Journal articles: 'Rice Australia'

1

FUJITA, Masakuni. "Rice in Australia." JOURNAL OF THE BREWING SOCIETY OF JAPAN 92, no. 9 (1997): 631–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.6013/jbrewsocjapan1988.92.631.

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Lam, Dinh Thi, Katsuyuki Ichitani, Robert J. Henry, and Ryuji Ishikawa. "Molecular and Morphological Divergence of Australian Wild Rice." Plants 9, no. 2 (February 10, 2020): 224. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/plants9020224.

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Two types of perennial wild rice, Australian Oryza rufipogon and a new taxon Jpn2 have been observed in Australia in addition to the annual species Oryza meridionalis. Jpn2 is distinct owing to its larger spikelet size but shares O. meridionalis-like morphological features including a high density of bristle cells on the awn surface. All the morphological traits resemble O. meridionalis except for the larger spikelet size. Because Jpn2 has distinct cytoplasmic genomes, including the chloroplast (cp), cp insertion/deletion/simple sequence repeats were designed to establish marker systems to distinguish wild rice in Australia in different natural populations. It was shown that the new taxon is distinct from Asian O. rufipogon but instead resembles O. meridionalis. In addition, higher diversity was detected in north-eastern Australia. Reproductive barriers among species and Jpn2 tested by cross-hybridization suggested a unique biological relationship of Jpn2 with other species. Insertions of retrotransposable elements in the Jpn2 genome were extracted from raw reads generated using next-generation sequencing. Jpn2 tended to share insertions with other O. meridionalis accessions and with Australian O. rufipogon accessions in particular cases, but not Asian O. rufipogon except for two insertions. One insertion was restricted to Jpn2 in Australia and shared with some O. rufipogon in Thailand.

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You, M. P., V. Lanoiselet, C. P. Wang, R. G. Shivas, Y. P. Li, and M. J. Barbetti. "First Report of Rice Blast (Magnaporthe oryzae) on Rice (Oryza sativa) in Western Australia." Plant Disease 96, no. 8 (August 2012): 1228. http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/pdis-05-12-0420-pdn.

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Commercial rice crops (Oryza sativa L.) have been recently reintroduced to the Ord River Irrigation Area in northern Western Australia. In early August 2011, unusual leaf spot symptoms were observed by a local rice grower on rice cultivar Quest. A leaf spot symptom initially appeared as grey-green and/or water soaked with a darker green border and then expanded rapidly to several centimeters in length and became light tan in color with a distinct necrotic border. Isolations from typical leaf lesions were made onto water agar, subcultured onto potato dextrose agar, and maintained at 20°C. A representative culture was lodged in the Western Australian Culture Collection Herbarium, Department of Agriculture and Food Western Australia (WAC 13466) and as a herbarium specimen in the Plant Pathology Herbarium, Plant Biosecurity Science (BRIP 54721). Amplification of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS)1 and (ITS)2 regions flanking the 5.8S rRNA gene were carried out with universal primers ITS1 and ITS4 (4). The PCR products were sequenced and BLAST analyses used to compare sequences with those in GenBank. The sequence had 99% nucleotide identity with the corresponding sequence in GenBank for Magnaporthe oryzae B.C. Couch, the causal agent of rice blast, the most important fungal disease of rice worldwide (1). Additional sequencing with the primers Bt1a/Bt1b for the β-tubulin gene, primers ACT-512F/ACT-783R for the actin gene, and primers CAL-228F/CAL-737R for the calmodulin gene showed 100% identity in each case with M. oryzae sequences in GenBank, confirming molecular similarity with other reports, e.g., (1). The relevant sequence information for a representative isolate has been lodged in GenBank (GenBank Accession Nos. JQ911754 for (ITS) 1 and 2; JX014265 for β-tubulin; JX035809 for actin; and JX035808 for calmodulin). Isolates also showed morphological similarity with M. oryzae as described in other reports, e.g., (3). Spores of M. oryzae were produced on rice agar under “black light” at 21°C for 4 weeks. Under 30/28°C (day/night), 14/12 h (light/dark), rice cv. Quest was grown for 7 weeks, and inoculated by spraying a suspension 5 × 105 spores/ml onto foliage until runoff occurred. Inoculated plants were placed under a dark plastic covering for 72 h to maximize humidity levels around leaves, and subsequently maintained under >90% RH conditions. Typical symptoms of rice blast appeared within 14 days of inoculation and were as described above. Infection studies were successfully repeated and M. oryzae was readily reisolated from leaf lesions. No disease symptoms were observed nor was M. oryzae isolated from water-inoculated control rice plants. There have been previous records of rice blast in the Northern Territory (2) and Queensland, Australia (Australian Plant Pest Database), but this is the first report of M. oryzae in Western Australia, where it could potentially be destructive if conditions prove conducive. References: (1) B. C. Couch and L. M. Kohn. Mycologia 94:683, 2002; (2) J. B. Heaton. The Aust. J. Sci. 27:81, 1964; (3) C. V. Subramanian. IMI Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria No 169, Pyricularia oryzae, 1968; (4) T. J. White et al. PCR Protocols: A Guide to Methods and Applications. M. A. Innis et al., eds. Academic Press, New York, 1990.

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Pak, Dolar, Ming Pei You, Vincent Lanoiselet, and Martin J. Barbetti. "Reservoir of cultivated rice pathogens in wild rice in Australia." European Journal of Plant Pathology 147, no. 2 (June 28, 2016): 295–311. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10658-016-1002-y.

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Sanders, BA. "The life cycle and ecology of Cyperus difformis (rice weed) in temperate Australia: a review." Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 34, no. 7 (1994): 1031. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ea9941031.

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The almost exclusive use of aerial sowing of rice in Australia and the concomitant reliance upon the herbicide bensulfuron-methyl to control Cyperus difformis has not been matched with an increase in the understanding of the biology of this major weed. Of great significance i s the recent discovery of C. difformis biotypes in California which are resistant to bensulfuron-methyl. Although Australian rice agroecosystems employ longer rotations than the intensive Californian systems, it is only a matter of time until resistant biotypes are identified in Australia. This paper identifies the life cycle characteristics of C. difformis that we need to understand for its future management.

