Relevant bibliographies by topics / Risky Framing

Academic literature on the topic 'Risky Framing'

Author: Grafiati
Published: 14 March 2023

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Journal articles on the topic "Risky Framing"

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Zhang, Ran, Luming Zhao, Lin Wu, Hongxu Chen, Gaoxing Zhou, Xiaoqing Zhang, Peng Fang, and Xufeng Liu. "The effects of optimism on self-framing and risky decision making." Social Behavior and Personality: an international journal 48, no. 10 (October 7, 2020): 1–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.2224/sbp.9409.

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The framing effect is a key topic that has been insufficiently studied in research on behavioral decision making. In our study we explored the effects of optimism on self-framing and risky decision making. Participants were 416 undergraduates who responded to the Life Orientation Test and a self-framing test based on the Asian disease problem. The results demonstrate that, compared with people low in optimism, highly optimistic individuals tended to use more positive words to describe problems, generate more positive frames, and choose more risky options. There was also a significant self-framing effect: Participants with a negative frame tended to be risk-seeking, whereas those with a positive frame tended to avoid risks. Additionally, selfframing suppressed the effect of optimism on risky decision making. We can conclude that optimism has significant effects on self-framing and risky decision making.
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Gosling, Corentin J., and Sylvain Moutier. "Is the framing effect a framing affect?" Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 72, no. 6 (September 10, 2018): 1412–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1747021818796016.

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Over the past 30 years, researchers have shown that human choices are highly sensitive to the ways in which alternatives are presented. For example, when individuals face a choice between a sure and a risky option, their willingness to take risks varies depending on whether the alternatives are framed in terms of gain or loss. The current major hypothesis that explains such a framing effect predicts that compared with an equivalent risky option, sure gains are emotionally attractive and sure losses are emotionally aversive. Using a behavioural paradigm, the main objective of the current study was to experimentally observe the extent to which the emotional attraction to sure gains and aversion to sure losses are at the core of framing susceptibility. First, our results showed that, as the literature suggests, the emotional attraction to sure gains and aversion to sure losses underpin the framing effect. Second, our results showed that methodological factors moderated the role of these emotional mechanisms in the framing effect. Implications and directions for future studies are discussed.
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ZHANG, Wen-Hui. "Self-framing, Risk Perception and Risky Choice." Acta Psychologica Sinica 40, no. 6 (October 28, 2008): 633–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.3724/sp.j.1041.2008.00633.

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Wang, X. T. "Self-framing of risky choice." Journal of Behavioral Decision Making 17, no. 1 (December 16, 2003): 1–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/bdm.454.

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Steiger, Alexander, and Anton Kühberger. "A Meta-Analytic Re-Appraisal of the Framing Effect." Zeitschrift für Psychologie 226, no. 1 (January 2018): 45–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1027/2151-2604/a000321.

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Abstract. We reevaluated and reanalyzed the data of Kühberger’s (1998) meta-analysis on framing effects in risky decision making by using p-curve. This method uses the distribution of only significant p-values to correct the effect size, thus taking publication bias into account. We found a corrected overall effect size of d = 0.52, which is considerably higher than the effect reported by Kühberger (d = 0.31). Similarly to the original analysis, most moderators proved to be effective, indicating that there is not the risky-choice framing effect. Rather, the effect size varies with different manipulations of the framing task. Taken together, the p-curve analysis shows that there are reliable risky-choice framing effects, and that there is no evidence of intense p-hacking. Comparing the corrected estimate to the effect size reported in the Many Labs Replication Project (MLRP) on gain-loss framing (d = 0.60) shows that the two estimates are surprisingly similar in size. Finally, we conducted a new meta-analysis of risk framing experiments published in 2016 and again found a similar effect size (d = 0.56). Thus, although there is discussion on the adequate explanation for framing effects, there is no doubt about their existence: risky-choice framing effects are highly reliable and robust. No replicability crisis there.
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Rachev, Nikolay R., Hyemin Han, David Lacko, Rebekah Gelpí, Yuki Yamada, and Andreas Lieberoth. "Replicating the Disease framing problem during the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic: A study of stress, worry, trust, and choice under risk." PLOS ONE 16, no. 9 (September 10, 2021): e0257151. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0257151.

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In the risky-choice framing effect, different wording of the same options leads to predictably different choices. In a large-scale survey conducted from March to May 2020 and including 88,181 participants from 47 countries, we investigated how stress, concerns, and trust moderated the effect in the Disease problem, a prominent framing problem highly evocative of the COVID-19 pandemic. As predicted by the appraisal-tendency framework, risk aversion and the framing effect in our study were larger than under typical circumstances. Furthermore, perceived stress and concerns over coronavirus were positively associated with the framing effect. Contrary to predictions, however, they were not related to risk aversion. Trust in the government’s efforts to handle the coronavirus was associated with neither risk aversion nor the framing effect. The proportion of risky choices and the framing effect varied substantially across nations. Additional exploratory analyses showed that the framing effect was unrelated to reported compliance with safety measures, suggesting, along with similar findings during the pandemic and beyond, that the effectiveness of framing manipulations in public messages might be limited. Theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed, along with directions for further investigations.
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Kühberger, Anton. "Risky choice framing by experience: A methodological note." Judgment and Decision Making 16, no. 5 (September 2021): 1314–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1930297500008445.

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AbstractIn classic research on judgment and decision making under risk, risk is described by providing participants with the respective outcomes and probabilities in a summary format. Recent research has introduced a different paradigm – decisions-by-experience – where participants learn about risk by sampling from the outcomes, rather than by summary descriptions. This latter research reports a description-experience gap, indicating that some of the classic patterns of risk attitude reverse when people experience the risk. Recent research has attempted to investigate risky choice framing in the decisions-by-experience paradigm. I discuss how this research runs into problems in properly manipulating framing in decisions by experience. Drawing from framing research with animals, I argue that framing effects also exist in experience tasks. The classic Asian Disease task, however, awaits proper translation into an experience paradigm.
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Dertwinkel-Kalt, Markus, and Tobias Wenzel. "Focusing and framing of risky alternatives." Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization 159 (March 2019): 289–304. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2017.12.020.

