Journal articles: 'Restoration ecology – Western Australia'

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McChesney, Catherine J., John M. Koch, and David T. Bell. "Jarrah Forest Restoration in Western Australia: Canopy and Topographic Effects." Restoration Ecology 3, no. 2 (June 1995): 105–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1526-100x.1995.tb00083.x.

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Rokich, Deanna P., Kingsley W. Dixon, K. Sivasithamparam, and Kathy A. Meney. "Topsoil Handling and Storage Effects on Woodland Restoration in Western Australia." Restoration Ecology 8, no. 2 (June 2000): 196–208. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1526-100x.2000.80027.x.

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Gardner, John H., and David T. Bell. "Bauxite Mining Restoration by Alcoa World Alumina Australia in Western Australia: Social, Political, Historical, and Environmental Contexts." Restoration Ecology 15 (December 12, 2007): S3—S10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1526-100x.2007.00287.x.

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Rokich, Deanna P., and Kingsley W. Dixon. "Recent advances in restoration ecology, with a focus on the Banksia woodland and the smoke germination tool." Australian Journal of Botany 55, no. 3 (2007): 375. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/bt06108.

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This paper details some of the recent research findings concerning restoration needs of the Banksia woodland in Western Australia, including the importance of, and recent advances in, smoke-technology research. Research has enabled testing of a wide spectrum of restoration technologies that enhance plant replacement at sites via treatments of the topsoil seedbank, broadcast seed and seedlings. By the use of smoke technology, which in some systems produces a 48-fold increase in the total number of germinants and a 3-fold increase in the number of species at restoration sites, improved species replacement is a very real possibility in Banksia woodland. At the same time, some commonly employed practices in restoration are a cause for concern, including the application of a herbicide widely used to control a priority Banksia-woodland weed and fire-suppressing agents used to assist fire management. These findings may have broader implications for restoration programs.

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Grant, Carl D., David T. Bell, John M. Koch, and William A. Loneragan. "Implications of Seedling Emergence to Site Restoration following Bauxite Mining in Western Australia." Restoration Ecology 4, no. 2 (June 1996): 146–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1526-100x.1996.tb00115.x.

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Turner, S. R. "Seed ecology of Lepidosperma scabrum (Cyperaceae), a dryland sedge from Western Australia with physiological seed dormancy." Australian Journal of Botany 61, no. 8 (2013): 643. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/bt13137.

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Lepidosperma scabrum is a common understorey species currently required for urban bushland restoration, although its propagation has been highly problematic. In this context, the overall aims of the present study were to (1) document key characteristics for seed-dormancy classification; (2) assess the effectiveness of different germination-promoting treatments; and (3) quantify changes in nutlet fill, dormancy and germination following soil storage under natural and nursery conditions. Initial investigations found that naturally shed nutlets (the natural germination unit) have high seed fill and viability (>90.0%) and a small (~468 µm) capitate embryo that readily grew (>95.0%) when extracted and cultured in vitro. Intact nutlets also imbibed moisture to a similar percentage (15.0 ± 1.4%) as nicked nutlets (18.0 ± 1.8%). Fresh nutlets germinated only in response to heat shock (100°C for 10 min), which was enhanced with additional treatment with 2.89 mM gibberellic acid (13.3%), 10% v/v smoke water (16. 6%) or a combination of both (23.3%). Nutlets placed into a burial trial maintained viability for 3 years and started to germinate (19.9 ± 9.5%) in response to smoke water by the third winter season. Heat shock was also found to significantly improve germination (81.1 ± 4.2%) for soil-aged nutlets. The present study is the first report of high germination from intact nutlets of any Lepidosperma spp. and provides practical techniques for the large-scale production of plants for horticulture and restoration.

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Craig, Michael D., Mark J. Garkaklis, Giles E. St J. Hardy, Andrew H. Grigg, Carl D. Grant, Patricia A. Fleming, and Richard J. Hobbs. "Ecology of the western bearded dragon (Pogona minor) in unmined forest and forest restored after bauxite mining in south-west Western Australia." Australian Journal of Zoology 55, no. 2 (2007): 107. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/zo07002.

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Forest areas restored after mining typically take decades, or longer, before they resemble the original vegetation community. Understanding how fauna succession varies with plant succession requires detailed knowledge of an animal’s ecology. Knowledge of an animal’s ecology can also be used to predict faunal responses to management manipulations and enable techniques to be developed that accelerate the return of fauna to restored sites. We radio-tracked western bearded dragons (Pogona minor) in a mix of unmined forest sites and sites restored after bauxite mining, in the jarrah forest of south-west Western Australia, to determine critical resources and important microhabitats for dragons. Dragons were generalists – utilising a range of microhabitats – and adaptable, adjusting their microhabitat use depending on availability. Individuals also differed significantly in their microhabitat use and did not appear to have a defined home range. We concluded that the species would rapidly recolonise restored sites and that no modifications to current restoration practices were required to accelerate their return. Prescribed burning of restored areas could negatively affect this species but the effect would be short-term (<2 years). The approach used in this study could be used to develop management prescriptions that accelerate the return of late-successional species to restored sites.

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Cuneo, Peter, Catherine A. Offord, and Michelle R. Leishman. "Seed ecology of the invasive woody plant African Olive (Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata): implications for management and restoration." Australian Journal of Botany 58, no. 5 (2010): 342. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/bt10061.