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Ward, Rachelle, Lorraine Spohr, and Peter Snell. "Rice grain quality: an Australian multi-environment study." Crop and Pasture Science 70, no. 11 (2019): 946. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/cp19194.

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Rice is a staple for much of the world’s population. Increased production of good-quality rice is a necessity for global food security. Variable water supply and increasingly unpredictable weather is an ongoing challenge to the Australian rice industry, with the impact felt along the supply chain from growers to consumers. This multi-environment trial (MET) is focused on capturing the quality of milled grain produced in new growing regions beyond south-eastern Australia. Data on grain quality from 54 rice-variety trials grown between 2008 and 2017 across 10 locations and two seasons (wet and dry) spanning four Australian states and territories are included. Physical quality traits (yellowness index and whole grain yield), grain composition (apparent amylose and protein content) and eating quality traits (setback and gelatinisation temperature) were analysed. Varietal predictions for each quality trait at a range of sites provide evidence for the industry to develop strategies to deliver a consistent supply of high-quality Australian-grown rice.

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Ashmore, Ellen, Sarah Molyneux, Seamus Watson, Geoff Miles, and Andrew Pearson. "Inorganic arsenic in rice and rice products in New Zealand and Australia." Food Additives & Contaminants: Part B 12, no. 4 (August 13, 2019): 275–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19393210.2019.1651403.

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Gu, Zhuyun, Shamali de Silva, and Suzie M. Reichman. "Arsenic Concentrations and Dietary Exposure in Rice-Based Infant Food in Australia." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 2 (January 8, 2020): 415. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17020415.

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Rice-based products are widely used to feed infants and young children. However, the association of rice-based products and high arsenic (As) concentrations have been investigated in a number of studies, but there is limited information from Australia. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine the As concentration and dietary exposure in infant rice milk, cereal, crackers and pasta as well as to investigate the relationship between As concentration and rice content, rice type and product origin. Total arsenic (tAs) concentrations were determined by nitric acid digestion and ICP-MS while inorganic arsenic (iAs) was determined by acid extraction, followed by ICP-MS with an interfaced hydride generation system. Nearly 75% of samples had inorganic As exceeding the EU maximum levels for infants and children (0.1 mg kg−1) and the mean iAs percentage of total reached as high as 84.8%. High tAs concentration was positively correlated with rice content and also related to brown (wholegrain). Estimates of dietary exposure showed that infants consuming large amounts of rice pasta or crackers will have an increased risk of health impact associated with excess intake of As through dietary exposure. Moreover, the current Australian guidelines for As in rice (1 mg kg−1) are above the WHO or EU guideline and therefore, will be less protective of high sensitivity consumers like infants and children.

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9

Moner, Ali M., Agnelo Furtado, Ian Chivers, Glen Fox, Darren Crayn, and Robert J. Henry. "Diversity and evolution of rice progenitors in Australia." Ecology and Evolution 8, no. 8 (April 2018): 4360–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ece3.3989.

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10

Dunn, B. W., G. D. Batten, T. S. Dunn, R. Subasinghe, and R. L. Williams. "Nitrogen fertiliser alleviates the disorder straighthead in Australian rice." Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 46, no. 8 (2006): 1077. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ea05004.

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Straighthead is a ‘physiological’ disorder of rice, the symptoms being floret sterility, deformed florets and panicles and reduced grain yield. Straighthead in rice is difficult to investigate because of its unpredictable occurrence under field conditions. An experiment was conducted in south-eastern Australia in 1996 to investigate the effect of rate and timing of N fertilisation on growth and yield of rice. The presence of straighthead at this location gave a unique opportunity to study the influence of crop N status. This paper reports the influence of N application on straighthead symptoms during this experiment. A significant reduction of straighthead occurred with higher rates of N application. Application of 250 kg N/ha pre-flood, improved plant growth and vigour with subsequent increased uptake and accumulation of S, P, K, Mg, Cu, Mn and Zn in the plant at panicle initiation. The reduction of straighthead at high nitrogen rates may be due to improved uptake of several essential nutrients, and Cu may be a critical nutrient. This study and earlier observations have shown the application of optimal levels of pre-flood nitrogen to achieve grain yields greater than 10 t/ha may reduce straighthead severity in the Australian rice-growing environment. The results in this paper are not presented as recommendations to growers but a contribution to the currently limited literature on straighthead in Australia.

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11

Lattimore, MAE. "Pastures in temperate rice rotations of south-eastern Australia." Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 34, no. 7 (1994): 959. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ea9940959.

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Legume-based pastures have long been an integral part of rice growing in the southern New South Wales irrigation areas and still offer potential to improve the productivity, profitability, and sustainability of the temperate rice-cropping system.This paper reviews both historical and current aspects of pastures in temperate rice rotations in southern New South Wales and highlights the importance of pastures in sustaining this cropping system as environmental pressures increase. Topics discussed include pasture species and rotations, their role in improving soil fertility and sustainability, the value of pastures in weed control, and their management for maximum profitability.

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12

MATSUKAWA, Hiroshi. "Sake Brewed in Australia with Locally Cultivated Rice Crops." JOURNAL OF THE BREWING SOCIETY OF JAPAN 91, no. 12 (1996): 873–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.6013/jbrewsocjapan1988.91.873.

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13

Jeong, Eung-Gi, Yong-Jae Won, Jeong-Heui Lee, Eok-Keun Ahn, Min-Tae Kim, Soon-Duck Yoon, Woon-Goo Ha, and Jeom-Ho Lee. "Current Status and Prospects of Rice industry in Australia." Journal of the Korean Society of International Agricultue 27, no. 5 (December 30, 2015): 595–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.12719/ksia.2015.27.5.595.

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14

Champness, Matthew, Carlos Ballester, and John Hornbuckle. "Effect of Soil Moisture Deficit on Aerobic Rice in Temperate Australia." Agronomy 13, no. 1 (January 4, 2023): 168. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/agronomy13010168.