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Guo, Lisa, Jennifer S. Trueblood, and Adele Diederich. "Thinking Fast Increases Framing Effects in Risky Decision Making." Psychological Science 28, no. 4 (February 1, 2017): 530–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956797616689092.

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Every day, people face snap decisions when time is a limiting factor. In addition, the way a problem is presented can influence people’s choices, which creates what are known as framing effects. In this research, we explored how time pressure interacts with framing effects in risky decision making. Specifically, does time pressure strengthen or weaken framing effects? On one hand, research has suggested that framing effects evolve through the deliberation process, growing larger with time. On the other hand, dual-process theory attributes framing effects to an intuitive, emotional system that responds automatically to stimuli. In our experiments, participants made decisions about gambles framed in terms of either gains or losses, and time pressure was manipulated across blocks. Results showed increased framing effects under time pressure in both hypothetical and incentivized choices, which supports the dual-process hypothesis that these effects arise from a fast, intuitive system.
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Cheng, Pi-Yueh, and Wen-Bin Chiou. "Framing Effects in Group Investment Decision Making: Role of Group Polarization." Psychological Reports 102, no. 1 (February 2008): 283–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.2466/pr0.102.1.283-292.

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Prospect theory proposes that framing effects result in a preference for risk-averse choices in gain situations and risk-seeking choices in loss situations. However, in group polarization situations, groups show a pronounced tendency to shift toward more extreme positions than those they initially held. Whether framing effects in group decision making are more prominent as a result of the group-polarization effect was examined. Purposive sampling of 120 college students (57 men, 63 women; M age = 20.1 yr., SD = 0.9) allowed assessment of relative preference between cautious and risky choices in individual and group decisions. Findings indicated that both group polarization and framing effects occur in investment decisions. More importantly, group decisions in a gain situation appear to be more cautious, i.e., risk averse, than individual decisions, whereas group decisions in the loss situation appear to be more risky than individual decisions. Thus, group decision making may expand framing effects when it comes to investment choices through group polarization.
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Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Risky Framing"

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Rubinchik, Nataliya. "A demonstration of the meta-studies methodology using the risky-choice framing effect." The Ohio State University, 2019. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=osu1574201911927335.

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Dahl, Mindy J. "Adolescent decisions in situations of uncertainty the impact of risky choice framing an decision making competency /." Laramie, Wyo. : University of Wyoming, 2005. http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=1044399551&sid=3&Fmt=2&clientId=18949&RQT=309&VName=PQD.

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Voss, Raymond P. "A Methodological Investigation of Double Filter by Frequency Theory as Applied to Lateralized Decision Making: Risky Choice, Attribute, and Goal Framing." University of Toledo / OhioLINK, 2015. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=toledo1430392554.

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Weston, Lauren. "Exploring the factors which underpin young drivers' over-representation in road traffic collisions." Thesis, University of Plymouth, 2016. http://hdl.handle.net/10026.1/5153.

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Worldwide, young drivers are involved in more road traffic collisions than any other age group (Taubman & Katz, 2012). Comprehensive driver training and various forms of pre- and- post-test road safety interventions (RSIs) are in place, but young drivers continue to be involved in more at-fault, fatal collisions than older, newly qualified drivers (e.g. Emmerson, 2008; Braitman et al, 2008; Clarke et al, 2010). The evidence base to date is mixed regarding why young drivers are at a heightened risk of collision and so this thesis aims to provide further understanding about the factors underpinning young drivers’ engagement in risky driving. An evaluation of a young driver RSI, found that young males were less likely than young females to report safer attitudes and intentions after attending the RSI. We considered that this may be due to young males’ behaviour being motivated by a desire to seek rewards (e.g. the thrill of risky driving) rather than a fear of punishment which forms the basis of traditional RSIs. Two subsequent studies were conducted to ascertain whether a heightened sensitivity to reward might underpin the risk-taking behaviour of those most at risk. We found that young males and females scoring high on reward sensitivity reported engaging in more road traffic violations and displayed slower reaction times on a driving game; suggesting that young people may have a heightened sensitivity to reward, in general, and concurrently tend to accept a higher degree of risk than other drivers. We also found that reward sensitive young drivers rated road safety messages framed in terms of financial gains as most effective, suggesting that financial incentives may be a potential route to engage young drivers in the future. The findings from another study provided insight into the precise mechanisms at play in the relationship between young drivers and their peer passengers, and the evaluation of the pilot peer-to-peer RSI showed how it might be possible to improve young drivers’ intentions to drive safely by modifying the norm that risky driving is an appropriate way to attain social prestige within a peer group. The thesis offers a significant contribution to the literature by establishing empirically the effect of reward sensitivity on young drivers’ engagement in risky driving and suggesting multiple ways to better improve young drivers’ safety in the future.
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Ehringer, Wolfgang, and Henrik Söderström. "Framing Global Catastrophic Risk - Recent and Future Research." Thesis, Högskolan i Halmstad, 2017. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:hh:diva-33354.

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This article is a literature review about global catastrophic risks. Its contribution is to give an overview of the research field in general and highlight the main potential catastrophic areas linked with recent studies. In many movies and TV shows, we can see our civilization collapse in various ways: Gigantic asteroids hit the earth and obliterate all life, nuclear wars emerge, artificial intelligence evolves and starts wars with humans, pandemics spread, and other kinds of catastrophic events with mass death or extinction of all life happen. Thus, even if these are extreme events and fiction, we should raise the question how likely it is that one or more of these events can occur in the near and far future. Although calculated probabilities of impact are low for the future such as tomorrow, in 10, 100 or a million years from now, this could actually be reality. Nevertheless, why should we care about the risks of these global catastrophic events today and what could be done to prevent or reduce the risk of a global catastrophe? In this paper we will discuss core content, such as different risks and ways to reduce them internationally, as well as the scientific context of the field. In fact, there are events that can be catastrophic on a global scale and happen in the near future, even if we do not know exactly when. Hence, specific risk assessment and proper mitigation strategies are necessary in order to maintain the human population. This article states that serious research is a basis for decision makers in particular, who invest funds in countermeasures.
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Taylor, Temis Gardner. "Energy and Risk: Discourse, Framing, and Content." DigitalCommons@USU, 2018. https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/etd/7370.

