Journal articles: 'Road races'

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Rowland, T. W., and P. P. Hoontis. "ORGANIZING ROAD RACES FOR CHILDREN." Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics 5, no. 5 (September 1985): 628. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01241398-198509000-00151.

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Cidell, Julie. "Running road races as transgressive event mobilities." Social & Cultural Geography 15, no. 5 (April 30, 2014): 571–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14649365.2014.908236.

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Frere, Jennifer A., Lewis G. Maharam, and Steven P. Van Camp. "The Risk of Death in Running Road Races." Physician and Sportsmedicine 32, no. 4 (April 2004): 33–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.3810/psm.2004.04.204.

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BRESLOW, REBECCA G., SWASTINA SHRESTHA, ALIYA G. FEROE, JEFFREY N. KATZ, CHRIS TROYANOS, and JAMIE E. COLLINS. "Medical Tent Utilization at 10-km Road Races." Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 51, no. 12 (December 2019): 2451–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1249/mss.0000000000002068.

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Johnson, Jennifer, and Rhonda Magel. "Are Women as Competitive as Men in Road Races?" Journal of Sports Research 3, no. 1 (2016): 18–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.18488/journal.90/2016.3.1/90.1.18.43.

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Kinoshi, Tomoya, Shota Tanaka, Ryo Sagisaka, Takahiro Hara, Toru Shirakawa, Etsuko Sone, Hiroyuki Takahashi, et al. "Mobile Automated External Defibrillator Response System during Road Races." New England Journal of Medicine 379, no. 5 (August 2, 2018): 488–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/nejmc1803218.

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Cheuvront, Samuel N., and Kurt J. Sollanek. "Considerations for Standardizing Fluid Station Practices Among Road Races." Strength & Conditioning Journal 42, no. 1 (February 2020): 39–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1519/ssc.0000000000000482.

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Heron, Neil, Richard Usher, Derick MacLeod, Inigo Sarrieguil, Juan Mercadel, and Mark A. Tully. "Infographics: Winning road cycle races: a Team Sky perspective." British Journal of Sports Medicine 52, no. 10 (August 10, 2017): 633–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2017-097819.

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Dattilo, John, and Frank B. Guadagnolo. "Perceptions of Road Races by Participants in the Challenged Division." Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly 5, no. 3 (July 1988): 193–202. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/apaq.5.3.193.

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The increasing participation in competitive athletics by persons with disabilities calls for research examining differences and similarities between athletes with and without disabilities. This study examined these similarities and differences within the context of a 10K road race. Employing the Importance-Performance Scale, all entrants (n=53) in the Challenged Division of the Pittsburgh Citiparks’ Great Race were asked to rate the importance of some 31 attributes associated with a 10K race and respond to a series of open-ended questions. Of the 31 questionnaires returned, 29 were deemed usable. A random sample of runners (n=1,000) without disabilities was administered an identical questionnaire, and 661 of the 678 questionnaires returned were usable. The results of a MANOVA yielded significant differences between the overall responses of the challenged runners and the general running population, F(31, 570) = 2.26, p <.0001. Multiple t test analysis of attribute ratings identified four features as being significantly different (.01) between the two populations. These differences were grouped and analyzed under three categories (recognition, safety, and convenience). The t test coupled with a content analysis of open-ended responses underscored the similarities among the two groups. Although race organizers need to be responsive to the differences of individual participants, these findings would suggest that the integration of all participants is an attainable goal.

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Roa, Sergio D., and Luis E. Muñoz. "Bicycle change strategy for uphill time-trial races." Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part P: Journal of Sports Engineering and Technology 231, no. 3 (August 29, 2017): 207–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1754337117724310.

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In uphill time-trial cycling races, riders have to travel along routes characterized by high-gradient variations in the shortest time possible. Due to this gradient variation, the appropriate selection among time-trial bicycles and traditional road bicycles is essential to reduce the power demand. For some uphill courses, the bicycle selection is not necessarily unique, with the possibility of a bicycle change during the race to take advantage of the performance of each type of bicycle for specific sections of the route. In this study, a method for planning the bicycle-changing strategy is proposed. A dynamic model to predict the race time for two types of bicycles is implemented, and an optimization problem for minimizing the race time is presented. A case study is analyzed in which the uphill time-trial route of the Giro d’Italia 2014 is studied in the context of professional cyclists’ performance. It was found that the use of the bicycle change strategy led to a time saving of about 43 s with respect to the time obtained when using only a road bicycle. It was also found that a combination of the bicycle change strategy with an optimal pacing strategy led to a time saving of about 92 s.

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Bradby, Matthew. "Road races are a good way of keeping fit and raising money." Nursing Standard 26, no. 22 (February 2012): 33. http://dx.doi.org/10.7748/ns2012.02.26.22.33.p7449.

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ABIRU, Yohei, Keiko WATANABE, Yasuhiro HATAKENAKA, Yasuhiro OSHIMA, Akira KAZAMA, Tadaaki HAYANO, and Mitsugi OGATA. "Recognition of Road Race Directors for the Benefit of JAAF Certified Races." Journal of Japan Society of Sports Industry 30, no. 4 (October 1, 2020): 4_395–4_399. http://dx.doi.org/10.5997/sposun.30.4_395.

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Bradby, Matthew. "Road races are a good way of keeping fit and raising money." Nursing Standard 26, no. 22 (February 2012): 33. http://dx.doi.org/10.7748/ns.26.22.33.s48.