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Declining water availability is pressing rice growers to adopt water-saving irrigation practices such as aerobic rice to maintain profitability per megalitre (ML) of water input. Irrigators require well-defined irrigation thresholds to initiate irrigation to maximise water productivity. Such thresholds do not exist for temperate rice regions. Adopting a strategy that has been reported to succeed in non-temperate environments may fail in temperate climates, and therefore, needs investigation. This study aimed to investigate, in a temperate Australian environment, the effect of increasing soil moisture deficit during the rice vegetative period on crop physiological development, grain yield and water productivity. The study was conducted in a commercial farm using a randomised complete block design in the 2020/21 and 2021/22 growing seasons. Automated gravity surface irrigation technologies were adopted to enable high-frequency irrigation. Extending soil moisture deficit beyond 15 kPa was found to significantly delay panicle initiation by at least 13–14 days, exposing rice to cold temperatures in Year 1 during the cold-sensitive early pollen microspore period. This reduced yield by up to 55% (4.5 t/ha) compared to the 15 kPa treatment that was not impacted by cold sterility. In the absence of cold sterility, irrigated water productivity and total water productivity ranged between 1.02 and 1.61 t/ML, and 0.84 and 0.93 t/ML, respectively. The highest yields (8.1 and 7.5 t/ha) were achieved irrigating at a soil tension of 15 kPa in growing seasons 2020/21 and 2021/22. This research demonstrates that sound water productivity can be achieved with aerobic rice cultivation in temperate climates, providing cold temperatures during early pollen microspore are avoided. The quantification of the delay in crop development caused by increasing soil moisture deficit provides rice farmers greater confidence in determining the irrigation strategy and timing of pre-emergent irrigation in regions at risk of cold sterility. However, due to the high labour demand associated with aerobic rice, the adoption of aerobic rice at a commercial scale in this Australian environment is unlikely without adopting automated irrigation technology.

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Pratley, J. E., J. C. Broster, and P. Michael. "Echinochloa spp. in Australian rice fields—species distribution and resistance status." Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 59, no. 7 (2008): 639. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ar07156.

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Six Echinochloa species, i.e. barnyard grass (Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) Beauv.), awnless barnyard grass (E. colona (L.) Link), hairy millet (E. oryzoides (Ard.) Fritsch), prickly barnyard grass (E. microstachya (Wieg.) Rydb), Japanese millet (E. esculenta (A Br.) H Scholz), and channel millet (E. inundata Michael et Vickery), were detected in surveys of Australian rice fields in south-eastern Australia. Differences were detected in the rate of germination of species and this may affect the efficacy of herbicide treatments where mixes of species occur. Phenotypic variation within E. crus-galli, such as size of panicles, size of spikelets, and degree of awning, sometimes makes identification difficult and may have implications for seed growers. No instances of herbicide resistance were found in any Echinochloa species despite its widespread occurrence in other countries.

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Hill, JE, RJ Jr Smith, and DE Bayer. "Rice weed control: current technology and emerging issues in temperate rice." Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 34, no. 7 (1994): 1021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ea9941021.

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Among temperate rice areas, the United States and Australia are most similar in climate and in the mechanisation of rice culture. Many weed problems, even weed species invading rice, are common to both countries; and the present technology for weed control as well as concern for the impact of these technologies to environmental quality, herbicide resistance, and other weed-related issues bear many similarities. Application of current, and any new, technologies to emerging issues in US rice weed control will therefore be directly relevant to rice production in Australia and all other temperate areas struggling with the same challenges. Weeds are a significant problem in temperate rice culture. In the United States, rice is mechanically direct-seeded, allowing weeds to germinate and establish with the crop. In the last 15 years weed growth and competition has been increased by the adoption of semi-dwarf cultivars, high N fertilisation, and, in water-seeded rice, shallow flooding. High rates, and often multiple applications, of herbicides have been necessary to maximise the yield potential of these cultural systems. Advances in cultural practices and herbicide technology have maintained, if not improved, weed control; but nearly 30 years of propanil use in the southern USA resulted in propanil-resistant barnyard grass Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) Beauv., and after 4 years of continuous use, bensulfuron resistance to 4 aquatic weed species was discovered in California. Although herbicides with different mechanisms of action are needed for alternation in resistance management strategies, fewer are likely to be available. Social and environmental concerns have slowed the development and registration of rice herbicides and increased the cost of controlling weeds. Water quality deterioration from ricefield tailwaters, drift to sensitive crops, the cost of renewing registration in aquatic systems, and weed resistance all forecast reduced herbicide use in rice. Neither cultural practices nor herbicides alone can solve weed problems in direct-seeded, mechanised rice culture. With fewer herbicides and a cultural system highly vulnerable to weed losses, integrated management strategies with better information on which to base weed control decisions will be needed to solve weed problems in temperate rice.

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Rahman, M. Azizur, Mohammad Mahmudur Rahman, Suzie M. Reichman, Richard P. Lim, and Ravi Naidu. "Heavy metals in Australian grown and imported rice and vegetables on sale in Australia: Health hazard." Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 100 (February 2014): 53–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2013.11.024.

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Lanoiselet, V. L., E. J. Cother, G. J. Ash, and J. D. I. Harper. "Yield loss in rice caused byRhizoctonia oryzaeandR. oryzae-sativaein Australia." Australasian Plant Pathology 34, no. 2 (2005): 175. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ap05013.

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Brozynska, Marta, Ernnie Syafika Omar, Agnelo Furtado, Darren Crayn, Bryan Simon, Ryuji Ishikawa, and Robert James Henry. "Chloroplast Genome of Novel Rice Germplasm Identified in Northern Australia." Tropical Plant Biology 7, no. 3-4 (October 30, 2014): 111–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12042-014-9142-8.

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Humphreys, E., P. M. Chalk, W. A. Muirhead, and R. J. G. White. "Nitrogen fertilization of dry-seeded rice in south-east Australia." Fertilizer Research 31, no. 2 (February 1992): 221–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf01063296.

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Lanoiselet, V., M. P. You, Y. P. Li, C. P. Wang, R. G. Shivas, and M. J. Barbetti. "First Report of Sarocladium oryzae Causing Sheath Rot on Rice (Oryza sativa) in Western Australia." Plant Disease 96, no. 9 (September 2012): 1382. http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/pdis-04-12-0415-pdn.