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This research examined how people communicate and create knowledge about energy-related risks. Analysis of the discourse, frames, and content surrounding unconventional energy policy and development in the Western United States was conducted using three case studies. The results contribute to an understanding of energy-related risk perceptions in social and historical contexts. Discourses contained in newspapers and public comments to the Bureau of Land Management presented arguments on the basis of risks to the environment; climate; human health and safety; jobs and economic prosperity; property rights; and local governments. Governments were seen as risks when they were perceived to allow misuse of public resources or threatened to override democratic processes. The quantity of water, energy, and land resources that would be consumed in the production of unconventional fuels were perceived to be social and environmental risks. Findings indicate that national identity and expectations of democracy were commonly-held values. Other entities, such as energy, the oil and gas industry, and property rights, were constructed in ways that created polarization and conflict among discourses. Different underlying assumptions about the role of government and what should be protected created social tensions and competing accounts of risks. Overall findings lend support to theories of risk and indicate possible communication and trust-building strategies for scientists and policy-makers.
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Mason, Ra. "Japan's recalibration of risk : the framing of North Korea." Thesis, University of Sheffield, 2012. http://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/2151/.

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Clark, Brodie. "Side Effects May Depend on the Framing of a Warning: But Does this Framing Effect Depend on Absolute Risk?" Thesis, Faculty of Science, School of Psychology, 2019. https://hdl.handle.net/2123/28535.

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Side effect warnings contribute directly to the burden of side effects. This occurs via the nocebo effect whereby negative outcomes are shaped by features of the treatment context, beyond the direct actions of the active treatment. Some studies have found that positive framing of warnings – stating the proportion of people who will not experience the side effect – reduces side effects compared to the more common-place negative framing – stating the proportion who will experience the side effect. However, findings have been mixed. It appears that the absolute risk ascribed to the side effect may determine the effect of framing, however this has not been tested. The current study employed a 2x2+1 between-subjects design to test the impact of both absolute risk and framing of a warning – as well as the inclusion of any statistical warning at all - on side effects. This was done in a model of virtual reality (VR)-induced nausea, with 130 healthy volunteers. Expectancy, anxiety and attentional bias were also measured as they have been proposed as mechanisms of framing and nocebo effects, but scantly - or in the case of attentional bias, never – previously empirically investigated. In this study, VR-induced nausea was not affected by framing or absolute risk of the warning. However, nausea was greater for participants who received no statistical warning. Relative to other groups, these participants also showed elevated anxiety – although not expectancy or attentional bias. These findings indicate that future studies and clinical practices must consider the effects of general, non-statistical warnings on nocebo side effects as they are potentially even more deleterious than more extensive, statistical warnings. These findings are also the first outside of pain studies to support a role for anxiety in nocebo effects, thereby shaping current understanding and future investigations of the poorly understood mechanisms of nocebo effects.
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Niewöhner, Jörg. "Using mental model theory to understand risk discourse : about the importance of consensus to risk communication." Thesis, University of East Anglia, 2001. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.365117.

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Link-Malcolm, Jessica. "Health message framing : motivating cardiovascular risk factor screening in young adults." Thesis, University of North Texas, 2008. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc9066/.

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As the leading cause of death in the United States, coronary heart disease (CHD) is a growing public health problem, despite the fact that many risk factors for the disease are preventable, especially if addressed early in life. The purpose of the current study was to examine the effects of loss-framed versus gain-framed versus information-only health messages on both intention to attend and actual attendance at an appointment to get screened for CHD risk factors (i.e., hypertension, diabetes, and dyslipidemia). It was hypothesized that a population of young adults would be more likely to view screening for CHD risk factors as a low-risk, health-affirming behavior as opposed to a risky, illness-detecting behavior and would thus be more strongly influenced by gain-framed messages than loss-framed messages. Additional goals included the exploration of the extensively researched individual health beliefs of perceived threat (as defined by the health belief model) and health locus of control as they relate to message frames. One hundred forty-three undergraduate students were randomly assigned to either the loss-framed, gain-framed, or information-only control conditions. Framing manipulation checks revealed that participants failed to discern differences in the tone and emphasis of the experimental pamphlets. As a result, no tests of framing effects could be conducted. Sixteen (11.2%) of the 143 participants who participated in Part 1 of the experiment participated in Part 2 (i.e., attended a risk factor screening appointment). Multiple regression analysis revealed risk index, age, and powerful others health locus of control as significant predictors of screening intention. Gender was the only demographic or health related variable that was significantly related to screening outcome, such that women were more likely to get screened than men. Limitations and recommendations are discussed.
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Books on the topic "Risky Framing"

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Barberis, Nicholas. The loss aversion narrow framing approach to the equity premium puzzle. Cambridge, Mass: National Bureau of Economic Research, 2006.

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Nadeau, Richard, Éric Bélanger, and Ece Özlem Atikcan. Framing Risky Choices: Brexit and the Dynamics of High-Stakes Referendums. McGill-Queen's University Press, 2020.

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Nadeau, Richard, Éric Bélanger, and Ece Özlem Atikcan. Framing Risky Choices: Brexit and the Dynamics of High-Stakes Referendums. McGill-Queen's University Press, 2020.

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Bazrafkan, Azernoosh, and Alexia Herwig. Risk, Responsibility, and Fairness in International Investment Law. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198795896.003.0013.

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International investment agreements (IIAs) accommodate two framings of risk in need of mitigation: political risks and risks of physical externalities. The chapter discloses that there is no consistency in the finer-grained framing of these risks in arbitral awards, and analyses these framings from the perspective of the fair and equitable treatment (FET) standard. It is argued that the requirements of fairness and equity call for a just distribution of systemic risks, which IIAs create. It must be ensured that IIAs yield greater ex ante benefits than risks for each stakeholder. The implication is twofold: governmental regulation necessary to protect human rights can never give rise to a right to damages under FET for frustration of expectations and good faith imperfections in regulations by developing countries must be tolerable insofar as emerging development is the constitutive reason for why foreign investment is likely to yield higher ex ante benefits than risks to investors.
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Fiorino, Daniel J. Two Worlds Colliding. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190605803.003.0001.