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Ebert, Tammie R., David T. Martin, Brian Stephens, and Robert T. Withers. "Power Output During a Professional Men’s Road-Cycling Tour." International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance 1, no. 4 (December 2006): 324–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.1.4.324.

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Purpose:To quantify the power-output demands of men’s road-cycling stage racing using a direct measure of power output.Methods:Power-output data were collected from 207 races over 6 competition years on 31 Australian national male road cyclists. Subjects performed a maximal graded exercise test in the laboratory to determine maximum aerobic-power output, and bicycles were fitted with SRM power meters. Races were described as fl at, hilly, or criterium, and linear mixed modeling was used to compare the races.Results:Criterium was the shortest race and displayed the highest mean power output (criterium 262 ± 30 v hilly 203 ± 32 v fl at 188 ± 30 W), percentage total race time above 7.5 W/kg (crite-rium 15.5% ± 4.1% v hilly 3.8% ± 1.7% v fl at 3.5% ± 1.4%) and SD in power output (criterium 250 v hilly 165 v fl at 169 W). Approximately 67%, 80%, and 85% of total race time was spent below 5 W/kg for criterium, hilly and fl at races, respectively. About 70, 40, and 20 sprints above maximum aerobic-power output occurred during criterium, hilly, and fl at races, respectively, with most sprints being 6 to 10 s.Conclusions:These data extend previous research documenting the demands of men’s road cycling. Despite the relatively low mean power output, races were characterized by multiple high-intensity surges above maximum aerobic-power output. These data can be used to develop sport-specific interval-training programs that replicate the demands of competition.

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Cushman, Dan M., Matthew Markert, and Monica Rho. "Performance Trends in Large 10-km Road Running Races in the United States." Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 28, no. 4 (April 2014): 892–901. http://dx.doi.org/10.1519/jsc.0000000000000249.

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KUROIWA, Takuma, Atsushi KAWAKAMI, Junichi MINEGISHI, Yukiei MASUYAMA, and Ryota MAEKAWA. "EVALUATION METHODS ON ROAD WAY PAVEMENTS FOR MIDDLE AND LONG-DISTANCE RUNNING RACES." Journal of Japan Society of Civil Engineers, Ser. E1 (Pavement Engineering) 69, no. 3 (2013): I_185—I_190. http://dx.doi.org/10.2208/jscejpe.69.i_185.

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McGehee, Nancy Gard, Yooshik Yoon, and David Cárdenas. "Involvement and Travel for Recreational Runners in North Carolina." Journal of Sport Management 17, no. 3 (July 2003): 305–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jsm.17.3.305.

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This study utilized an adaptation of the uni-dimensional involvement scale developed by Josiam, Smeaton, and Clements (1999) to test Havitz and Dimanche's Proposition XI, which states that “an individual's involvement profile with a recreational activity, tourist destination, or related equipment is positively related to frequency of participation, travel, or purchase” (1990, p. 189). Relationships between recreational runners' involvement in travel to road races and behavioral characteristics, including preparation for and participation in road races, travel behavior and running-related expenditures were examined. Proposition XI was partially supported. The research found statistically significant differences between the high involvement group and medium involvement group in terms of travel behavior and running-related expenditures. There were no significant differences between involvement groups and preparation for or participation in road races. It was concluded that involvement should be considered by sport and tourism agencies when planning, marketing, and managing events targeted at traveling recreational runners.

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Larson, Daniel J., and Joel Maxcy. "Uncertainty of Outcome and Radio Policy in Professional Road Cycling." Journal of Sport Management 28, no. 3 (May 2014): 311–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jsm.2012-0295.

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The world governing body for cycling proscribed the use of two-way radio communication in road cycling races, with the ban set to become fully effective in 2012. The ban was instituted because radio use was perceived to have altered the cycling competitions by making outcomes more predictable and of less interest to sport’s consumers. This empirical analysis of the policy rationale considers the uncertainty of outcome hypothesis (UOH) as it applies to professional cycling races and creates a novel measure, the likelihood of breakaway success (LBS). TheLBSis analyzed in 1436 bicycle races between 1985–2010 to examine potential changes in outcomes associated with the use of two-way radio technology by competitors and team directors. The data suggests that radio technology has had a significant association with event outcome types. The relevance of the findings to intraorganizational communication, management, and hierarchies of sports teams are also discussed.

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Sanders, Dajo, Teun van Erp, and Jos J. de Koning. "Intensity and Load Characteristics of Professional Road Cycling: Differences Between Men’s and Women’s Races." International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance 14, no. 3 (March 2019): 296–302. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2018-0190.

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Menaspà, Paolo, Marco Sias, Gene Bates, and Antonio La Torre. "Demands of World Cup Competitions in Elite Women’s Road Cycling." International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance 12, no. 10 (November 1, 2017): 1293–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2016-0588.

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Purpose: To describe the demand of recent World Cup (WC) races comparing top-10 (T10) and non-top-10 (N-T10) performances using power data. Methods: Race data were collected in 1-d World Cup races during the 2012–2015 road cycling seasons. Seven female cyclists completed 49 WC races, finishing 25 times in T10 and 24 times in N-T10. Peak power (1 s) and maximal mean power (MMP) for durations of 5, 10, 20, and 30 s and 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 30, and 60 min expressed as power to weight ratio were analyzed in T10 and N-T10. The percentage of total race time spent at different power bands was compared between T10 and N-T10 using 0.75-W·kg−1 power bands, ranging from <0.75 to >7.50 W·kg−1. The number of efforts in which the power output remained above 7.50 W·kg−1 for at least 10 s was recorded. Results: MMPs were significantly higher in T10 than in N-T10, with a large effect size for durations between 10 s and 5 min. N-T10 spent more time in the 3.01- to 3.75-W·kg−1 power band when compared to T10 (P = .011); conversely, T10 spent more time in the 6.75- to 7.50- and >7.50-W·kg−1 power bands (P = .009 and .005, respectively) than N-T10. A significantly higher number of short and high-intensity efforts (≥10 s, >7.5 W·kg−1) was ridden by T10 than N-T10 (P = .002), specifically, 46 ± 20 and 30 ± 15 efforts for T10 and N-T10, respectively. Conclusions: The ability to ride at high intensity was determinant for successful road-cycling performances in WC races.