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Knowledege of the seed ecology of invasive exotic species, including soil seedbank dynamics, is essential to understanding key factors in successful invasion and in identifying management opportunities. African Olive, Olea europaea L. subsp. cuspidata, is an exotic invasive woody plant in Hawaii, Norfolk Island and eastern Australia, and is now well established in the Cumberland Plain region of western Sydney, Australia. In the present study, the key aspects of the seed ecology of African Olive were determined for populations in western Sydney. Extracted seed germinated at a wide range of temperatures, consistent with tolerance of a wide range of climatic conditions. A seed-burial experiment indicated a slow decrease in viability down to 70.3% during the first year, followed by a rapid decline down to 14.7% in the second year. Probit analysis indicated that under field conditions, seed persistence in the soil was ~29 months (2.4 years). In situ germination was low (3.3%) and did not occur until the mechanical constriction of the endocarp was released through decomposition. The woody seed endocarp was found to be permeable to water, indicating that physical dormancy was not imposed by providing a barrier to water uptake. Within its invasive range, African Olive produces abundant seed. However, the rapid loss of viability of soil-stored seed results in a narrow window of opportunity for germination. The short persistence of seed in the soil may provide an opportunity for managers to achieve control of African Olive once mature plants are removed.

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Broadhurst, Linda, Margaret Byrne, Lyn Craven, and Brendan Lepschi. "Genetic congruence with new species boundaries in the Melaleuca uncinata complex (Myrtaceae)." Australian Journal of Botany 52, no. 6 (2004): 729. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/bt04073.

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Uninformed management decisions have the potential to create significant problems for conservation programs. In the south-western corner of Australia where conservation initiatives are directed towards restoring large tracts of land degraded by broadscale clearing and increasing levels of dryland salinity, Melaleuca uncinata R.Br. (Myrtaceae) is a species complex of considerable interest for restoration. Although M. uncinata is morphologically uniform across most of southern mainland Australia, there is considerable variation in south-western Australia and a recent morphological evaluation has recognised 11 species. Phylogenetic patterns among populations of seven of these species were examined with nuclear RFLP loci to determine whether morphological and phylogenetic boundaries were congruent before the implementation of any broadscale revegetation programs. The phylogenetic analysis was congruent with the morphological assessment, and populations of different species, including those co-occurring at the same site, clustered according to their correct morphological assignment. Some genetic structuring associated with habitat preference was also evident within two of the species. The taxonomic resolution and knowledge of the phylogenetic relationships among the seven species will facilitate their further assessment for issues relevant to revegetation, such as provenance and local adaptation. It will also enable selection of appropriate germplasm in revegetation programs to maximise the genetic adaptation in restoration and minimise negative impact of plantings on remnant vegetation.

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Baker, Timothy, Jane Gye, and Judy Christie. "19th Conference of the Society for Ecological Restoration International. 23 Augustâ27 August 2009, Perth, Western Australia, Australia." Ecological Management & Restoration 10, no. 3 (December 2009): 246. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1442-8903.2009.00501.x.

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Turner, S. R., D. J. Merritt, C. C. Baskin, K. W. Dixon, and J. M. Baskin. "Physical dormancy in seeds of six genera of Australian Rhamnaceae." Seed Science Research 15, no. 1 (March 2005): 51–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1079/ssr2004197.

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Physical dormancy (PY) was identified in six genera representative of Australian Rhamnaceae and subsequently was broken, based on identification of key seed dormancy characteristics: (1) isolation and classification of embryo features; (2) imbibition experiments to determine the rate and amount of water uptake in seeds; and (3) determination of optimum temperature regimes for germination. All six species had relatively large spatulate embryos. Imbibition studies showed all species possessed PY (i.e. a water-impervious seed coat) that was broken by a hot-water treatment. Alleviation of PY resulted in high germination (<70%) at 7/18°C, temperatures similar to winter in south-west Western Australia. Germination was suppressed at higher temperatures and in the presence of light. The study adds information to our knowledge of seed dormancy in Australian Rhamnaceae, and highlights the benefits of understanding dormancy states in seeds prior to evaluating dormancy-release mechanisms on wild species used in restoration ecology and horticulture.

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Yates, Colin J., David A. Norton, and Richard J. Hobbs. "Grazing effects on plant cover, soil and microclimate in fragmented woodlands in south-western Australia: implications for restoration." Austral Ecology 25, no. 1 (February 2000): 36–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1442-9993.2000.01030.x.

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Millar, Melissa A., David J. Coates, Margaret Byrne, Siegfried L. Krauss, Matthew R. Williams, Justin Jonson, and Stephen D. Hopper. "Pollen dispersal, pollen immigration, mating and genetic diversity in restoration of the southern plains Banksia." Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 129, no. 4 (February 20, 2020): 773–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/biolinnean/blaa003.

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Abstract Evaluation of patterns of pollen dispersal, mating systems, population fitness, genetic diversity and differentiation in restoration and remnant plant populations can be useful in determining how well restoration activities have achieved their objectives. We used molecular tools to assess how well restoration objectives have been met for populations of Banksia media in the biodiversity hotspot of south-west Western Australia. We characterized patterns of pollen dispersal within, and pollen immigration into, two restoration populations. We compared mating system parameters, population fitness via seed weight, genetic diversity and genetic differentiation for restoration and associated reference remnant populations. Different patterns of pollen dispersal were revealed for two restoration sites that differed in floral display, spatial aggregation of founders and co-planted species. Proximity to remnant native vegetation was associated with enhanced immigration and more short-range pollen dispersal when other population variables were constant. Greater seed weights at remnant compared to restoration populations were not related to outcrossing rate. Equivalent mating system and genetic diversity parameters and low to moderate levels of genetic differentiation between restoration and remnant populations suggest pollinator services have been restored in genetically diverse restoration populations of local provenance B. media as early as four years from planting.

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Daws, Matthew I., Rachel J. Standish, John M. Koch, and Tim K. Morald. "Nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizer regime affect jarrah forest restoration after bauxite mining in Western Australia." Applied Vegetation Science 16, no. 4 (May 17, 2013): 610–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/avsc.12046.