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In recent decades, ecological politics in the United States has been locked in a zero-sum conflict, with ecological goals pitted against economic ones. The result is that ecosystems and public health are increasingly at risk, needed transitions in energy and other systems are delayed, and opportunities for leveraging economic and ecological goals are unrealized. This matters, because economic growth is placing increasing pressures on local, regional, and global ecosystems and resources. Growing and compelling evidence of ecological limits raises not only critical threats to health and the natural environment but undermines the very basis for economic and social well-being. The alternative to an irresponsible strategy of unguided growth or a politically unrealistic and socially risky one of no growth or de-growth is that of green growth. Green growth defines a basis for both a politically realistic framing of ecology–economy issues and a workable policy agenda for change.
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Gandy, Oscar H. Framing Inequality in Public Policy Discourse. Edited by Kate Kenski and Kathleen Hall Jamieson. Oxford University Press, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199793471.013.019.

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This essay explores a variety of ways that the problem of inequality has been framed in the context of national policy debates in the United States. Following an introduction to the notion of inequality as a social problem, the chapter provides a brief review of how framing has been examined as a communications process and a strategic resource. The framing of inequality as a focus of public policy debates is described in relation to a selection of issues that include health disparities, racial inequality, and the digital divide. An additional assessment is made of the use of comparative risk as a framework for highlighting differences between groups defined by race, ethnicity and social class. The framing of environmental risks is examined in relation to a social justice frame. The author concludes with a discussion of constraints on the use of particular frames within debates about economic social policy.
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MacGregor, Susanne, and Betsy Thom. Risk and Substance Use: Framing Dangerous People and Dangerous Places. Taylor & Francis Group, 2020.

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MacGregor, Susanne, and Betsy Thom. Risk and Substance Use: Framing Dangerous People and Dangerous Places. Taylor & Francis Group, 2020.

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MacGregor, Susanne, and Betsy Thom. Risk and Substance Use: Framing Dangerous People and Dangerous Places. Taylor & Francis Group, 2020.

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MacGregor, Susanne, and Betsy Thom. Risk and Substance Use: Framing Dangerous People and Dangerous Places. Taylor & Francis Group, 2020.

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Book chapters on the topic "Risky Framing"

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Kaniok, Denise. "Studien III.I & III.II – Risky Choice Framing." In Framing im Kontext von Straßenbenutzungsgebühren, 151–233. Wiesbaden: Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-33302-7_7.

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Ceccarelli, Giovanni. "Risky Narratives: Framing General Average into Risk-Management Strategies (Thirteenth–Sixteenth Centuries)." In General Average and Risk Management in Medieval and Early Modern Maritime Business, 61–91. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04118-1_3.

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AbstractOver the last few years, historians have extensively investigated on the role of risk in the history of finance, and the development of risk-management techniques in the United States since the late nineteenth century. Well-established approaches that considered such innovations beneficial in themselves have been questioned, by pointing out the consequences of the pervasive spread of financial tools designed to mitigate risks. It appears, rather, that a socially uneven distribution of risk went along with the financial efficiency brought by these novelties, whose legitimacy rested on narratives identifying individual freedom with the taking of risks. This essay explores the possibility that something similar might have occurred in early modern Europe, when marine insurance provided an alternative to contracts previously used to mitigate the risks connected to sea trade. It also aims at discussing whether the spread of specialized insurance markets, beginning in the sixteenth century, brought to a substantial shift in the distribution of these types of risks from a restricted trading group to a broader social base.
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Levin, Irwin P., Todd McElroy, Gary J. Gaeth, William Hedgcock, and Natalie L. Denburg. "Behavioral and neuroscience methods for studying neuroeconomic processes: What we can learn from framing effects." In The neuroscience of risky decision making., 43–69. Washington: American Psychological Association, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/14322-003.

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Anderson, Emma-Louise. "Framing the Virus." In Gender, HIV and Risk, 12–33. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9781137316127_2.

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Abu el Ata, Nabil, and Rudolf Schmandt. "Framing the Risk Challenge." In The Tyranny of Uncertainty, 3–13. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-49104-1_1.

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Uhl, Alfred. "Framing substance use problems." In Risk and Substance Use, 222–36. Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge, 2020. | Series: Routledge studies in the sociology of health and illness: Routledge, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781351033503-13.

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Franklin, Michael. "A Question of Framing." In Risk in the Film Business, 34–69. London: Routledge, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781003131670-3.

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Vultee, Fred. "Risk and crisis." In A Media Framing Approach to Securitization, 83–98. New York: Routledge, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780429469190-6.

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Aven, Terje, and Ortwin Renn. "Pre-assessment and Framing of Risk." In Risk Management and Governance, 67–70. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-13926-0_5.

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Adams, John. "4. Risk and Morality: Three Framing Devices." In Risk and Morality, edited by Aaron Doyle and Diana Ericson, 87–104. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2003. http://dx.doi.org/10.3138/9781442679382-006.

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Conference papers on the topic "Risky Framing"

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Andrei, Virginia. "Framing effect in risk communication: a sociological perspective." In International Conference on Future of Social Sciences and Humanities. Global, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.33422/fshconf.2019.06.340.

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Paribelli, Luigi, and Marco Guarino. "Project Strategic Framing Approach - The Strategy Table." In Abu Dhabi International Petroleum Exhibition & Conference. SPE, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/207323-ms.