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Zingg, Matthias, Klaus Karner-Rezek, Thomas Rosemann, Beat Knechtle, Romuald Lepers, and Christoph Rüst. "Will women outrun men in ultra-marathon road races from 50 km to 1,000 km?" SpringerPlus 3, no. 1 (2014): 97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/2193-1801-3-97.

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Zhang, Yang, Douglas J. Casa, and Phillip A. Bishop. "Emergency Preparedness for Sudden Cardiac Death and Exertional Heat Stroke during Road Races in China." Journal of Anthropology of Sport and Physical Education 4, no. 2 (April 14, 2020): 51–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.26773/jaspe.200410.

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Breslow, Rebecca G., Ying H. Yang, and Jamie E. Collins. "Cold Water Immersion For Exertional Heat Stroke At 33 New England Road Races, 2011-2019." Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 53, no. 8S (August 2021): 372. http://dx.doi.org/10.1249/01.mss.0000763580.83031.7e.

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SEO, Kazuya, Mitsuru SATO, Keisuke KAMATA, and Takuto KOBAYASHI. "A development of a new suit for Tokyo 2020 Olympic and Paralympic cycling road races." Proceedings of the Symposium on sports and human dynamics 2020 (2020): A—3–1. http://dx.doi.org/10.1299/jsmeshd.2020.a-3-1.

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van Erp, Teun, Carl Foster, and Jos J. de Koning. "Relationship Between Various Training-Load Measures in Elite Cyclists During Training, Road Races, and Time Trials." International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance 14, no. 4 (April 1, 2019): 493–500. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2017-0722.

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Purpose: The relationship between various training-load (TL) measures in professional cycling is not well explored. This study investigated the relationship between mechanical energy spent (in kilojoules), session rating of perceived exertion (sRPE), Lucia training impulse (LuTRIMP), and training stress score (TSS) in training, races, and time trials (TT). Methods: For 4 consecutive years, field data were collected from 21 professional cyclists and categorized as being collected in training, racing, or TTs. Kilojoules (kJ) spent, sRPE, LuTRIMP, and TSS were calculated, and the correlations between the various TLs were made. Results: 11,655 sessions were collected, from which 7596 sessions had heart-rate data and 5445 sessions had an RPE score available. The r between the various TLs during training was almost perfect. The r between the various TLs during racing was almost perfect or very large. The r between the various TLs during TTs was almost perfect or very large. For all relationships between TSS and 1 of the other measurements of TL (kJ spent, sRPE, and LuTRIMP), a significant different slope was found. Conclusion: kJ spent, sRPE, LuTRIMP, and TSS all have a large or almost perfect relationship with each other during training, racing, and TTs, but during racing, both sRPE and LuTRIMP have a weaker relationship with kJ spent and TSS. Furthermore, the significant different slope of TSS vs the other measurements of TL during training and racing has the effect that TSS collected in training and road races differs by 120%, whereas the other measurements of TL (kJ spent, sRPE, and LuTRIMP) differ by only 73%, 67%, and 68%, respectively.

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Chao-Sen, Wu, and Robin Nunkoo. "Application of TQM to road races: Study on the sports involvement and willingness to re-participate." Cogent Business & Management 5, no. 1 (January 1, 2018): 1509811. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/23311975.2018.1509811.

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Desamparados Bernat-Adell, María, Rania Achouak Hafsi, Pablo-Salas Medina, Ana Folch-Ayora, Carlos Hernando-Domingo, Ignacio Martínez-Navarro, and Eladio Joaquín Collado-Boira. "Hematological variability analysis after road marathon vs ultratrail." Kinesiology 52, no. 2 (2020): 178–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.26582/k.52.2.2.

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The practice of long- and medium-distance races has exponentially increased the number of participants in recent years. They are carried out under extreme conditions that cause both biochemical and anthropometric changes in athletes and, in addition, have serious risks associated, such as dehydration, thermal disorders, or hypoglycemia. Knowledge regarding alterations at hematological level after this type of effort is limited. The objectives of this pre-post analytical descriptive observational study were: to describe and compare hematological values in amateur runners pre and post road marathon and ultratrail races, and to compare the hematological parameters between the groups in the two times analyzed by means of univariate descriptive statistical analyses, intra-group pre-post comparisons (Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test), and comparisons between the groups (Mann-Whitney U Test). Effect size was calculated using Cohen’s D. An explanatory model (Multiple Logistic Regression) was created. Statistical significance was set at p<.05. The Wilcoxon test for marathon runners observed significant differences (p≤.001) in the white series. In ultratrail runners, the results were similar, with significant differences (p≤.001) in the platelet series. The Mann-Whitney U test showed the same pre-race hematological conditions for both groups, except for hematocrit and corpuscular values (p≤.001). Significant differences (p≤.001) were also found in the post-race leukocyte and neutrophil values. Significant differences in hematological parameters have been observed both between and within the groups. The differences with greater significance corresponded to the leukocyte series.