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Rice (Oryza sativa L.) has been grown in the Ord River Irrigation Area (ORIA) in northern Western Australia since 1960. In 2011, a sheath rot of rice was observed in the ORIA. Symptoms were variable, appearing as either (i) oblong pale to dark brown lesions up to 3 cm length, (ii) lesions with pale grey/brown centers and with dark brown margins, or (iii) diffuse dark or reddish brown streaks along the sheath. Lesions enlarged and coalesced, often covering the majority of the leaf sheath, disrupting panicle emergence. Isolations from small pieces of infested tissues from plants showing sheath rot symptoms were made onto water agar, subcultured onto potato dextrose agar, cultures maintained at 20°C, and a representative culture lodged both in the Western Australian Culture Collection maintained at the Department of Agriculture and Food Western Australia (as WAC 13481) and in the culture collection located at the DAFF Plant Pathology Herbarium (as BRIP 54763). Amplification of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS)1 and (ITS)2 regions flanking the 5.8S rRNA gene were carried out with universal primers ITS1 and ITS4 according to the published protocol (4). The DNA PCR products from a single isolate were sequenced and BLAST analyses used to compare sequences with those in GenBank. The sequence had 99% nucleotide identity with the corresponding sequence in GenBank for Sarocladium oryzae (Sawada) W. Gams & D. Hawksworth. Isolates showed morphological (e.g., conidiophore and conidia characteristics) (2) and molecular (1) similarities with S. oryzae as described in other reports. The relevant sequence information for a representative isolate was lodged in GenBank (GenBank Accession No. JQ965668). Spores of S. oryzae were produced on rice agar under “black light” at 22°C to induce sporulation over 4 weeks. Under conditions of 30/28°C (day/night), 14/12 h (light/dark), rice cv. Quest, grown for 11 weeks until plants reached the tillering stage, was inoculated by spraying a suspension 5 × 107 spores/ml of the same single isolate onto foliage until runoff occurred. Inoculated plants were placed under a dark plastic cover for 72 h to maximize humidity levels around leaves and subsequently maintained under >90% relative humidity conditions. Symptoms of sheath rot as described in (i) and (ii) above appeared by 14 days after inoculation, with lesions up to 23 cm long by 15 days post-inoculation. Severe disease prevented young panicles from emerging. Infection studies were successfully repeated and S. oryzae was reisolated from leaf lesions 1 week after lesion appearance. No disease was observed on water-inoculated control rice plants. There have been records of S. oryzae on rice in New South Wales in the early 1980s (3) and in 2006 to 2007 (Australian Plant Pest Database), but to our knowledge, this is the first report of this pathogen in Western Australia. References: (1) N. Ayyadurai et al. Cur. Microbiol. Mycologia 50:319, 2005. (2) B. L. K. Brady. No. 673 in: IMI Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria, 1980. (3) D. Phillips et al. FAO Plant Prot. Bull. 40:4, 1992. (4) T. J. White et al. Page 315 in: PCR Protocols: A Guide to Methods and Applications. Academic Press, San Diego, CA, 1990.

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Norton, Sally L., Colin K. Khoury, Chrystian C. Sosa, Nora P. Castañeda-Álvarez, Harold A. Achicanoy, and Steven Sotelo. "Priorities for enhancing the ex situ conservation and use of Australian crop wild relatives." Australian Journal of Botany 65, no. 8 (2017): 638. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/bt16236.

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Crop wild relatives – the wild cousins of cultivated plants – are increasingly recognised for their potential to contribute to the productivity, nutritional quality and sustainability of agricultural crops. However, the use of these genetic resources is dependent upon their conservation in genebanks and consequent availability to plant breeders, the status of which has not been comprehensively analysed in Australia. Such conservation assessments are given urgency by reports of increasing threats to natural populations due to habitat destruction, climate change, and invasive species, among other causes. Here we document Australian wild plants related to important food crops, and outline their priorities for ex situ conservation. Given that no major domesticated food plants originated in the country, Australia’s native flora of crop wild relatives is surprisingly rich, including potentially valuable cousins of banana, eggplant, melon, mung bean, pigeonpea, rice, sorghum, sweetpotato, soybean and yam. Species richness of the wild relatives of major food crops is concentrated in the northern and north-eastern tropical regions, in the Northern Territory, Western Australia, and Queensland. Geographic priorities for collecting of these taxa for ex situ conservation, due to the limited representation of their populations in genebanks, largely align with areas of high species richness. Proposed dam building and agricultural expansion in northern Australia make conservation action for these species more urgent. We outline key steps needed for enhancing the ex situ conservation of Australia’s heritage of major food crop wild relatives, and discuss the critical activities required to increase their use.

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Borrell, A. K., R. M. Kelly, and D. E. Van Cooten. "Improving management of rice in semi-arid eastern Indonesia: responses to irrigation, plant type and nitrogen." Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 38, no. 3 (1998): 261. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ea98032.

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Summary. A number of field experiments were undertaken in eastern Indonesia with the aim of improving rice production in this semi-arid region. The objectives of these studies were to examine the effects of irrigation method (raised beds under saturated soil culture v. flooded system), irrigation frequency (daily v. twice weekly) and genotype (traditional v. improved) on rice yield and components of yield, and to examine the response of rice growth on raised beds to sowing time and nitrogen fertilisation. Recent studies in northern Australia have demonstrated that rice can successfully be grown under saturated soil culture. In the Australian studies, grain yield and quality were maintained, yet saturated soil culture used 32% less water than the flooded control in both wet and dry seasons. Higher efficiencies of water use for rice production with saturated soil culture in semi-arid tropical Australia suggest that similar benefits may be realised with this method of irrigation in West Timor. The experiments in West Timor were undertaken within a low-external-input system, and all experiments were affected by drought. The central issue is one of aligning crop growth with water availability to ensure adequate quantity and quality of grain production at the end of the season. On this basis, a number of practical strategies for improving rice production under water-limited conditions in West Timor are suggested. First, time of sowing in the wet season is important, with early-sown crops escaping end-of-season drought. Significantly, the improved genotype (cv. Lemont) was only able to fill its grain adequately if sown early in the wet season, thereby avoiding drought during grain filling. Second, providing soils are sufficiently deep, rice can successfully be grown under saturated soil culture in West Timor. Importantly, preparation of raised beds before the wet season enables rice crops to be sown early, maximising the use of rainfall for crop production. Twice weekly irrigation of rice on beds was found to be more efficient than irrigating daily or flooding the bays. Third, no differences in grain yield were found between the improved short-statured genotype (cv. Lemont) and the taller traditional genotype under the low-external-input system, although differences in components of yield were observed in the wet and dry seasons. There is some evidence that the traditional genotype filled grain better when water was limiting during grain growth by restricting vegetative production and enabling the crop to finish.