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Abstract Considering the different drivers and constrains of each party within a Joint Venture, the strategy table is an effective tool that provides a structured workflow to guarantee objectives alignment and to maximize value creation for all the Stakeholders during a pre-feasibility study. Eni used this opportunity framing approach to define alternative project development strategy options with the aim to create value for all the stakeholders. Thanks to this guided and structured approach each party, within a Joint Venture, can present and compare his view with others. Using the strategy table tool, as framing approach, allows to identify alternative development strategies (bookends) as a combination of strategic options applicable for a given strategy theme. Furthermore, a clear objectives (what) and rationale (why) associated to each strategy will be defined to support the evaluation. The range of strategy themes identified helps to test the potential tradeoff between various fundamental objectives. Through a structured process, characterized by the definition, framing, evaluation and decision phases, it is possible to streamline the alternative strategy themes options and rank them in terms of value creation for the stakeholders. Using the strategy table tool, as framing approach, implies a decision-making process that allows to choose the strategy that best achieves our goal while also reducing our exposure to risks. Frequently the decision structure of a problem is complex, especially when the decision being considered relates to a large of scale project involving many sub-decisions. The Strategy Table helps the project management team to achieve an informed decision since it allows to evaluate what we are planning to achieve, understanding what our options are and considering how each option performs with reference to our objectives and project risks. Once the bookends for all the strategy themes are defined (i.e. selected strategic choices for each focus decision), a SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats) analysis is performed to qualitatively assess the identified strategies against strategic objectives and a short-list of strategies on which focus on more in details is defined. The final outcome represents the most promising development strategies to be tested during pre-feasibility and feasibility studies.
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Olowoporoku, A. O., J. W. S. Longhurst, and J. H. Barnes. "Framing air pollution as a major health risk in Lagos, Nigeria." In AIR POLLUTION 2012. Southampton, UK: WIT Press, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.2495/air120421.

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Garyn-Tal, Sharon. "FRAMING EFFECT AND THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FEELINGS, ECONOMIC EXPECTATIONS AND RISK PERCEPTIONS." In 37th International Academic Conference, Budapest. International Institute of Social and Economic Sciences, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.20472/iac.2018.037.006.

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J.M.Ale, Ben, Des N.D.Hartford, and David H. Slater. "Justifying the Basis of Risk Decisions in a Pandemic -- Framing the Issues." In Proceedings of the 31st European Safety and Reliability Conference. Singapore: Research Publishing Services, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.3850/978-981-18-2016-8_298-cd.

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Ormos, Mihaly, and Dusan Timotity. "Mental Framing In Risk-Aversion Dynamics An Empirical Investigation Of Intertemporal Choice." In 30th Conference on Modelling and Simulation. ECMS, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.7148/2016-0179.

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Read, Rodney, John Erick Malpartida Moya, and Giancarlo Massucco de la Sota. "Framing Uncertainty in Pipeline Geohazard Assessment for Integrity Management and Iterative Risk Assessment." In ASME 2017 International Pipeline Geotechnical Conference. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/ipg2017-2505.

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Pipeline geohazard assessment is becoming recognized by operators and regulators as an increasingly important constituent of overall integrity management and iterative risk assessment of pipelines. An ongoing challenge in assessing the threat posed to a pipeline by various geohazard mechanisms within the B31.8S category of Weather-related and Outside Force is the degree of uncertainty associated with estimates of frequency of occurrence, vulnerability, and loss of containment for individual and cospatial geohazard mechanisms. When combined with threats of other types, such as corrosion and third party damage, estimates of geohazard occurrence frequency and their associated frequency (or probability) of loss of containment may seem imprecise and uncertain. This paper discusses a framework for assessing geohazard susceptibility and the associated uncertainty, and means of incorporating and communicating uncertainty in hazard and risk assessments. Examples are provided from a case study in Perú.
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Van Bossuyt, Douglas, Lucila Carvalho, Andy Dong, and Irem Y. Tumer. "On Measuring Engineering Risk Attitudes." In ASME 2011 International Design Engineering Technical Conferences and Computers and Information in Engineering Conference. ASMEDC, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/detc2011-47106.

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Theories of rational decision making hold that decision makers should select the best alternative from the available choices, but it is now well known that decision makers employ heuristics and are subject to a set of psychological biases. Risk aversion or risk seeking attitude has a framing effect and can bias the decision maker towards inaction or action. Understanding decision-makers’ attitudes to risk is thus integral to understanding how they make decisions and psychological biases that might be at play. This paper presents the Engineering-Domain-Specific Risk-Taking (E-DOSPERT) test to measure the risk aversion and risk seeking attitude that engineers have in four domains of engineering risk management: identification, analysis, evaluation and treatment. The creation of the instrument, an analysis of its reliability based on surveying undergraduate engineering students in Australia and the United States, and the validity of the four domains are discussed. The instrument is found to be statistically reliable to measure engineering risk aversion and risk seeking, and to measure engineering risk aversion and risk seeking to risk identification and risk treatment. However, factor analysis of the results suggest that four other domains may better describe the factors in engineers’ attitude to risk.
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Chung, J., K. Runge, L. Y. F. Su, D. Brossard, and D. Scheufele. "48. Media framing and perceptions of risk for food technologies: the case of ‘pink slime’." In 13th Congress of the European Society for Agricultural and Food Ethics. The Netherlands: Wageningen Academic Publishers, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.3920/978-90-8686-834-6_48.

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Cunha, J. C., J. Eric Bickel, Luis Mendoza, Jeremy Walker, Ellen Coopersmith, and Craig A. McKnight. "A Tool for Improving Decision Quality on Upstream Consortia." In Abu Dhabi International Petroleum Exhibition & Conference. SPE, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/207849-ms.

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Abstract This article aims to provide a guideline to better decision quality on multi-company upstream projects. The scope is to provide a high-level overview of what should be included in a decision quality process, when companies with different levels of ownership and influence on the decision-making process naturally tend to have different approaches towards risks and decision management. It is well known in our industry that there is a predominance of multicompany participation in these projects and the paper will provide guidelines that will ultimately provide better decision quality and participant's alignment. Normally high-risk upstream projects have multi-company ownership. However, it has been noticed that companies tend to face decision management differently, which causes unnecessary delays on budget approvals and even operational timeline. Procedures to normalize the definition of an initial decision frame and creation of solutions based on a good set of alternatives are paramount to facilitate discussions and drive final recommendations. In summary, companies’ alignment on decision-making processes is key to quality, speed, and effectiveness of those decisions and critical to project success. Alignment between partners on pivotal decisions can significantly improve project delivery. The main results are practical guidelines for generating (a) decision framing, (b) strategies, (c) alternatives and potential consequences, and (d) logical analysis, partners’ alignment and commitment to action.
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Reports on the topic "Risky Framing"

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Sarofim, Samer, and Aly Tawfik. Creating Safer Communities for the Use of Active Transportation Modes in California: The Development of Effective Communication Message Strategy for Vulnerable Road Users. Mineta Transportation Institute, July 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.31979/mti.2021.2030.