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Koch, J. M., S. C. Ward, C. D. Grant, and G. L. Ainsworth. "Effects of Bauxite Mine Restoration Operations on Topsoil Seed Reserves in the Jarrah Forest of Western Australia." Restoration Ecology 4, no. 4 (December 1996): 368–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1526-100x.1996.tb00189.x.

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van Etten, Eddie J. B. "Changes to land tenure and pastoral lease ownership in Western Australia’s central rangelands: implications for co-operative, landscape-scale management." Rangeland Journal 35, no. 1 (2013): 37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/rj11088.

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The majority of arid and semiarid land in the Western Australian pastoral zone has a long history of livestock grazing within an extensive network of predominantly family-held pastoral leases. A variety of different groups have purchased pastoral leases in the last five decades and, for many, making a profit from pastoralism is no longer a priority. For the central rangelands of Western Australia, these groups have included: government agencies, who have purchased some 9% of pastoral leases by area; private conservation organisations (<1% purchased); aboriginal communities and groups (~7%); and mining companies (~13%). The purchases of pastoral leases by government agencies was designed to improve the conservation status of arid-zone ecosystems, and is the first step in a process of changing land tenure to a conservation reserve. This paper summarises the extent and other characteristics of these changes in land tenure and ownership of pastoral leases, and explores the implications for land management and conservation, stemming from these changes. It demonstrates that large areas of contiguous land with no or reduced domestic stocking can now be found in many parts of these rangelands, particularly in the Coolgardie, Yalgoo and Pilbara bio-regions, with some leaseholders actively managing land for the conservation of biodiversity and restoring sites degraded through past over-grazing. In some bio-regions, such land covers considerable proportions of sub-catchments, suggesting that broad-scale conservation management and restoration objectives may be realised. It is argued that to fully realise these objectives requires effective communication and co-ordination between land managers, including sharing of ideas, view-points and resources. In particular, mining companies, now major holders of pastoral leases in Western Australia, can play an important role in contributing to and even facilitating such objectives.

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Millar, Melissa A., David J. Coates, Margaret Byrne, and J. Dale Roberts. "An integrated genetic approach to provenancing and establishment of founding individuals for restoration in the semiarid midwest region of Western Australia." Australian Journal of Botany 67, no. 3 (2019): 218. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/bt18096.

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An increasingly important practical application of the analysis of spatial genetic structure and life history traits of plant species is to aid the design of seed sourcing scenarios that provide for long-term successful restoration. Despite this, there are few practical recommendations on how to use empirical knowledge of genetic structure and life history traits to design appropriate seed sourcing regimes and planting designs. We identified potential divergent lineages within species as an important first step in determining appropriate areas in which to source seeds. We then used a modelling approach for restoration based on patterns of genetic structure and life history traits that affect demography, dispersal and gene flow to inform the impact of number and spatial positioning of founder individuals, as well as different seed sourcing scenarios, on population growth and the initial capture and long-term maintenance of genetic diversity for restored populations. The approach is illustrated using datasets for four perennial plant species associated with the Banded Iron Formations of the semiarid midwest region of Western Australia. The approach can be tailored to any restoration site and applied to a range of species with differing patterns of genetic structure and differing life history traits.

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Rokich, Deanna P. "Melding of research and practice to improve restoration ofBanksiawoodlands after sand extraction, Perth, Western Australia." Ecological Management & Restoration 17, no. 2 (May 2016): 112–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/emr.12214.

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Mattner, J., G. Zawko, M. Rossetto, S. L. Krauss, K. W. Dixon, and K. Sivasithamparam. "Conservation genetics and implications for restoration of Hemigenia exilis (Lamiaceae), a serpentine endemic from Western Australia." Biological Conservation 107, no. 1 (September 2002): 37–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0006-3207(02)00041-1.

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Williams, Andrea, Suman George, Henry W. G. Birt, Matthew I. Daws, and Mark Tibbett. "Sensitivity of seedling growth to phosphorus supply in six tree species of the Australian Great Western Woodlands." Australian Journal of Botany 67, no. 5 (2019): 390. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/bt18247.

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Many Australian native plants from regions with ancient, highly weathered soils have specialised adaptations for acquiring phosphorus (P) and can exhibit negative effects of excess P supply on growth and survival. Despite this, fertiliser (including P) is routinely applied in post-mining and other restoration schemes. In this study we investigated the effect of a range of applied P on the growth and tissue P concentrations for six woody species from the Great Western Woodlands (GWW) of Western Australia – a region that it not only biodiverse, but that has experienced significant levels of mining related activities. Our data from a pot-based experiment show that all six species exhibited greater growth with increased P application up to 15 mg kg sand–1. However, at P concentrations in excess of 15 mg kg–1, dry mass accumulation did not increase further for three of the species tested. For the other three species, dry mass accumulation declined as the P concentration increased above 15 mg kg–1. For all of the study species, root and shoot P concentrations increased as the concentration of applied P increased. The internal shoot P concentration, at which dry matter accumulation either plateaued or started to decline, was in the range 1.95 to 3.2 mg P g–1 dry matter. This was ~2–4 times the concentration found in natural vegetation. These data suggest that in a restoration context, there is a potential risk that, excess P application may decrease plant growth rates for some species. Consequently, the addition of fertiliser to restored sites may have unpredictable impacts on the plant community by directly reducing the growth of some species but increasing the growth of others. We suggest that careful consideration should be given to designing appropriate fertiliser regimes for land restoration schemes in ancient P deplete landscapes to avoid the risk that fertiliser addition has the unwanted outcome of decreasing growth and survival of the target native species and increasing the abundance of unwanted weeds or aggressive pioneer species.