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Ebert, Tammie R., David T. Martin, Brian Stephens, Warren McDonald, and Robert T. Withers. "Fluid and Food Intake During Professional Men’s and Women’s Road-Cycling Tours." International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance 2, no. 1 (March 2007): 58–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2.1.58.

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Purpose:To quantify the fluid and food consumed during a men’s and women’s professional road-cycling tour.Methods:Eight men (age 25 ± 5 y, body mass ± 7.4 kg, and height 177.4 ± 4.5 cm) and 6 women (age 26 ± 4 y, body mass ± 5.6 kg, and height 170.4 ± 5.2 cm) of the Australian Institute of Sport Road Cycling squads participated in the study. The men competed in the 6-d Tour Down Under (Adelaide, Australia), and the women, in the 10-d Tour De L’Aude (Aude, France). Body mass was recorded before and immediately after the race. Cyclists recalled the number of water bottles and amount of food they had consumed.Results:Men and women recorded body-mass losses of ~2 kg (2.8% body mass) and 1.5 kg (2.6% body mass), respectively, per stage during the long road races. Men had an average fluid intake of 1.0 L/h, whereas women only consumed on average 0.4 L/h. In addition, men consumed CHO at the rate suggested by dietitians (average CHO intake of 48 g/h), but again the women failed to reach recommendations, with an average intake of ~21 g/h during a road stage.Conclusions:Men appeared to drink and eat during racing in accordance with current nutritional recommendations, but women failed to reach these guidelines. Both men and women finished their races with a body-mass loss of ~2.6% to 2.8%. Further research is required to determine the impact of this loss on road-cycling performance and thermoregulation.

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Heron, Neil. "Editorial: How do you diagnosis and manage sports-related concussion (SRC) in road cycling? A Plan for developing SRC-assessment and management protocols within road cycling." Journal of Science and Cycling 9, no. 1 (June 30, 2020): 1–4. http://dx.doi.org/10.28985/0620.jsc.07.

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Abstract: Sports-related concussion (SRC) is a common injury within elite road cycling and SRC is typically assessed and managed with a SCAT5. However the SCAT5 cannot be applied to road cycling in its current format and the cycling community therefore need to consider modifications or indeed alternatives to the SCAT5 to allow adequate assessment and management of SRC within road cycling. Potential solutions to consider to improve SRC assessment and management in road cycling include: 1) a SRC consensus meeting to allow modification of the SCAT5 for road cycling; 2) rule alterations to allow ‘pitch-side’ SRC assessment during races; 3) epidemiological injury surveillance within road cycling to better understand the issues around SRC; and, 4) better use of technologies to help diagnose SRC. We hope that these solutions can go some way to bridging the gap between SRC assessment and management between our own sport of road cycling and those with maturing SRC protocols, such as rugby union.

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Scheer, Volker, Solveig Vieluf, Tanja I. Janssen, and Hans‐Christian Heitkamp. "Predicting Competition Performance in Short Trail Running Races with Lactate Thresholds." Journal of Human Kinetics 69, no. 1 (October 18, 2019): 159–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/hukin-2019-0092.

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Abstract Trail running is a popular sport, yet factors related to performance are still not fully understood. Lactate thresholds have been thoroughly investigated in road running and correlate strongly with race performance, but to date few data are available about the value in trail running performance prediction. We examined 25 trail runners (age 31.2 ± 5.1 years, BMI 22.2 ± 1.82 kg/m2) with an initial graded exercise test for measurement of VO2max (59.5 ± 5.2 ml.kg‐1.min‐ 1) and lactate thresholds (LT): LTAET (LT aerobic) 1.03 ± 0.59 mmol/l; 11.2 ± 1.1 km/h), IAT (individual lactate threshold) (2.53 ± 0.59 mmol/l; 15.4 ± 1.6 km/h) and LT4 (lactate threshold at 4 mmol/l) (16.2 ± 1.9 km/h). All runners subsequently participated in a 31.1 km XS trail race and 9 runners in a 21 km XXS trail race. Race performance times correlated negatively with the XS trail run (LTAET: r = ‐0.65, p < 0.01; LT4: r = ‐0.87, p < 0.01; IAT: r = ‐0.84, p < 0.01) and regression analysis showed that race performance could be predicted by: LT4: ‐324.15×LT4+13195.23 (R2 = .753, F1,23 = 70.02, p < 0.01). A subgroup analysis showed higher correlations with race performance for slower than faster runners. No correlations were found with the XXS race. Lactate thresholds can be of value in predicting trail race performance and help in designing training plans.

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Deaner, Robert O. "More Males Run Relatively Fast in U.S. Road Races: Further Evidence of a Sex Difference in Competitiveness." Evolutionary Psychology 4, no. 1 (January 2006): 147470490600400. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/147470490600400126.

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Eagleman, Andrea N. "Attitudes, motivation, and commitment of runners who do and do not participate in women-only road races." International Journal of Sport Management and Marketing 13, no. 3/4 (2013): 200. http://dx.doi.org/10.1504/ijsmm.2013.059724.

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Nolan, Rory, Richard Usher, and Neil Heron. "An Overview of the Athlete's Biological Passport (ABP) in Professional Road Cycling and causes of natural variation within the ABP." Journal of Science and Cycling 8, no. 3 (December 31, 2019): 3–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.28985/1920.jsc.02.