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Naganawa, Hidetoshi. "First record of Triops strenuus Wolf, 1911 (Branchiopoda, Notostraca), a tadpole shrimp of Australian origin, from Japan." Crustaceana 91, no. 4 (2018): 425–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15685403-00003759.

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Three species of tadpole shrimp, i.e., Triops granarius (Lucas, 1864), Triops longicaudatus (LeConte, 1846) and Triops cancriformis (Bosc, 1801-1802), have been known from Japan. In this paper the author describes a fourth Triops species (= Triops strenuus Wolf, 1911) living in the rice paddies of a southern area of Honshu, the largest of the four main islands of Japan. This species was probably endemic to the Australian continent, and no habitat distribution outside Australia has been reported so far. The impact on the existing ecosystem of Japan is quite unknown, and therefore, it is necessary to announce this intrusion into Japan in order to clarify the invasion route, habitat ecology, and the future measures against this new alien species. This invasion is considered to be caused by the resting eggs brought together with silica sand (imported from Western Australia into Japan for the large-scale beach improvement). The results presented here also describe the phylogenetic relationship with all the Australian species described so far, but also all the known Triops species of the world, based on the nucleotide sequences of mitochondrial DNA.

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Abdelghany, Gehan, Penelope Wurm, Linh Thi My Hoang, and Sean Mark Bellairs. "Commercial Cultivation of Australian Wild Oryza spp.: A Review and Conceptual Framework for Future Research Needs." Agronomy 12, no. 1 (December 25, 2021): 42. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12010042.

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Wild Oryza species are being targeted for commercial cultivation due to their high nutritional grain profile, and their association with Aboriginal people in many regions. Australian wild Oryza species have potential as high-value, low-volume, culturally identified, and nutritious food, especially in gourmet food, tourism, restaurants, and value-added products. However, the basic agronomic protocols for their cultivation as a field crop are unknown. In this review, we identify the major factors supporting the commercial production of wild Oryza, including their stress-tolerant capacity, excellent grain quality attributes, and Indigenous cultural identification of their grains. The key challenges to be faced during the development of a wild rice industry are also discussed which include management barriers, processing issues, undesirable wild traits, and environmental concern. This manuscript proposes the use of agronomic research, in combination with breeding programs, as an overarching framework for the conceptualization and implementation of a successful wild rice industry, using the North American wild rice industry as a case study. The framework also suggests an integrated system that connects producers, industry, and government stakeholders. The suggested procedures for developing a wild rice industry in Australia are also applicable for other wild Oryza species.

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Rahman, M. Azizur, Mohammad Mahmudur Rahman, Suzie M. Reichman, Richard P. Lim, and Ravi Naidu. "Arsenic Speciation in Australian-Grown and Imported Rice on Sale in Australia: Implications for Human Health Risk." Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 62, no. 25 (June 17, 2014): 6016–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jf501077w.

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Ishikawa, Ryuji, Takahiro Mishimaki, Daiki Toyomoto, Koki Katano, Katsuyuki Ichitani, and Robert Henry. "Introgression of Large Grain Size from Australian Wild Rice and Its Agronomical Importance." Proceedings 36, no. 1 (March 7, 2020): 121. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/proceedings2019036121.

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Willett, IR, and KWJ Malafant. "Long term effects of rice growing on some chemical properties of two soils of northern Australia." Soil Research 24, no. 2 (1986): 239. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/sr9860239.

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Solodic soils (Natrustalfs) of the Lower Burdekin Valley, Qld, and grey-brown clays (Chromusterts) of the Ord Irrigation Area, W.A., of varying rice cropping histories, were analysed before and after a laboratory flooding experiment to determine whether any long-term changes in chemical fertility had occurred. In the solodic group changes in the extractability of iron and manganese in acetate and oxalate reagents indicated that oxides of these elements may be more easily reduced in soils that had grown nine or more rice crops than in soils which had not been used for rice growing. The flooding experiment showed that manganese and iron reduction and the mobilization of phosphorus were more rapid in the solodic soils which had been used for rice than those which had not. Iron reduction did not occur in the flooded grey-brown clays, and manganese reduction was apparent only in three soils, but was most rapid in those which had grown 15 rice crops. Extractable phosphorus levels decreased during flooding of the grey-brown clays, but this was not related to the cropping history. There were small increases in sodicity of the subsoil (40-50 cm) of the solodic soils which had been used for rice growing. It was concluded that for the solodic soils rice growing leads to soils more favourable for further rice growing but less favourable for non-flooded crops, whereas this effect was not shown for the grey-brown clay soils.

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29

Fang, X., P. Snell, M. J. Barbetti, and V. Lanoiselet. "Rice varieties with resistance to multiple races of Magnaporthe oryzae offer opportunities to manage rice blast in Australia." Annals of Applied Biology 170, no. 2 (December 4, 2016): 160–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/aab.12324.

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30

Zossou, Norliette, Hubert Adoukonèou-Sagbadja, Daniel Fonceka, Lamine Baba-Moussa, Mbaye Sall, Adam Ahanchede, and Brice Sinsin. "Genetic Diversity of Rice vampireweed (Rhamphicarpa fistulosa) Populations in Rainfed Lowland Rice in West Africa." Weed Science 64, no. 3 (September 2016): 430–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1614/ws-d-15-00143.1.