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Langdon, Mark W., Eric I. Paling, and Mike Van Keulen. "The development of urchin barrens in seagrass meadows at Luscombe Bay, Western Australia from 1985 to 2004." Pacific Conservation Biology 17, no. 1 (2011): 48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/pc110048.

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Herbivore grazing is a well-documented cause of habitat decline in terrestrial systems, but marine examples from seagrass meadows are rare. Here we present evidence that isolated urchin grazing events have caused further localized losses to seagrass meadows already degraded by eutrophication or other anthropogenic disturbances. By 1992 a substantial scar in Posidonia meadows at Luscombe Bay in Cockburn Sound, Western Australia, had been caused by grazing urchins. When seagrass transplants were placed at the site more than a decade later most were grazed and did not survive. GIS analyses on imagery from 1985 to 2004 indicated that rapid seagrass meadow decline coincided with the presence of an unusually large aggregation of the grazing urchin Heliocidaris erythrogramma. Evidence of some seagrass recovery after 1993 was also apparent after the manual removal of the urchins in late 1992. Restoration efforts in seagrass meadows should consider the potential for grazing damage, as is commonplace in terrestrial systems.

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Safstrom, Rodney, and Peter-Jon Waddell. "Using economic, social and ecological spatial patterns to guide policy development in the Pilbara and Southern Rangelands of Western Australia." Rangeland Journal 35, no. 2 (2013): 231. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/rj13032.

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The pastoral industry in the Pilbara and Southern Rangelands of Western Australia continues to face very difficult economic, social and ecological situations due to decline in terms of trade and ongoing decline in range condition. Land administration by State government for the pastoral industry has a strong focus on environmental and ecological sustainability but these goals have largely not been achieved. Regional planning and incentive-based approaches have either failed or only been partly successful at pastoral lease scale. This paper identifies four broad economic, social and ecological landscape patterns ranging from economic, social and ecological sustainability to failure across all three dimensions. Some lessees are adapting to economic decline by obtaining work off station or diversification in the limited locations where these opportunities are available, in some cases facilitating landscape restoration. Market-based incentives may be effective where economic viability is attainable but lease buy-back may be required where leaseholders are locked into a poverty cycle. Carbon-based income is problematic until governance and economic parameters are resolved. Mapping the economic, social and ecological patterns in the landscape is a basis for policy and special purpose initiatives to resolve the current very difficult economic, social and environmental situation in the Pilbara and Southern Rangelands.

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Bain, Karlene, Adrian Francis Wayne, and Roberta Bencini. "Spatial ecology of the quokka (Setonix brachyurus) in the southern forests of Western Australia: implications for the maintenance, or restoration, of functional metapopulations." Australian Mammalogy 42, no. 1 (2020): 38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/am18036.

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We used radio-telemetry to investigate the home-range size and movement patterns of the quokka (Setonix brachyurus) in the southern forests of Western Australia to assess the ability of animals to move between increasingly segregated habitat patches and to identify implications for metapopulation function. We found that quokkas in this region have a much larger home range (71 ± 5.8 ha) and move larger distances (up to 10 km per night) than previously reported for this species in other regions. Temporal and sex variations in home-range size, overlap and movement patterns provided insights into the social structure, reproductive strategies and resource availability for the species in this part of its range. Quokkas moved up to 14 km between habitat patches, where these patches were connected by dense riparian vegetation. While riparian vegetation was used exclusively for movement between habitat patches, quokkas spent only 40% of their time in this ecotype. The current management paradigm of protecting linear riparian vegetation as habitat for quokkas is important for maintaining habitat connectivity, but is unlikely to meet broader habitat and spatial requirements. Management of preferred habitat as well as riparian corridors is necessary for the maintenance of a functional metapopulation.

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Bradbury, Donna, and Siegfried L. Krauss. "Limited impact of fragmentation and disturbance on the mating system of tuart (Eucalyptus gomphocephala, Myrtaceae): implications for seed-source quality in ecological restoration." Australian Journal of Botany 61, no. 2 (2013): 148. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/bt13032.

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Variation in patterns of mating within and among plant populations can be impacted by habitat disturbance and have significant implications for offspring fitness. An understanding of this variation will inform predictions of seed genetic quality, benefiting ecological restoration through better seed-sourcing guidelines. We assessed mating system variation in six populations of tuart (Eucalyptus gomphocephala DC.), an iconic tree of significance to ecological restoration in Western Australia. A mixed mating system was observed with predominant outcrossing (tm = 0.76 ± 0.05) and low biparental inbreeding (tm–ts = 0.03 ± 0.02). We detected some evidence of increased inbreeding in a naturally fragmented population (tm–ts = 0.10 ± 0.04) and in a disturbed urban remnant (tm = 0.52 ± 0.12), including a family with complete selfing. However, most variation in outcrossing rate occurred among individuals within populations (82%), rather than among populations (2.6%) or among groups of populations defined by fragmentation or disturbance (15.4%). Genetic diversity was not consistently lower in offspring from fragmented, smaller and/or disturbed populations. These data reinforce the importance of sourcing seeds from multiple trees for ecological restoration, and emphasise that tuart’s mating system and the genetic diversity of offspring is robust to some habitat disturbance and/or fragmentation.

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Orabi, Gamal, Melinda L. Moir, and Jonathan D. Majer. "Assessing the success of mine restoration using Hemiptera as indicators." Australian Journal of Zoology 58, no. 4 (2010): 243. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/zo10033.