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Despite increased efforts to improve safety in recent years (e.g., the Focus Cities Program in California), California continues to have a high rate of pedestrian and bicyclist fatalities. Currently, the state currently lacks a cohesive messaging strategy to improve behaviors related to pedestrian and cyclist traffic safety practices. To fulfill this need, this research showcases the differential effect of message framing on attitudes and intended behaviors related to pedestrian and cyclists traffic safety practices. This project investigated factors & risky behaviors contributing to accidents involving vulnerable road users, preventive measures to decrease accidents involving vulnerable road users, and more. The qualitative analysis presented a significant lack of coherent, long-term, evidence-based communication strategies that aimed at enhancing the safety of vulnerable road users in California. Quantitatively, this research also experimentally investigated various messages, employing different time horizons and regulatory focus message framings. Findings indicate that the messages with a limited time horizon tend to be associated with better safety perceptions and attitudes than messages with an expansive time horizon. California transportation authorities, professionals, and advocacy groups will be able to use this information to effectively allocate the communication effort and spending to induce attitudinal and behavioral change that can impact the safety of active transportation modes.
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Sarofim, Samer, and Aly Tawfik. Creating Safer Communities for the Use of Active Transportation Modes in California: The Development of Effective Communication Message Strategy for Vulnerable Road Users. Mineta Transportation Institute, July 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.31979/mti.2022.2030.

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Despite increased efforts to improve safety in recent years (e.g., the Focus Cities Program in California), California continues to have a high rate of pedestrian and bicyclist fatalities. Currently, the state currently lacks a cohesive messaging strategy to improve behaviors related to pedestrian and cyclist traffic safety practices. To fulfill this need, this research showcases the differential effect of message framing on attitudes and intended behaviors related to pedestrian and cyclists traffic safety practices. This project investigated factors & risky behaviors contributing to accidents involving vulnerable road users, preventive measures to decrease accidents involving vulnerable road users, and more. The qualitative analysis presented a significant lack of coherent, long-term, evidence-based communication strategies that aimed at enhancing the safety of vulnerable road users in California. Quantitatively, this research also experimentally investigated various messages, employing different time horizons and regulatory focus message framings. Findings indicate that the messages with a limited time horizon tend to be associated with better safety perceptions and attitudes than messages with an expansive time horizon. California transportation authorities, professionals, and advocacy groups will be able to use this information to effectively allocate the communication effort and spending to induce attitudinal and behavioral change that can impact the safety of active transportation modes.
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Kunreuther, Howard, Lynn Conell-Price, Paul Kovacs, and Katsuichiro Goda. The Impact of a Government Risk Pool and an Opt-Out Framing on Demand for Earthquake Protection. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, August 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.3386/w29144.

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Leggett, Matt, and Leonie Lawrence. The Forest First Approach: A New Framing that Addresses Supply Chain Risk and Reduces Deforestation at the Forest and Farm Frontier. Wildlife Conservation Society, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.19121/2020.report.39491.

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Ciapponi, Agustín. What is the effectiveness of interventions targeted at women to improve the uptake of cervical cancer screening? SUPPORT, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.30846/1611112.

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World-wide, cervical cancer is the second most common cancer in women and more than 85% of women dying from cervical cancer live in the developing world. Increasing the uptake of screening, alongside increasing informed choice, is key to controlling this disease through prevention and early detection. Methods of encouraging women to undergo cervical screening include invitations to screening; reminders to attend screening; education to increase knowledge of screening programmes or of cervical cancer; message framing (positive or negative messages about screening); counselling regarding barriers to screening; risk factor assessment of individuals; procedures, such as making the screening process easier; and economic interventions, such as incentives to attend screening.
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Adegoke, Damilola, Natasha Chilambo, Adeoti Dipeolu, Ibrahim Machina, Ade Obafemi-Olopade, and Dolapo Yusuf. Public discourses and Engagement on Governance of Covid-19 in Ekiti State, Nigeria. African Leadership Center, King's College London, December 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.47697/lab.202101.

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Numerous studies have emerged so far on Covid-19 (SARS-CoV-2) across different disciplines. There is virtually no facet of human experience and relationships that have not been studied. In Nigeria, these studies include knowledge and attitude, risk perception, public perception of Covid-19 management, e-learning, palliatives, precautionary behaviours etc.,, Studies have also been carried out on public framing of Covid-19 discourses in Nigeria; these have explored both offline and online messaging and issues from the perspectives of citizens towards government’s policy responses such as palliative distributions, social distancing and lockdown. The investigators of these thematic concerns deployed different methodological tools in their studies. These tools include policy evaluations, content analysis, sentiment analysis, discourse analysis, survey questionnaires, focus group discussions, in depth-interviews as well as machine learning., These studies nearly always focus on the national government policy response, with little or no focus on the constituent states. In many of the studies, the researchers work with newspaper articles for analysis of public opinions while others use social media generated contents such as tweets) as sources for analysis of sentiments and opinions. Although there are others who rely on the use of survey questionnaires and other tools outlined above; the limitations of these approaches necessitated the research plan adopted by this study. Most of the social media users in Nigeria are domiciled in cities and their demography comprises the middle class (socio-economic) who are more likely to be literate with access to internet technologies. Hence, the opinions of a majority of the population who are most likely rural dwellers with limited access to internet technologies are very often excluded. This is not in any way to disparage social media content analysis findings; because the opinions expressed by opinion leaders usually represent the larger subset of opinions prevalent in the society. Analysing public perception using questionnaires is also fraught with its challenges, as well as reliance on newspaper articles. A lot of the newspapers and news media organisations in Nigeria are politically hinged; some of them have active politicians and their associates as their proprietors. Getting unbiased opinions from these sources might be difficult. The news articles are also most likely to reflect and amplify official positions through press releases and interviews which usually privilege elite actors. These gaps motivated this collaboration between Ekiti State Government and the African Leadership Centre at King’s College London to embark on research that will primarily assess public perceptions of government leadership response to Covid-19 in Ekiti State. The timeframe of the study covers the first phase of the pandemic in Ekiti State (March/April to August 2020).
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Schiller, Brandon, Tara Hutchinson, and Kelly Cobeen. Cripple Wall Small-Component - Test Program: Comparisons (PEER-CEA Project). Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research Center, University of California, Berkeley, CA, November 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.55461/lohh5109.