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This article provides an overview of the athlete's biological passport (ABP) within professional sport, with a particular focus on professional road cycling. We describe the rationale behind the ABP, what is recorded on it (particularly focusing on the haematological passport), what can cause 'natural' variations to it and discuss its role within professional sport. These 'natural' variations often occur at Grand Tours but more research is required into what happens during these multiple-stage road cycling races in terms of the ABP.

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Glick, Joshua, Jeffrey Rixe, Nancy Spurkeland, Jodi Brady, Matthew Silvis, and Robert P. Olympia. "Medical and Disaster Preparedness of US Marathons." Prehospital and Disaster Medicine 30, no. 4 (June 23, 2015): 344–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1049023x15004859.

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AbstractBackgroundDespite the events that occurred at the 2013 Boston Marathon (Boston, Massachusetts USA), there are currently no evidence-based guidelines or published data regarding medical and disaster preparedness of marathon races in the United States.PurposeTo determine the current state of medical disaster preparedness of marathons in the US and to identify potential areas for improvement.MethodsA cross-sectional, questionnaire-based study was conducted from January through May of 2014. The questionnaire was distributed to race directors of US road and trail marathons, as identified by a comprehensive internet database.ResultsOne hundred twenty-three questionnaires were available for analysis (19% usable response rate). Marathon races from all major regions of the US were represented. Runner medical information was not listed on race bibs in 53% of races. Only 45% of races held group training and planning sessions prior to race day. Automated external defibrillators (AEDs) were immediately available on 50% of courses, and medications such as albuterol (30%), oxygen (33%), and IV fluids (34%) were available less frequently. Regarding medical emergencies, 55% of races did not have protocols for the assessment of dehydration, asthma, chest pain, syncope, or exercise-induced cramping. With regard to disaster preparedness, 50% of races did not have protocols for the management of disasters, and 21% did not provide security personnel at start/finish lines, aid stations, road crossings, and drop bag locations.ConclusionsAreas for improvement in the preparedness of US marathons were identified, such as including printed medical information on race bibs, increasing pre-race training and planning sessions for volunteers, ensuring the immediate availability of certain emergency equipment and medications, and developing written protocols for specific emergencies and disasters.GlickJRixeJASpurkelandNBradyJSilvisMOlympiaRP. Medical and disaster preparedness of US marathons. Prehosp Disaster Med. 2015;30(4):1–7.

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Calvo, Ernesto. "The Competitive Road to Proportional Representation." World Politics 61, no. 2 (March 18, 2009): 254–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0043887109000100.

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One of the most noteworthy political regularities in the early twentieth century was the shift away from majoritarian electoral rules in Western Europe. The conventional wisdom suggests that proportional representation (PR) was introduced by elites who believed that under the existing majoritarian rules (simple plurality, block-vote, two-ballot rules) they would soon lose power to rapidly growing socialist parties. But this does not explain why many electoral reforms were carried out in countries with weak or nonexistent socialist parties. The author shows that increasing the number of parties distorts the seat-vote properties of electoral rules to a larger degree than previously anticipated. Under increasing party competition, electoral regimes display larger partisan biases than those observed in two-party races and crowd out minority parties that have territorially dispersed constituencies in favor of minority parties that have territorially concentrated constituencies. Using a dynamic Bayesian model for seats and votes, the author measures the partisan biases brought about by the expansion of voting rights in the late nineteenth century to explain the drive to reform majoritarian electoral systems.

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Stearns, Rebecca L., Yuri Hosokawa, William M. Adams, Luke N. Belval, Robert A. Huggins, John F. Jardine, Rachel K. Katch, Robert J. Davis, and Douglas J. Casa. "Incidence of Recurrent Exertional Heat Stroke in a Warm-Weather Road Race." Medicina 56, no. 12 (December 21, 2020): 720. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/medicina56120720.

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Background and Objectives: Exertional heat stroke (EHS) survivors may be more susceptible to subsequent EHS; however, the occurrence of survivors with subsequent EHS episodes is limited. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to evaluate the incidence of participants with repeated EHS (EHS-2+) cases in a warm-weather road race across participation years compared to those who experienced 1 EHS (EHS-1). Materials and Methods: A retrospective observational case series design was utilized. Medical record data from 17-years at the Falmouth Road Race between 2003–2019 were examined for EHS cases. Incidence of EHS-2+ cases per race and average EHS cases per EHS-2+ participant were calculated (mean ± SD) and descriptive factors (rectal temperature (TRE), finish time (FT), Wet Bulb Globe Temperature (WBGT), age, race year) for each EHS was collected. Results: A total of 333 EHS patients from 174,853 finishers were identified. Sixteen EHS-2+ participants (11 males, 5 females, age = 39 ± 16 year) accounted for 11% of the total EHS cases (n = 37/333). EHS-2+ participants had an average of 2.3 EHS cases per person (range = 2–4) and had an incidence rate of 2.6 EHS per 10 races. EHS-2+ participants finished 93 races following initial EHS, with 72 of the races (77%) completed without EHS incident. Initial EHS TRE was not statistically different than subsequent EHS initial TRE (+0.3 ± 0.9 °C, p > 0.050). Initial EHS-2+ participant FT was not statistically different than subsequent EHS FT (−4.2 ± 7.0 min, p > 0.050). The years between first and second EHS was 3.6 ± 3.5 year (Mode: 1, Range: 1–12). Relative risk ratios revealed that EHS patients were at a significantly elevated risk for subsequent EHS episodes 2 years following their initial EHS (relative risk ratio = 3.32, p = 0.050); however, the risk from 3–5 years post initial EHS was not statistically elevated, though the relative risk ratio values remained above 1.26. Conclusions: These results demonstrate that 11% of all EHS cases at the Falmouth Road Race are EHS-2+ cases and that future risk for a second EHS episode at this race is most likely to occur within the first 2 years following the initial EHS incident. After this initial 2-year period, risk for another EHS episode is not significantly elevated. Future research should examine factors to explain individuals who are susceptible to multiple EHS cases, incidence at other races and corresponding prevention strategies both before and after initial EHS.