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Understanding trends in assemblage composition of key invertebrate groups can provide important insight into the ‘condition’ of, or changes in, the environment. Species density, abundance and composition of Hemiptera (true bugs) were assessed in jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) forest and a chronosequence of restored bauxite mine pits near Boddington, Western Australia, in order to evaluate how restoration was progressing. A significant difference was uncovered for hemipteran species density between the youngest restored treatment and forest. In contrast, hemipteran composition was distinct between the forest and all restored treatments. Hemipteran composition was associated with the presence of the plant species Conostylis setigera and Trichocline spathulata, and plant structure between 160–180 cm and 260–280, plus soil pH. Restoration was successful in returning Hemiptera with respect to species density, but restoration was yet to attain a similar composition of Hemiptera to that of unmined forest, despite some of the restored sites being almost 20 years old. These results are similar to those of other studies that have assessed the response of Hemiptera to disturbance, and highlight the need to wait for considerable periods in order to achieve restoration goals. This study also confirms the utility of Hemiptera as bioindicators of environmental ‘condition’ and change.

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Craig, Michael D., Angela M. Benkovic, Andrew H. Grigg, Giles E. St J. Hardy, Patricia A. Fleming, and Richard J. Hobbs. "How many mature microhabitats does a slow-recolonising reptile require? Implications for restoration of bauxite minesites in south-western Australia." Australian Journal of Zoology 59, no. 1 (2011): 9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/zo10046.

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If we are to accelerate the recolonisation of restored areas by slow-recolonising species, we must provide suitable microhabitats at appropriate densities. Previous research in south-western Australia has shown that Napoleon’s skink (Egernia napoleonis) rarely recolonises restored areas. We trapped Napoleon’s skink in restoration and unmined forest to confirm the species was late successional. We also radio-tracked six skinks in unmined forest, to determine types and characteristics of used microhabitats, and estimated home ranges to determine required microhabitat densities, with the aim of accelerating skink recolonisation of restored areas. All tracked skinks used logs and hollow-bearing trees. Used logs were larger, and used trees were larger and taller than random samples, probably because large logs and trees were more likely to contain cracks and hollows that provide a refuge from predators. Extrapolations from home-range estimates indicated that a minimum of four logs ha–1 are required in restored areas to facilitate recolonisation by skinks, with skink densities likely to increase with log densities. Our study demonstrated that not all fauna will naturally recolonise restored areas and management of these areas is required to provide suitable habitat for late-successional species. Our approach could potentially be applied to other ecosystems or species.

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Campbell, Cherie Joy, Fiona Linda Freestone, Richard P. Duncan, Will Higgisson, and Sascha Jade Healy. "The more the merrier: using environmental flows to improve floodplain vegetation condition." Marine and Freshwater Research 72, no. 8 (2021): 1185. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/mf20303.

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Environmental flows are increasingly being used to restore degraded floodplain vegetation; however, the type of flow regime required for recovery to healthy condition can vary depending on the extent of degradation before restoration. Regulation of the River Murray has affected floodplain ecosystems at many locations, including Bottle Bend Reserve, in south-western New South Wales, Australia. Within Bottle Bend Reserve, tangled lignum (Duma florulenta) dominates sections of the higher floodplain elevations. Lignum is an important and widely distributed Australian shrub occurring in arid and semiarid river systems within the Murray–Darling and Lake Eyre Basins. In an effort to restore floodplain vegetation, three environmental flows were delivered to Bottle Bend Reserve between 2013 and 2016. Flows varied in magnitude, leading to a mosaic of different regimes across the area. Condition surveys were undertaken over 1 year, namely, before, during and after delivery of the September 2016 environmental flow. This study found that the greatest response occurred in lignum plants with no recent environmental water, although lignum plants with one or two recent environmental flows still responded relative to the control. Lignum was in a better condition at sites that received more environmental flows, demonstrating the value of increased frequency of flows in recovering vegetation health.

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Cochrane, J. Anne, Gemma L. Hoyle, Colin J. Yates, Jeff Wood, and Adrienne B. Nicotra. "Evidence of population variation in drought tolerance during seed germination in four Banksia (Proteaceae) species from Western Australia." Australian Journal of Botany 62, no. 6 (2014): 481. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/bt14132.

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Given the predicted changes in rainfall patterns for many Mediterranean climate regions, identifying seed tolerance to moisture stress in the earliest phase of plant development is an important consideration for species conservation, management and restoration. Here, we used polyethylene glycol (PEG 8000) to induce plant water deficit similar to drought stress in a field situation. Seeds of four Western Australia Banksia R.Br. (Proteaceae) species were incubated at seven levels of moisture potential (0 to −1.5 MPa) and three constant temperatures (10°C, 15°C and 20°C). In the absence of moisture stress, germination was uniformly high, but increasing drought stress led to reduced and delayed germination in all species. Overall, the threshold moisture potential value for a significant decline, and delay, in germination was –0.25 MPa. Results suggested that one species (B. coccinea) is likely to be most vulnerable to germination failure under predicted changes in rainfall patterns, whereas another (B. media) is likely to be less vulnerable. There was significant variation in population response to drought stress. However, this variation could not be explained by rainfall across species distributions. We discuss the PEG approach for assessing seed sensitivity to moisture stress, particularly in the context of shifting rainfall under climate change.

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Koch, John M., Alex M. Ruschmann, and Tim K. Morald. "Effect of time since burn on soil seedbanks in the jarrah forest of Western Australia." Australian Journal of Botany 57, no. 8 (2009): 647. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/bt09101.