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This report is one of a series of reports documenting the methods and findings of a multi-year, multi-disciplinary project coordinated by the Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research Center (PEER) and funded by the California Earthquake Authority (CEA). The overall project is titled “Quantifying the Performance of Retrofit of Cripple Walls and Sill Anchorage in Single-Family Wood-Frame Buildings,” henceforth referred to as the “PEER–CEA Project.” The overall objective of the PEER–CEA Project is to provide scientifically based information (e.g., testing, analysis, and resulting loss models) that measure and assess the effectiveness of seismic retrofit to reduce the risk of damage and associated losses (repair costs) of wood-frame houses with cripple wall and sill anchorage deficiencies as well as retrofitted conditions that address those deficiencies. Tasks that support and inform the loss-modeling effort are: (1) collecting and summarizing existing information and results of previous research on the performance of wood-frame houses; (2) identifying construction features to characterize alternative variants of wood-frame houses; (3) characterizing earthquake hazard and ground motions at representative sites in California; (4) developing cyclic loading protocols and conducting laboratory tests of cripple wall panels, wood-frame wall subassemblies, and sill anchorages to measure and document their response (strength and stiffness) under cyclic loading; and (5) the computer modeling, simulations, and the development of loss models as informed by a workshop with claims adjustors. This report is a product of Working Group 4 (WG4): Testing, whose central focus was to experimentally investigate the seismic performance of retrofit and existing cripple walls. Amongst the body of reports from WG4, in the present report, a suite of four small cripple wall test phases, in total 28 specimens, are cross compared with varied exterior finishes, namely stucco (wet) and non-stucco (dry) exterior finishes. Details representative of era specific construction, specifically the most vulnerable pre-1960s construction are of predominant focus in the present effort. Experiments involved imposition of combined vertical loading and quasi-static reversed cyclic lateral load onto cripple walls of 12 ft in length and 2 ft or 6 ft in height. All specimens in this report were constructed with the same boundary conditions and tested with the same vertical load. Parameters addressed in this report include: wet exterior finishes (stucco over framing, stucco over horizontal lumber sheathing, and stucco over diagonal lumber sheathing); and dry exterior finishes (horizontal siding, horizontal siding over diagonal sheathing, and T1-11 wood structural panels) with attention towards cripple wall height and the retrofit condition. The present report provides only a brief overview of the test program and setup; whereas a series of three prior reports present results of test groupings nominally by exterior finish type (wet versus dry). As such, herein the focus is to cross compare key measurements and observations of the in-plane seismic behavior of all 28 specimens.
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Schiller, Brandon, Tara Hutchinson, and Kelly Cobeen. Cripple Wall Small-Component Test Program: Wet Specimens II (PEER-CEA Project). Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research Center, University of California, Berkeley, CA, November 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.55461/ldbn4070.

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This report is one of a series of reports documenting the methods and findings of a multi-year, multi-disciplinary project coordinated by the Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research Center (PEER and funded by the California Earthquake Authority (CEA). The overall project is titled “Quantifying the Performance of Retrofit of Cripple Walls and Sill Anchorage in Single-Family Wood-Frame Buildings,” henceforth referred to as the “PEER–CEA Project.” The overall objective of the PEER–CEA Project is to provide scientifically based information (e.g., testing, analysis, and resulting loss models) that measure and assess the effectiveness of seismic retrofit to reduce the risk of damage and associated losses (repair costs) of wood-frame houses with cripple wall and sill anchorage deficiencies as well as retrofitted conditions that address those deficiencies. Tasks that support and inform the loss-modeling effort are: (1) collecting and summarizing existing information and results of previous research on the performance of wood-frame houses; (2) identifying construction features to characterize alternative variants of wood-frame houses; (3) characterizing earthquake hazard and ground motions at representative sites in California; (4) developing cyclic loading protocols and conducting laboratory tests of cripple wall panels, wood-frame wall subassemblies, and sill anchorages to measure and document their response (strength and stiffness) under cyclic loading; and (5) the computer modeling, simulations, and the development of loss models as informed by a workshop with claims adjustors. This report is a product of Working Group 4 (WG4): Testing, whose central focus was to experimentally investigate the seismic performance of retrofitted and existing cripple walls. This report focuses stucco or “wet” exterior finishes. Paralleled by a large-component test program conducted at the University of California, Berkeley (UC Berkeley) [Cobeen et al. 2020], the present study involves two of multiple phases of small-component tests conducted at the University of California San Diego (UC San Diego). Details representative of era-specific construction, specifically the most vulnerable pre-1960s construction, are of predominant focus in the present effort. Parameters examined are cripple wall height, finish style, gravity load, boundary conditions, anchorage, and deterioration. This report addresses the third phase of testing, which consisted of eight specimens, as well as half of the fourth phase of testing, which consisted of six specimens where three will be discussed. Although conducted in different phases, their results are combined here to co-locate observations regarding the behavior of the second phase the wet (stucco) finished specimens. The results of first phase of wet specimen tests were presented in Schiller et al. [2020(a)]. Experiments involved imposition of combined vertical loading and quasi-static reversed cyclic lateral load onto ten cripple walls of 12 ft long and 2 or 6 ft high. One cripple wall was tested with a monotonic loading protocol. All specimens in this report were constructed with the same boundary conditions on the top and corners of the walls as well as being tested with the same vertical load. Parameters addressed in this report include: wet exterior finishes (stucco over framing, stucco over horizontal lumber sheathing, and stucco over diagonal lumber sheathing), cripple wall height, loading protocol, anchorage condition, boundary condition at the bottom of the walls, and the retrofitted condition. Details of the test specimens, testing protocol, including instrumentation; and measured as well as physical observations are summarized in this report. Companion reports present phases of the tests considering, amongst other variables, impacts of various boundary conditions, stucco (wet) and non-stucco (dry) finishes, vertical load, cripple wall height, and anchorage condition. Results from these experiments are intended to support advancement of numerical modeling tools, which ultimately will inform seismic loss models capable of quantifying the reduction of loss achieved by applying state-of-practice retrofit methods as identified in FEMA P-1100,Vulnerability-Base Seismic Assessment and Retrofit of One- and Two-Family Dwellings.
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Drury, J., S. Arias, T. Au-Yeung, D. Barr, L. Bell, T. Butler, H. Carter, et al. Public behaviour in response to perceived hostile threats: an evidence base and guide for practitioners and policymakers. University of Sussex, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.20919/vjvt7448.