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Miller, Jonathan M., Mark A. Pereira, Julian Wolfson, Melissa N. Laska, Toben F. Nelson, and Dianne Neumark-Sztainer. "Are Correlates of Physical Activity in Adolescents Similar Across Ethnicity/Race and Sex: Implications for Interventions." Journal of Physical Activity and Health 16, no. 12 (December 1, 2019): 1163–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jpah.2018-0600.

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Background: This study tested for differences in personal, social, and environmental correlates of moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) across ethnicity/race in male and female adolescents. Methods: Self-reported MVPA and 47 potential correlates of MVPA were measured in an ethnically/racially diverse cross-sectional sample of adolescents, in Minnesota, who participated in EAT-2010 (Eating and Activity in Teens). Interactions of potential correlates with ethnicity/race on MVPA were tested in linear hierarchical regression models in boys and girls. Results: Boys reported 1.7 more weekly hours of MVPA than girls. White adolescents reported 1.1 to 2.1 more weekly hours of MVPA than nonwhite adolescents. Among girls, neighborhood road connectivity was negatively correlated with MVPA among Hispanic and Asian participants. Among boys, sports participation was positively correlated with MVPA among all ethnicities/races, except Asians. Home media equipment was positively correlated with MVPA among Hispanic boys, but negatively correlated among white boys. Conclusions: A few correlates of physical activity among adolescents differed intersectionally by ethnicity/race and sex. Sports participation and home media equipment may have differing impacts on physical activity across ethnicities and races in boys, whereas neighborhood features like road connectivity may have differing impacts on physical activity across ethnicities and races in girls.

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Knechtle, Beat, Götz Kohler, and Thomas Rosemann. "Study of a European Male Champion in 10-Km Road Races in the Age Group >85 Years." Baylor University Medical Center Proceedings 23, no. 3 (July 2010): 259–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08998280.2010.11928630.

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Klöcker, Ulrike, David B. Croft, and Daniel Ramp. "Frequency and causes of kangaroo - vehicle collisions on an Australian outback highway." Wildlife Research 33, no. 1 (2006): 5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wr04066.

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Kangaroo–vehicle collisions are frequent on Australian highways. Despite high economic costs, detrimental effects on animal welfare, and potential impacts on population viability, little research has been done to investigate the impact of road mortality on kangaroo populations, where and why accidents occur, and how the collisions can be mitigated. We therefore collected data on species (Macropus rufus, M. giganteus, M. fuliginosus, M. robustus), sex and age of kangaroos killed on a 21.2-km bitumenised section of outback highway over 6 months in far western New South Wales, Australia. The spatial and temporal distribution of road-killed kangaroos was investigated in relation to the cover and quality of road-side vegetation, road characteristics, the density of kangaroos along the road, climatic variables and traffic volume. A total of 125 kangaroos were found killed on the road at a rate of 0.03 deaths km–1 day–1. Grey kangaroos of two species (M. giganteus, M. fuliginosus) were under-represented in the road-kill sample in comparison with their proportion in the source population estimated during the day. No bias towards either sex was found. The age structure of road-killed kangaroos was similar to age structures typical of source kangaroo populations. Road-kills mainly occurred in open plains country. In road sections with curves or stock races, road-kill frequencies were higher than expected. Greater cover and greenness of roadside vegetation at the verge probably attracted kangaroos to the road and variation in this vegetation affected the spatial distribution of road-kills. The temporal distribution of road-kills was positively correlated with the volume of night-time traffic. The probability of a kangaroo–vehicle collision increased exponentially with traffic volume. Results are discussed in relation to the potential for mitigation of kangaroo–vehicle collisions.

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Deaner, Robert O., and Don Mitchell. "More Men Run Relatively Fast in U.S. Road Races, 1981–2006: A Stable Sex Difference in Non-Elite Runners." Evolutionary Psychology 9, no. 4 (October 2011): 147470491100900. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/147470491100900410.

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Cook, Brian, Trisha M. Karr, Christie Zunker, James E. Mitchell, Ron Thompson, Roberta Sherman, Ross D. Crosby, Li Cao, Ann Erickson, and Stephen A. Wonderlich. "Primary and Secondary Exercise Dependence in a Community-Based Sample of Road Race Runners." Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 35, no. 5 (October 2013): 464–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jsep.35.5.464.

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The purpose of our study was to examine exercise dependence (EXD) in a large community-based sample of runners. The secondary purpose of this study was to examine differences in EXD symptoms between primary and secondary EXD. Our sample included 2660 runners recruited from a local road race (M age = 38.78 years, SD = 10.80; 66.39% women; 91.62% Caucasian) who completed all study measures online within 3 weeks of the race. In this study, EXD prevalence was lower than most previously reported rates (gamma = .248, p < .001) and individuals in the at-risk for EXD category participated in longer distance races, F(8,1) = 14.13, p = .01, partial eta squared = .05. Group differences were found for gender, F(1,1921) 8.08, p = .01, partial eta squared = .004, and primary or secondary group status, F(1,1921) 159.53, p = .01, partial eta squared = .077. Implications of primary and secondary EXD differences and future research are discussed.