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Bauxite is mined in the jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata Sm.) forest of south-western Australia and 700–800 ha each year are rehabilitated by mining companies. As well as broadcasting seeds and planting, the mine restoration relies heavily on the natural soil seedbank as a means of reinstating plant diversity after mining. The natural soil seedbank is a large but highly variable resource, both spatially and temporally. In the present study, we used 32 sites paired across burn boundaries to determine changes in soil seedbanks due to time since burn. At each site, we took one hundred 100-cm2 soil samples down to 5-cm depth and recorded germinable seeds. The mean total seedbank over all sites was 472 seeds m–2 (90–1210 seeds m–2). Five months after a spring burn, there was a significant decrease in the seedbank of legumes, compared with unburnt sites, probably due to germination in spring immediately after burning. Non-legumes (mostly non-heat-responsive species) did not show this decrease. One year after burning, there was a significant reduction in the total seedbank, presumably due to germination of most species in the winter following the burn. Legumes and non-legumes both showed this decrease. There was a recovery of the soil seedbank by 3 years after burning. This recovery was associated with higher densities of species from the families Apiaceae, Rhamnaceae (Trymalium ledifolium Fenzl), Stylidiaceae, Rutaceae, Centrolepidaceae and Sterculiaceae (Lasiopetalum floribundum Benth.). These families represent annuals, herbaceous species and small perennial shrubs. The recovery was likely due to vigorous flowering, and seed set by seedlings and sometimes resprouts following the burn. Once recovered, the soil seedbank stayed reasonably consistent up to 22 years after burning. Soils stripped 1 year after burning may contribute less plant density and diversity to rehabilitated areas. There is no evidence that the soil seedbank significantly decreases in the longer term with increasing time since burning up to 22 years. The community composition of the soil seedbank was strongly affected by geographical location, with sites closer to each other having similar composition. Only sites 1-year-since burn showed changes in the community composition due to burning.

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Standish, R. J., B. A. Stokes, M. Tibbett, and R. J. Hobbs. "Seedling response to phosphate addition and inoculation with arbuscular mycorrhizas and the implications for old-field restoration in Western Australia." Environmental and Experimental Botany 61, no. 1 (September 2007): 58–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envexpbot.2007.03.004.

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Yates, Colin J., and Richard J. Hobbs. "Woodland Restoration in the Western Australian Wheatbelt: A Conceptual Framework Using a State and Transition Model." Restoration Ecology 5, no. 1 (March 1997): 28–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1526-100x.1997.09703.x.

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Tomlinson, Sean. "The construction of small‐scale, quasi‐mechanistic spatial models of insect energetics in habitat restoration: A case study of beetles in Western Australia." Diversity and Distributions 26, no. 8 (June 11, 2020): 1016–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ddi.13074.

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Pedler, Reece D., Rebecca S. West, John L. Read, Katherine E. Moseby, Michael Letnic, David A. Keith, Keith D. Leggett, Sharon R. Ryall, and Richard T. Kingsford. "Conservation challenges and benefits of multispecies reintroductions to a national park – a case study from New South Wales, Australia." Pacific Conservation Biology 24, no. 4 (2018): 397. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/pc17058.

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Species reintroductions into predator-controlled areas are an increasingly used conservation tool. Typically, ecological outcomes of such projects (e.g. recruitment, predation) are the focus but seldom necessary legislative, policy, social and institutional processes required for establishing large projects. This particularly applies to protected areas, managed by governments for conservation. Reintroductions are recommended for a third of threatened Australian vertebrates, with the New South Wales Government boldly embarking on a 2013 initiative to return locally extinct mammals to three protected areas. We detail the legislative, policy, social and institutional processes required for one of these sites, Wild Deserts, in Sturt National Park. Seven locally extinct species, including the greater bilby (Macrotis lagotis), western barred bandicoot (Perameles bougainville), golden bandicoot (Isoodon auratus), greater stick-nest rat (Leporillus conditor), crest-tailed mulgara (Dasycercus cristicauda), western quoll (Dasyurus geoffroii) and burrowing bettong (Bettongia lesueur) will be reintroduced into two exclosures. The scale of the project required identification of an appropriate location, satisfaction of statutory requirements for major infrastructure in a national park, assessments of potential ecological costs and benefits, engagement of the national park agency and other stakeholders (Traditional Owners, other government agencies, neighbours), and staff training to meet government agency requirements. We outline the resourcing, costs and benefits of such a project on government-managed land along with lessons learnt for similar large-scale restoration and reintroduction projects. Future projects would benefit from understanding legislative and policy frameworks and the need for transparency, while maximising efficiencies.

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Priddel, David, and Robert Wheeler. "An experimental translocation of brush-tailed bettongs (Bettongia penicillata) to western New South Wales." Wildlife Research 31, no. 4 (2004): 421. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wr03050.

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A total of 85 brush-tailed bettongs (Bettongia penicillata) from Western Australia and two sites in South Australia were translocated to Yathong Nature Reserve (YNR) in western New South Wales in October 2001. Aerial baiting to control the introduced red fox (Vulpes vulpes) had been undertaken on YNR since 1996. Thirty-one bettongs were fitted with radio-transmitters at the time of release, and two subsequently. Trapping took place at irregular intervals after the translocation. In all, 73% of telemetered bettongs died within the first six months; all were dead within 13 months. Eight bettongs died within the first eight days immediately following their release, due to causes other than predation. These eight all originated from St Peter Island (SPI), South Australia. A low incidence of breeding on SPI supports the belief that this source population was in poor condition and unsuited for translocation. Overall, 19 of the 33 telemetered bettongs were killed by predators: 14 (74%) by feral house cats (Felis catus), two (11%) by birds, and three (16%) by predators, which, although they could not be fully identified, were not foxes. One month after release, surviving bettongs weighed less than they did at the time of their release (mean decrease in mass = 9.7%, range 2.6–22.4%, n = 11). Within two months of their release most had regained any lost mass (mean change in mass since release = –0.3%, range –5.9 to 10.5%). Food resources on YNR appeared sufficient to sustain adult brush-tailed bettongs, despite a period of severe drought. Small pouch young present at the time of release were subsequently lost. Females gave birth and carried small pouch young (up to 50 mm), but no young-at-foot were recorded. Bettongs did not disperse further than 10 km from their release site. Overall, 50% of aerial-tracking locations were no further than 3.2 km from the release site, and 92% no further than 7.0 km. This experimental translocation of brush-tailed bettongs failed due to predation by cats. It demonstrated that foxes were no longer a threat to wildlife on YNR and identified cats as the major impediment to the restoration of locally extinct fauna.