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Background: Public behaviour and the new hostile threats • Civil contingencies planning and preparedness for hostile threats requires accurate and up to date knowledge about how the public might behave in relation to such incidents. Inaccurate understandings of public behaviour can lead to dangerous and counterproductive practices and policies. • There is consistent evidence across both hostile threats and other kinds of emergencies and disasters that significant numbers of those affected give each other support, cooperate, and otherwise interact socially within the incident itself. • In emergency incidents, competition among those affected occurs in only limited situations, and loss of behavioural control is rare. • Spontaneous cooperation among the public in emergency incidents, based on either social capital or emergent social identity, is a crucial part of civil contingencies planning. • There has been relatively little research on public behaviour in response to the new hostile threats of the past ten years, however. • The programme of work summarized in this briefing document came about in response to a wave of false alarm flight incidents in the 2010s, linked to the new hostile threats (i.e., marauding terrorist attacks). • By using a combination of archive data for incidents in Great Britain 2010-2019, interviews, video data analysis, and controlled experiments using virtual reality technology, we were able to examine experiences, measure behaviour, and test hypotheses about underlying psychological mechanisms in both false alarms and public interventions against a hostile threat. Re-visiting the relationship between false alarms and crowd disasters • The Bethnal Green tube disaster of 1943, in which 173 people died, has historically been used to suggest that (mis)perceived hostile threats can lead to uncontrolled ‘stampedes’. • Re-analysis of witness statements suggests that public fears of Germany bombs were realistic rather than unreasonable, and that flight behaviour was socially structured rather than uncontrolled. • Evidence for a causal link between the flight of the crowd and the fatal crowd collapse is weak at best. • Altogether, the analysis suggests the importance of examining people’s beliefs about context to understand when they might interpret ambiguous signals as a hostile threat, and that. Tthe concepts of norms and relationships offer better ways to explain such incidents than ‘mass panic’. Why false alarms occur • The wider context of terrorist threat provides a framing for the public’s perception of signals as evidence of hostile threats. In particular, the magnitude of recent psychologically relevant terrorist attacks predicts likelihood of false alarm flight incidents. • False alarms in Great Britain are more likely to occur in those towns and cities that have seen genuine terrorist incidents. • False alarms in Great Britain are more likely to occur in the types of location where terrorist attacks happen, such as shopping areass, transport hubs, and other crowded places. • The urgent or flight behaviour of other people (including the emergency services) influences public perceptions that there is a hostile threat, particularly in situations of greater ambiguity, and particularly when these other people are ingroup. • High profile tweets suggesting a hostile threat, including from the police, have been associated with the size and scale of false alarm responses. • In most cases, it is a combination of factors – context, others’ behaviour, communications – that leads people to flee. A false alarm tends not to be sudden or impulsive, and often follows an initial phase of discounting threat – as with many genuine emergencies. 2.4 How the public behave in false alarm flight incidents • Even in those false alarm incidents where there is urgent flight, there are also other behaviours than running, including ignoring the ‘threat’, and walking away. • Injuries occur but recorded injuries are relatively uncommon. • Hiding is a common behaviour. In our evidence, this was facilitated by orders from police and offers from people staff in shops and other premises. • Supportive behaviours are common, including informational and emotional support. • Members of the public often cooperate with the emergency services and comply with their orders but also question instructions when the rationale is unclear. • Pushing, trampling and other competitive behaviour can occur,s but only in restricted situations and briefly. • At the Oxford Street Black Friday 2017 false alarm, rather than an overall sense of unity across the crowd, camaraderie existed only in pockets. This was likely due to the lack of a sense of common fate or reference point across the incident; the fragmented experience would have hindered the development of a shared social identity across the crowd. • Large and high profile false alarm incidents may be associated with significant levels of distress and even humiliation among those members of the public affected, both at the time and in the aftermath, as the rest of society reflects and comments on the incident. Public behaviour in response to visible marauding attackers • Spontaneous, coordinated public responses to marauding bladed attacks have been observed on a number of occasions. • Close examination of marauding bladed attacks suggests that members of the public engage in a wide variety of behaviours, not just flight. • Members of the public responding to marauding bladed attacks adopt a variety of complementary roles. These, that may include defending, communicating, first aid, recruiting others, marshalling, negotiating, risk assessment, and evidence gathering. Recommendations for practitioners and policymakers • Embed the psychology of public behaviour in emergencies in your training and guidance. • Continue to inform the public and promote public awareness where there is an increased threat. • Build long-term relations with the public to achieve trust and influence in emergency preparedness. • Use a unifying language and supportive forms of communication to enhance unity both within the crowd and between the crowd and the authorities. • Authorities and responders should take a reflexive approach to their responses to possible hostile threats, by reflecting upon how their actions might be perceived by the public and impact (positively and negatively) upon public behaviour. • To give emotional support, prioritize informative and actionable risk and crisis communication over emotional reassurances. • Provide first aid kits in transport infrastructures to enable some members of the public more effectively to act as zero responders.
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