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Elliott, Jonathan, Richard Anderson, Stephen Collins, and Neil Heron. "Sports-related concussion (SRC) assessment in road cycling: a systematic review and call to action." BMJ Open Sport & Exercise Medicine 5, no. 1 (April 2019): e000525. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjsem-2019-000525.

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BackgroundSports-related concussion (SRC) is a recognised risk in road cycling and can have serious health consequences. Recent high-profile cases of professional road cyclists continuing to participate in races despite suffering obvious SRC have highlighted the difficulties in assessing SRC within road cycling.PurposeTo undertake a systematic review of the literature on SRC assessment in road cycling.Study designSystematic review.MethodsLiterature describing SRC assessment in road cycling was identified by searching MEDLINE, EMBASE, PsycINFO and Web of Science. Two reviewers independently screened titles and abstracts for eligibility and a qualitative analysis was undertaken of included studies.ResultsFrom 94 studies identified, two were included for review. Gordonet aldescribe the presentation of a single case of paediatric concussion following a cycling crash. They highlight the utility of SRC evaluation using the Sport Concussion Assessment Tool (SCAT) as well as the importance of a stepwise return-to-play protocol. Greve and Modabber discuss a number of traumatic brain injuries that occurred during the 2011 road cycling season and, as a minimum, call for riders to be withdrawn from competition following loss of consciousness or amnesia. Both studies are at high risk of bias and of low quality.ConclusionRoad cycling poses unique challenges for the assessment of SRC. This review illustrates the lack of published evidence to advise effective means of SRC assessment within road cycling. The Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI) regulations advise the use of SCAT-5 for concussion assessment but this tool is impractical, requiring modification for use in road cycling. We would like to call on the UCI to hold a consensus meeting to establish an evidence-based SRC assessment protocol and return-to-riding protocol for road cycling.

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Schwellnus, Martin, Sonja Swanevelder, Wayne Derman, Mats Borjesson, Karen Schwabe, and Esme Jordaan. "Prerace medical screening and education reduce medical encounters in distance road races: SAFER VIII study in 153 208 race starters." British Journal of Sports Medicine 53, no. 10 (November 9, 2018): 634–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2018-099275.

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ObjectivesTo examine the efficacy and feasibility of an online prerace medical screening and educational intervention programme for reducing medical complications in long-distance races.MethodsThis was an 8-year observational study of medical encounter rates among 153 208 Two Oceans race starters (21.1 and 56 km) in South Africa. After the first 4-year control (CON) period, we introduced an online prerace medical screening (based on European pre-exercise screening guidelines) and an automated educational intervention programme. We compared the incidence of medical encounters (per 1000 starters; all and serious life threatening) in the CON versus the 4-year intervention (INT) period.ResultsIn comparison to the CON period (2008–2011: 65 865 starters), the INT period (2012–2015: 87 343 starters) had a significantly lower incidence (adjusted for age group, sex, race distance) of all medical encounters by 29% (CON=8.6 (7.9–9.4); INT=6.1 (5.6–6.7), p<0.0001), in the 21.1 km race by 19% (CON=5.1 (4.4–5.9); INT=4.1 (3.6–4.8), p=0.0356) and in the 56 km race by 39% (CON=14.6 (13.1–16.3); INT=9.0 (7.9–10.1), p<0.0001). Serious life-threatening encounters were significantly reduced by 64% (CON=0.6 (0.5–0.9); INT=0.2 (0.1–0.4); p=0.0003) (adjusted for age group and sex). Registration numbers increased in the INT period (CON=81 345; INT=106 743) and overall % race starters were similar in the CON versus INT period. Wet-bulb globe temperature was similar in the CON and INT periods.ConclusionAll medical encounters and serious life-threatening encounters were significantly lower after the introduction of a prescreening and educational intervention programme, and the programme was feasible.

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Khabriev, R. U., S. N. Cherkasov, G. Yu Grigoriev, and A. V. Fedyaeva. "Effects of age and gender on dietary habits of people engaged in sports at the age of 40 and older." Sports medicine: research and practice 11, no. 1 (June 28, 2021): 53–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.47529/2223-2524.2021.1.7.

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Objective: to analyze how eating habits depend on age and gender among people aged 40 and over engaged in sports (athletics, participation in 10 km or more road running races).Materials and methods: the information about eating habits was obtained through questionnaires of athletes aged 40 and over, participating in 10 km or more road running races. 1649 questionnaires were analyzed. The analysis was carried out in three age groups: 40–49 years old, 50–59 years old, and 60 years old and over.Results: more than half of men and a third of women do not follow any principles in organizing their diet. The most common habit, regardless of gender, is eating three or more times a day. The largest amount of food is consumed in the middle of the day and in the afternoon. Most of the respondents try to eat at the same time of the day, when there is such an opportunity. Snacking between main meals is a widespread habit, especially among women. Despite the fact that the majority of men and 30 % of women often consume flour products and products containing sugar, they are not overweight.Conclusion: most of the athletes aged 40 and over do not aim to follow a diet or improve nutrition.

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Sakai, Daiki, Naosuke Uchida, Shinnosuke Enomoto, Souya Iwata, Yasuo Kawakami, and Shigeru Wesugi. "Improving Road Bike Leaning Skills on Downhill Corners (Developing a System for Detecting Curvature Change Points and the Angle of a Road Bike while Riding)." Proceedings 49, no. 1 (June 15, 2020): 153. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/proceedings2020049153.