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Waltham, N. J., J. Schaffer, J. Buist, M. Geyle, and D. Toby. "Working with land and sea rangers to tackle tropical wetland restoration and conservation on the north-western islands, Torres Straits, Australia." Wetlands Ecology and Management 26, no. 6 (November 2, 2018): 1143–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11273-018-9637-4.

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Sinclair, Elizabeth, Belinda Cheetham, Siegfried Krauss, and Richard Hobbs. "Morphological and molecular variation in Conospermum triplinervium (Proteaceae), the tree smokebush: implications for bushland restoration." Australian Journal of Botany 56, no. 5 (2008): 451. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/bt07137.

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Ecological restoration benefits from information on population genetic structure and variation within a species to make informed decisions on where to source material of the local genetic provenance. Conospermum triplinervium is extremely rare in Bold Park, a large bushland remnant currently undergoing restoration in Perth, Western Australia. We sampled plants from Bold Park and six other native populations across the northern half of the species’ range to assess patterns of morphological and genetic variation. There was considerable variation across six leaf measures with significant differentiation among some populations. The molecular data showed a high level of population structure (ΘB = 0.4974), with varying degrees of spatial overlap among populations in an ordination plot. Significant differentiation was observed among all pairs of populations, except for Bold Park and its geographically closest populations at Kings Park and Neerabup. These two populations had greater genetic variation (50.9% and 54.5% polymorphic markers, respectively) than did that at Bold Park (20.2%). The small Bold Park population would benefit from augmentation (via cuttings) from local plants. However, in the longer term, should the Bold Park population show evidence of declining viability, then material should be sourced from the genetically similar Kings Park population to increase genetic variation whilst also maintaining genetic integrity.

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Waters, C., G. Melville, and A. Grice. "Genotypic variation among sites within eleven Australian native grasses." Rangeland Journal 25, no. 1 (2003): 70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/rj03006.

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Eleven species of native grass were collected from 51 sites throughout western New South Wales and south-west Queensland. Approximately 10 whole plants of each species were collected from a site but not all species were collected from each site. Plants were grown in a common environment at Trangie in central western New South Wales and plant morphological and floristic characteristics measured. Data reported here are for observations made in the third year, by which time differences between populations were likely to be more genetic than environmental. Principal component and discriminant analyses revealed a strong relationship between site of origin and plant morphological characteristics, which explained between 61% and 93% of the variation within species. For all but one species, site was significantly correlated with these morphological characteristics. Site could be predicted from morphological characters with a success rate usually greater than 80%. These morphological characteristics must reflect genotypic differences among the collection from the different sites. We were unable to relate this variation to any of a range of site characteristics. Distance between sites could not be used as an indicator of morphological differences between populations. The implications of these findings are discussed in terms of providing strong evidence for the existence of ecotypes and for obtaining appropriate seed sources for revegetation/restoration programs.

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Norman, Melanie A., and John M. Koch. "The effect of in situ seed burial on dormancy break in three woody-fruited species (Ericaceae and Proteaceae) endemic to Western Australia." Australian Journal of Botany 56, no. 6 (2008): 493. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/bt07175.

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The woody-fruited species Leucopogon propinquus R.Br., Styphelia tenuiflora Lindl. (Ericaceae) and Persoonia longifolia R.Br. (Proteaceae) need to be returned to restored mines in Western Australia. All species have physiological seed dormancy, however germination has been observed following the application of smoke to native habitats. We recorded seed viability, permeability to water, endocarp strength, morphology and germination ± gibberellic acid (GA3) every 3 months for 24 months of in-situ burial in the jarrah forest to determine the time of dormancy release and corresponding seed changes. The term ‘seed’ refers to the woody endocarp, plus the true seed. Persoonia longifolia reached 37% germination after burial in soil for 21 months, followed by chipping the endocarp and GA3 application. A minimum of 15 months soil burial was necessary for unchipped seeds to germinate; 22% germination was achieved after 18 months burial in soil followed by GA3 application. Viability of fresh seeds of all three species was 96–100% and remained unchanged for P. longifolia, but declined to 5 and 0% following 24 months of soil burial for L. propinquus and S. tenuiflora, respectively. Germination of the two Ericaceae species was negligible, despite the presence of viable seeds (30–63%, depending on the species) after 12 months of soil burial and substantial deterioration of the endocarp. To germinate large quantities of P. longifolia, for use in land restoration, drupes should be buried in-situ in forest soil for 18 months immediately following seed fall (early spring) and GA3 treated, following exhumation.

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Funnekotter, Anna V., Melissa Millar, Siegfried L. Krauss, and Paul G. Nevill. "Phylogeographic analyses of Acacia karina (Fabaceae) support long term persistence of populations both on and off banded iron formations." Australian Journal of Botany 67, no. 3 (2019): 194. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/bt18045.

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Understanding the response of species to past climatic changes and whether particular areas acted as refugia is critical both to our understanding of the distribution of genetic variation, and for the conservation and/or restoration of species. We used phylogeographical analyses of Acacia karina, a Banded Iron Formation (BIF) associated species, to better understand historical processes in the semiarid midwest region of Western Australia. We specifically examined whether BIF acted as refugia for the species during the colder, dryer periods of the Quaternary. The genetic structure over the entire range of A. karina was assessed using seven nuclear microsatellites (19 populations; n=371) and 3196bp of chloroplast sequence (19 populations; n=190). We found high levels of nuclear and chloroplast genetic diversity and high levels of chloroplast haplotype differentiation. Genetic diversity was higher than expected for such a geographically restricted species, and similarly high levels of nuclear and chloroplast diversity were observed in BIF and non-BIF populations. The chloroplast and nuclear data suggest that BIFs have not acted as climate refugia for A. karina. Instead, long-term persistence of both BIF and non-BIF populations is supported.