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Rice vampireweed belongs to the Orobanchaceae and is found in Africa and Australia. It is a hemiparasitic weed of lowland rice genotypes and causes losses of 40 to 100% of rice grain yield. Our study addressed the genetic diversity of rice vampireweed in Benin and Senegal. The specific objectives of this research were to study the genetic diversity of rice vampireweed accessions in Benin and Senegal and the relationship between the different genotypes of rice vampireweed through agroecological areas. To achieve these objectives, the genetic diversity of rice vampireweed accessions using the AFLP technique was studied. Based on our results, dendrogram classification has distinguished four different genetic groups. The populations of Benin and Senegal are genetically diverse. Substantial genetic differentiation (GST) exists among agroecological areas within Benin and Senegal (GST = 0.17). The high genetic diversity of rice vampireweed in Benin and Senegal presents a challenge for the development of resistant rice germplasm.

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31

Souter, W. D., and J. D. Flanders. "Lake Tinaroo (Australia) – Towards a Management Plan." Water Science and Technology 21, no. 2 (February 1, 1989): 99–104. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1989.0034.

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Tinaroo Falls Dam provides a water supply for irrigated agricultural production, primarily tobacco, rice, tree and horticultural crops, near Mareeba in Far Northern Queensland. The increasing popularity of Lake Tinaroo as a recreation and tourist venue is providing impetus for a management plan to be prepared for the lake. Urban and agricultural use of the catchment has caused a change in the trophic state of the lake. The competing uses and emerging issues in relation to a sustainable, healthy lake are discussed. The QWRC is desirous of establishing a management plan for the catchment. Progress in implementing such a plan is discussed.

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32

Toyomoto, Daiki, Masato Uemura, Satoru Taura, Tadashi Sato, Robert Henry, Ryuji Ishikawa, and Katsuyuki Ichitani. "Segregation Distortion Observed in the Progeny of Crosses Between Oryza sativa and O. meridionalis Caused by Abortion During Seed Development." Plants 8, no. 10 (October 8, 2019): 398. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/plants8100398.

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Wild rice relatives having the same AA genome as domesticated rice (Oryza sativa) comprise the primary gene pool for rice genetic improvement. Among them, O. meridionalis and O. rufipogon are found in the northern part of Australia. Three Australian wild rice strains, Jpn1 (O. rufipogon), Jpn2, and W1297 (O. meridionalis), and one cultivated rice cultivar Taichung 65 (T65) were used in this study. A recurrent backcrossing strategy was adopted to produce chromosomal segment substitution lines (CSSLs) carrying chromosomal segments from wild relatives and used for trait evaluation and genetic analysis. The segregation of the DNA marker RM136 locus on chromosome 6 was found to be highly distorted, and a recessive lethal gene causing abortion at the seed developmental stage was shown to be located between two DNA markers, KGC6_10.09 and KGC6_22.19 on chromosome 6 of W1297. We name this gene as SEED DEVELOPMENT 1 (gene symbol: SDV1). O. sativa is thought to share the functional dominant allele Sdv1-s (s for sativa), and O. meridionalis is thought to share the recessive abortive allele sdv1-m (m for meridionalis). Though carrying the sdv1-m allele, the O. meridionalis accessions can self-fertilize and bear seeds. We speculate that the SDV1 gene may have been duplicated before the divergence between O. meridionalis and the other AA genome Oryza species, and that O. meridionalis has lost the function of the SDV1 gene and has kept the function of another putative gene named SDV2.

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33

Kagatsume, Masaru. "An Input-Output Analysis on Economic Impacts of Rice Sector in Australia." Journal of Rural Problems 29, no. 1 (1993): 11–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.7310/arfe1965.29.11.

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34

Cother, E. J., B. Stodart, D. H. Noble, R. Reinke, and R. J. van de Ven. "Polyphasic identification ofPseudomonas fuscovaginaecausing sheath and glume lesions on rice in Australia." Australasian Plant Pathology 38, no. 3 (2009): 247. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ap08103.

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35

McIntyre, S., C. M. Finlayson, P. Y. Ladiges, and D. S. Mitchell. "Weed community composition and rice husbandry practices in New South Wales, Australia." Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 35, no. 1 (March 1991): 27–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0167-8809(91)90074-8.

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36

Blunden, B. G., J. M. Kirby, E. Humphreys, and W. A. Muirhead. "Mechanical properties of a grey clay used for rice production in Australia." Soil and Tillage Research 26, no. 1 (February 1993): 55–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0167-1987(93)90086-5.

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37

Islam, Md Sakinul, Nhol Kao, Sati N. Bhattacharya, Rahul Gupta, and Hyoung Jin Choi. "Potential aspect of rice husk biomass in Australia for nanocrystalline cellulose production." Chinese Journal of Chemical Engineering 26, no. 3 (March 2018): 465–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cjche.2017.07.004.

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38

Petrovic, T., L. W. Burgess, I. Cowie, R. A. Warren, and P. R. Harvey. "Diversity and fertility of Fusarium sacchari from wild rice (Oryza australiensis) in Northern Australia, and pathogenicity tests with wild rice, rice, sorghum and maize." European Journal of Plant Pathology 136, no. 4 (April 16, 2013): 773–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10658-013-0206-7.

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39

Cother, E. J., R. Reinke, C. McKenzie, V. M. Lanoiselet, and D. H. Noble. "An unusual stem necrosis of rice caused byPantoea ananasand the first record of this pathogen on rice in Australia." Australasian Plant Pathology 33, no. 4 (2004): 495. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ap04053.

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40

Dunn, B. W., T. S. Dunn, and H. G. Beecher. "Nitrogen timing and rate effects on growth and grain yield of delayed permanent-water rice in south-eastern Australia." Crop and Pasture Science 65, no. 9 (2014): 878. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/cp13412.