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In road bicycle races, advanced skills are needed to traverse downhill corners quickly and safely. A previous study revealed that in specific experimental corners, some beginners tend to lean their bikes more compared to experts. Therefore, in seeking to develop a support method for improving rider skill in controlling bike position, the authors aimed to design a system that indicates to users the positions of their bikes to lean it at the appropriate inclination when making turns. First, we determined the corner starting points using the RTK (Real Time Kinematic) positioning system. Then, we calculated the theoretical inclination and compared this to the inclination practiced by an expert. The experiment with this system showed that the expert started leaning the bike approximately 5 m short of a corner’s starting point with the speed maintained at approximately 25 km/h, with some correlation found between the theoretically ideal degree of inclination and the expert’s actual inclination.

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Qayumoghli, M. İsmail. "İpek yolun’da medeniyetin gelişmi, özelliği ve evrenselliği." Vestnik Bishkek Humanities University, no. 48 (July 1, 2019): 83–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.35254/10.35254/bhu.2019.48.24.

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Özet: Çin’den başlayan İpek Yolu güzergahı, yüzyıllar boyu Batı ile Doğu ara- sında medeniyet yolu olma işlevini yerine getirmiştir. İpek Yolu, sadece tüccarların değil; aynı zamanda tarih, ticaret, fikir, din, ilim, sanat ve kültür yolu olduduğu ne- deniyle, farklı ırk ve tolplumlara birbirlerini tanıma fırsatı vermiştir. Esasen İpek Yolu, insanlık tarihinde farklılıkları zenginliğe dönüştüren en önemli medeniyet yolu olmuştur. İpek Yolu, Orta Asya, Çin, Güney Asya, Batı Asya ve birçok Batılı ülkeler- de birçok oteller, konuk evleri, mağazalar, parklar ve İpek Yolu adını aldığı için bir ortak “bellek” olarak hatırlaniyor. Örneğin: Deve adının İpek Yolu sembolü olarak Pekin’de, Bişkek’de, Kabil’de, İslamabad’da, Duşanbe’de, Taşkent’ta, Aşkabat’ta, Tahran, İstanbul’da ve diğer tüm büyük-küçük şehirlerde bulabilmemiz, Büyük İpek Yolu’nun evrenselliğinin kanıtıdır. Anahtar kelimeler: İpek Yolu, Medeniyet, Kültür, Bilim, Coğrafya, Ticaret. ABSTRACT: The Silk Road, starting from China centuries has fulfilled its function as a path length of civilizations between East and West. Silk Road is not the only trader; at the same time in history, trade, ideas, religion, sciences, art and culture to which violently way, gave the opportunity to know each other and to different races tolplum. In fact, the Silk Road, the differences in human history is the most important civilizations way into prosperity. The Silk Road is remembered as a common “memory” because it takes the name Silk Road, many hotels, guest houses, shops and parks in Central Asia, China, South Asia, West Asia and many Western countries. For example: Camel as a symbol of the Silk Road in Beijing, Bishkek, Kabul, Islamabad, Dushanbe, Tashkent, Ashgabat, Tehran, Istanbul and all other big-small cities, we can find Evidence of the universality of the Great Silk Road. Keywords: Silk Road, Civilization, Culture, Science, Geography, Commerce.

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OHNISHI, Ohmi. "Population genetics of cultivated common buckwheat, Fagopyrum esculentum Moench. VIII. Local differentiation of land races in Europe and the silk road." Japanese Journal of Genetics 68, no. 4 (1993): 303–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1266/jjg.68.303.

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OHNISHI, Ohmi. "Population genetics of cultivated common buckwheat, Fagopyrum esculentum Moench. VIII. Local differentiation of land races in Europe and the silk road." Genes & Genetic Systems 68, no. 4 (1993): 303–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1266/ggs.68.303.

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Baghurst, Timothy, Steven L. Prewitt, and Tyler Tapps. "Physiological Demands of Extreme Obstacle Course Racing: A Case Study." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 16, no. 16 (August 19, 2019): 2879. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16162879.

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Obstacle course races are a popular source of recreation in the United States, providing additional challenges over traditional endurance events. Despite their popularity, very little is known about the physiological or cognitive demands of obstacle course races compared to traditional road races. The purpose of this study was to investigate the physiological effects of participation in an extreme obstacle course race. The participant was a 38-year-old Caucasian male, who completed an extreme obstacle course race over a 24-h period. Exercise intensity, steps taken, energy expenditure, and heart rate were recorded over the event’s duration using an Actigraph Link GT9X-BT accelerometer and a Polar heart rate monitor. Results reflected the unique nature of obstacle course racing when compared to traditional endurance events, with ups-and-downs recorded in each variable due to the encountering of obstacles. This case study provides a glimpse into the physiological demands of obstacle course racing, and suggests that the cognitive demands placed on competitors may differ to traditional endurance events, due to the challenges of obstacles interspersed throughout the event. With the popularity of obstacle course racing, and to enhance training opportunities, improve performance, and decrease the incidence of injuries, future research should further investigate the physiological and cognitive demands of obstacle course races of various distances and among diverse populations.

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El Helou, Nour, Geoffroy Berthelot, Valérie Thibault, Muriel Tafflet, Hala Nassif, Frédéric Campion, Olivier Hermine, and Jean-François Toussaint. "Tour de France, Giro, Vuelta, and classic European races show a unique progression of road cycling speed in the last 20 years." Journal of Sports Sciences 28, no. 7 (May 2010): 789–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02640411003739654.

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Journal articles on the topic 'Road races'

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