply a fixed or read-only product but one that can be freed from the composer’s original arrangement to be adapted and reconfigured. Many mash-up artists such as Gregg Gillis are not trained musicians, but their ears are honed from enthusiastic consumption of music. Individuals such as DJ Dangermouse, Gregg Gillis and Tom Compagnoni appropriate, reshape and re-present the surrounding soundscape to suit diverse creative urges, thereby adapting the passive medium of recorded sound into an active production tool. References Adorno, Theodor. “On the Fetish Character in Music and the Regression of Listening.” The Culture Industry: Selected Essays on Mass Culture. Ed. J. Bernstein. London, New York: Routledge, 1991. Burnett, Henry. “Ruggieri and Vivaldi: Two Venetian Gloria Settings.” American Choral Review 30 (1988): 3. Compagnoni, Tom. “Wax Audio: Mediacracy.” Wax Audio. 2005. 2 Apr. 2007 http://www.waxaudio.com.au/downloads/mediacracy>. Coombe, Rosemary. The Cultural Life of Intellectual Properties. Durham, London: Duke University Press, 1998. Demers, Joanna. Steal This Music: How Intellectual Property Law Affects Musical Creativity. Athens, London: University of Georgia Press, 2006. 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(May 2007) "Amen to That: Sampling and Adapting the Past," M/C Journal, 10(2). Retrieved echo date('d M. Y'); ?> from <http://journal.media-culture.org.au/0705/09-collins.php>.