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The need for continual improvement in water productivity of rice farming has led to the development of delayed permanent (continuous) water (DPW) irrigation practice for drill-sown rice in south-eastern Australia. Current rice-growing practices have the crop flooded for most, or all, of its growing period, whereas DPW has reduced the period of flooding during the vegetative phase, resulting in significant water savings. The changed water-management practice required nitrogen (N) management practices to be investigated, because traditional N application timings and rates may no longer be suitable. Six experiments were conducted over three rice-growing seasons, 2010–11, 2011–12 and 2012–13, on two soil types in south-eastern Australia. Nitrogen applications at sowing, early tillering, mid-tillering and pre-PW were investigated at different rates and split-timing combinations. In the third season, three current commercial semi-dwarf rice varieties, Reiziq, Sherpa and Langi, were investigated for their growth and grain yield using different N treatments under DPW management. Nitrogen applied with the seed at sowing increased vegetative plant growth but did not increase grain yield, whereas N applied at early tillering had no significant impact on plant growth or grain yield. Nitrogen applied at mid-tillering often increased plant growth but did not lead to increased grain yield over treatments that received all N before PW application at 18–22 days before panicle initiation. When rice is managed under DPW, all N should be applied in one application, before the application of PW. The results from this research show that applying 100 kg N ha–1 before PW for rice grown under DPW was the best N-management option for the experimental fields. All three varieties grew and yielded well under the practice of DPW and responded similarly to N application rates and timings.

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41

Brinkhoff, James, Rasmus Houborg, and Brian W. Dunn. "Rice ponding date detection in Australia using Sentinel-2 and Planet Fusion imagery." Agricultural Water Management 273 (November 2022): 107907. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2022.107907.

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42

Park, Pyung-Sik, Sung-Ho Park, and Sang-Youn Park. "Marketing Status and Countermeasure for Korean Rice Export in Australia and New Zealand." Journal of the Korean Society of International Agricultue 26, no. 4 (December 30, 2014): 404–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.12719/ksia.2014.26.4.404.

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43

Agbola, Frank W., and Nigel Evans. "Modelling rice and cotton acreage response in the Murray Darling Basin in Australia." Agricultural Systems 107 (March 2012): 74–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2011.10.004.

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44

Bethune, Matthew, Nick Austin, and Sheridan Maher. "Quantifying the water budget of irrigated rice in the Shepparton Irrigation Region, Australia." Irrigation Science 20, no. 3 (July 1, 2001): 99–105. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s002710100035.

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Silwal, Sachesh, Surya P. Bhattarai, and David J. Midmore. "Aerobic Rice with or without Strategic Irrigation in the Subtropics." Agronomy 10, no. 11 (November 21, 2020): 1831. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/agronomy10111831.

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Modern rice varieties adapted to aerobic (dryland) conditions have expanded to new rice growing systems thanks to their plasticity in adapting to rainfed and irrigated conditions. This is important because, as water becomes scarce in paddy rice regions (as it is already in Australia), there will be a move towards tropical to subtropical dryland rainfed rice with attendant problems of drought and low temperature. To assess rice adaptability in the wet season of the semi-arid subtropical conditions of coastal central Queensland, field experiments were established for a late season (in January) planting in 2014 and early season planting in November 2015 with 13 varieties developed by Australian Agriculture Technologies (AAT) Ltd were seeded in a vertisol soil. This was to assess their adaptation to rainfed conditions and their response to strategic irrigation. Water scarcity and low temperature prior to and at flowering were important factors constraining yield. Early flowering varieties in the late season planting escaped the otherwise cold and drought stress during the reproductive stage and had higher yields. In the second year, earlier planting made possible with strategic irrigation avoided the low temperature constraint on yield, but without follow-up strategic irrigation, yields were still low. The average yield of varieties increased from 1.5 times (AAT 4) to 16.3 times (AAT 15) with strategic irrigation compared with rainfed yields averaged across years. The increase in yield with strategic irrigation was associated with a greater leaf area index, spikelet fertility, and instantaneous water use efficiency during flowering. Strategic irrigation concentrated roots in the top 15 cm, but differences in yield between varieties under rainfed conditions were not related to root properties. It is important to consider variations in flowering time, yield potential, and drought patterns when developing rice varieties for rainfed semi-arid tropical conditions, as well as when quantifying the benefits of strategic irrigation.

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46

Beecher, H. G., B. W. Dunn, J. A. Thompson, E. Humphreys, S. K. Mathews, and J. Timsina. "Effect of raised beds, irrigation and nitrogen management on growth, water use and yield of rice in south-eastern Australia." Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 46, no. 10 (2006): 1363. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ea04136.

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To remain economically and environmentally sustainable, Australian rice growers need to be able to readily respond to market opportunities and increase cropping system productivity and water productivity. Water availability is decreasing whereas its price is increasing. Alternative irrigation layouts and water management approaches could contribute to reduced water use and increased irrigation efficiency. This paper reports results for the first crop (rice) in a cropping system experiment to compare permanent raised bed and conventional layouts on a transitional red-brown earth at Coleambally, New South Wales. The performance of conventional ponded rice grown on a flat layout was compared with rice grown on 1.84-m wide, raised beds with furrow and subsurface drip irrigation. In addition, deep and shallow ponded water depth treatments (15 and 5 cm water depth over the beds) were imposed on the rice on beds during the reproductive period. A range of nitrogen (N) fertiliser rates (0–180 kg N/ha) was applied to all treatments. The traditional flat flooded treatment (Flat) achieved the highest grain yield of 12.7 t/ha, followed by the deep (Bed 15) and shallow (Bed 5) ponded beds (10.2 and 10.1 t/ha, respectively). The furrow (Furrow) irrigated bed treatment yielded 9.4 t/ha and the furrow/drip (Furr/Drip) treatment yielded the lowest grain yield (8.3 t/ha). Grain yield from all bed treatments was reduced owing to the wide furrows (0.8 m between edge rows on adjacent beds), which were not planted to rice. Rice crop water use was significantly different between the layout–irrigation treatments. The Flat, Bed 5 and Bed 15 treatments had similar input (irrigation + rainfall – surface drainage) water use (mean of 18.3 ML/ha). The water use for the Furrow treatment was 17.2 ML/ha and for the Furr/Drip treatment, 15.1 ML/ha. Input WP of the Flat treatment (0.68 t/ML) was higher than the raised bed treatments, which were all similar (mean 0.55 t/ML). This single season experiment shows that high yielding rice crops can be successfully grown on raised beds, but when beds are ponded after panicle initiation, there is no water saving compared with rice grown on a conventional flat layout. Preliminary recommendations for the growing of rice on raised beds are that the crop be grown as a flooded crop in a bankless channel layout. This assists with weed control and allows flooding for cold temperature protection, which is necessary with current varieties. Until we find effective herbicides and other methods of weed control and N application that do not require ponding, there is little scope for saving water while maintaining yield on suitable rice soil through the use of beds.

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Boyden, Wurm, Joyce, and Boggs. "Spatial Dynamics of Invasive Para Grass on a Monsoonal Floodplain, Kakadu National Park, Northern Australia." Remote Sensing 11, no. 18 (September 6, 2019): 2090. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs11182090.

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African para grass (Urochloa mutica) is an invasive weed that has become prevalent across many important freshwater wetlands of the world. In northern Australia, including the World Heritage landscape of Kakadu National Park (KNP), its dense cover can displace ecologically, genetically and culturally significant species, such as the Australian native rice (Oryza spp.). In regions under management for biodiversity conservation para grass is often beyond eradication. However, its targeted control is also necessary to manage and preserve site-specific wetland values. This requires an understanding of para grass spread-patterns and its potential impacts on valuable native vegetation. We apply a multi-scale approach to examine the spatial dynamics and impact of para grass cover across a 181 km2 floodplain of KNP. First, we measure the overall displacement of different native vegetation communities across the floodplain from 1986 to 2006. Using high spatial resolution satellite imagery in conjunction with historical aerial-photo mapping, we then measure finer-scale, inter-annual, changes between successive dry seasons from 1990 to 2010 (for a 48 km2 focus area); Para grass presence-absence maps from satellite imagery (2002 to 2010) were produced with an object-based machine-learning approach (stochastic gradient boosting). Changes, over time, in mapped para grass areas were then related to maps of depth-habitat and inter-annual fire histories. Para grass invasion and establishment patterns varied greatly in time and space. Wild rice communities were the most frequently invaded, but the establishment and persistence of para grass fluctuated greatly between years, even within previously invaded communities. However, these different patterns were also shown to vary with different depth-habitat and recent fire history. These dynamics have not been previously documented and this understanding presents opportunities for intensive para grass management in areas of high conservation value, such as those occupied by wild rice.

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Chen, D., H. Suter, A. Islam, R. Edis, J. R. Freney, and C. N. Walker. "Prospects of improving efficiency of fertiliser nitrogen in Australian agriculture: a review of enhanced efficiency fertilisers." Soil Research 46, no. 4 (2008): 289. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/sr07197.

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Fertiliser nitrogen use in Australia has increased from 35 Gg N in 1961 to 972 Gg N in 2002, and most of the nitrogen is used for growing cereals. However, the nitrogen is not used efficiently, and wheat plants, for example, assimilated only 41% of the nitrogen applied. This review confirms that the efficiency of fertiliser nitrogen can be improved through management practices which increase the crop’s ability to compete with loss processes. However, the results of the review suggest that management practices alone will not prevent all losses (e.g. by denitrification), and it may be necessary to use enhanced efficiency fertilisers, such as controlled release products, and urease and nitrification inhibitors, to obtain a marked improvement in efficiency. Some of these products (e.g. nitrification inhibitors) when used in Australian agriculture have increased yield or reduced nitrogen loss in irrigated wheat, maize and cotton, and flooded rice, but most of the information concerning the use of enhanced efficiency fertilisers to reduce nitrogen loss to the environment has come from other countries. The potential role of enhanced efficiency fertilisers to increase yield in the various agricultural industries and prevent contamination of the environment in Australia is discussed.

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Serrano, Amelio Chi, Russell F. Mizell, and Morgan A. Byron. "Rice Bug (suggested common name) Leptocorisa acuta (Thunberg) (Insecta: Hemiptera: Alydidae)." EDIS 2015, no. 3 (May 6, 2015): 3. http://dx.doi.org/10.32473/edis-in1067-2014.

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Broad-headed bugs belong to a well-known but relatively small family of plant-feeding true bugs, usually seen feeding on the foliage and flowers of leguminous and graminaceous crops. Leptocorisa acuta (Thunberg) can be found on many crop plants in the family Poaceae (grasses), especially rice, and is a reported pest of economic significance in rice-producing countries like India, Australia, and China. This 3-page fact sheet was written by Amelio Chi Serrano, Russell F. Mizell, III, and Morgan A. Byron, and published by the UF Department of Entomology and Nematology, December 2014. (Photo: Lary E. Reeves, UF/IFAS) EENY614/IN1067: Rice Bug (suggested common name) Leptocorisa acuta (Thunberg) (Insecta: Hemiptera: Alydidae) (ufl.edu)

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Guo, Y., X. Jia, and D. Paull. "SEQUENTIAL CLASSIFIER TRAINING FOR RICE MAPPING WITH MULTITEMPORAL REMOTE SENSING IMAGERY." ISPRS Annals of Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences IV-4/W2 (October 20, 2017): 161–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/isprs-annals-iv-4-w2-161-2017.

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Most traditional methods for rice mapping with remote sensing data are effective when they are applied to the initial growing stage of rice, as the practice of flooding during this period makes the spectral characteristics of rice fields more distinguishable. In this study, we propose a sequential classifier training approach for rice mapping that can be used over the whole growing period of rice for monitoring various growth stages. Rice fields are firstly identified during the initial flooding period. The identified rice fields are used as training data to train a classifier that separates rice and non-rice pixels. The classifier is then used as a priori knowledge to assist the training of classifiers for later rice growing stages. This approach can be applied progressively to sequential image data, with only a small amount of training samples being required from each image. In order to demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed approach, experiments were conducted at one of the major rice-growing areas in Australia. The proposed approach was applied to a set of multitemporal remote sensing images acquired by the Sentinel-2A satellite. Experimental results show that, compared with traditional spectral-indexbased algorithms, the proposed method is able to achieve more stable and consistent rice mapping accuracies and it reaches higher than 80% during the whole rice growing period.

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Journal articles on the topic 'Rice Australia'

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