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Wernberg, T., M. Couraudon-Réale, F. Tuya, and M. Thomsen. "Disturbance intensity, disturbance extent and ocean climate modulate kelp forest understory communities." Marine Ecology Progress Series 651 (October 1, 2020): 57–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.3354/meps13443.

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Disturbances often control community structure by removing large dominant species, allowing new species to colonize. Disturbances vary in intensity and extent, and their effects on resident communities can depend on local environmental conditions. We tested the effects of disturbance intensity and extent on different functional groups of understory species in kelp forests at 4 locations along an ocean climate gradient in Western Australia. We hypothesized that, compared to intact canopies, increasing disturbance intensities (50 and 100% of kelp removal) and extents (2, 4 and 8 m diameter) would promote light-dependent competitors (turf, foliose, articulated coralline and fucoid seaweeds) at the expense of less light-dependent functional groups (invertebrates and encrusting seaweeds). We also hypothesized that these effects would be most pronounced at warmer relative to cooler locations, where metabolic and ecological rates are faster. The first hypothesis was supported; light-dependent understory groups (turfs, in particular) increased, while less light-dependent groups (crusts in particular) decreased with increasing disturbance regimes. However, the second hypothesis was not supported; even though understory communities differed between locations and turf covers were highest at the warmest location, we found no significant interactions between locations and disturbance regimes. Importantly, our results revealed that even small-scale partial canopy loss can have significant effects on kelp-associated communities. The implied community-wide, density-dependent effects have implications for the management and conservation of kelp forests, because restoration of ecological functions must also consider the density of kelp forests, not simply their presence or absence.

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Cole, Ian, Ian D. Lunt, and Terry Koen. "Effects of soil disturbance, weed control and mulch treatments on establishment of Themeda triandra (Poaceae) in a degraded white box (Eucalyptus albens) woodland in central western New South Wales." Australian Journal of Botany 52, no. 5 (2004): 629. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/bt04010.

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Temperate grassy woodlands are endangered ecosystems in Australia, and many degraded remnants are in desperate need of understorey restoration. This experiment compared the effects of soil disturbance, weed control and mulch treatments on establishment of the original dominant grass, Themeda triandra Forssk., in a degraded white box (Eucalyptus albens Benth.) woodland at Cowra in central New South Wales (NSW). Awned Themeda seeds were surface-sown into replicated plots treated as follows: soil scalping, soil disturbance (by ripping), herbicide (simazine) application and retention of natural mulch. Scalping combined with soil disturbance best promoted Themeda establishment (47.8% after 40 days and 28% after 518 days), and also reduced broadleaf-herb densities. By contrast, scalping without soil disturbance had the worst effect on Themeda establishment (5.2% after 40 days and 4.5% after 518 days). Disturbance significantly enhanced Themeda establishment and decreased the density of annual grasses and the basal cover of non-Themeda species. By contrast, the retention of 500–800 kg of natural surface mulch had no apparent effect on Themeda establishment. Contrary to expectations, simazine reduced the density and basal cover of all species, including Themeda, which is normally resistant to this herbicide. All combinations of the mulched, disturbed and herbicide treatments (i.e. all treatments except scalping) gave similar results, ranging from 10.7 to 22.0 Themeda plants m–2 after 518 days. These results suggest that Themeda stands can be established in degraded box woodlands by using awned seed materials, with minimal seedbed preparation and simple sowing techniques. Further studies are required to determine whether established swards can resist weed invasion in the absence of ongoing weed management, and whether establishment success varies with soil conditions and landscape position.

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Davis, Jenny A., Megan McGuire, Stuart A. Halse, David Hamilton, Pierre Horwitz, Arthur J. McComb, Ray H. Froend, Michael Lyons, and Lien Sim. "What happens when you add salt: predicting impacts of secondary salinisation on shallow aquatic ecosystems by using an alternative-states model." Australian Journal of Botany 51, no. 6 (2003): 715. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/bt02117.

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Alternative-states theory commonly applied, for aquatic systems, to shallow lakes that may be dominated alternately by macrophytes and phytoplankton, under clear-water and enriched conditions, respectively, has been used in this study as a basis to define different states that may occur with changes in wetland salinity. Many wetlands of the south-west of Western Australia are threatened by rapidly increasing levels of salinity as well as greater water depths and permanency of water regime. We identified contrasting aquatic vegetation states that were closely associated with different salinities. Salinisation results in the loss of freshwater species of submerged macrophytes and the dominance of a small number of more salt-tolerant species. With increasing salinity, these systems may undergo further change to microbial mat-dominated systems composed mostly of cyanobacteria and halophilic bacteria. The effect of other environmental influences in mediating switches of vegetation was also examined. Colour and turbidity may play important roles at low to intermediate salinities [concentration of total dissolved solids (TDS) <10 000 mg L–1]; however, coloured or turbid wetlands are rarely found at intermediate to high salinities (>10 000 mg L–1 TDS). The role of nutrients remains largely unquantified in saline systems. We propose that alternative-states theory provides the basis of a conceptual framework for predicting impacts on wetlands affected by secondary salinisation. The ability to recognise and predict a change in state with changes in salinity adds a further tool to decision-making processes. A change in state represents a fundamental change in ecosystem function and may be difficult to reverse. This information is also important for the development of restoration strategies. Further work is required to better understand the influence of temporal variation in salinity on vegetation states and probable hysteresis effects.

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Koch, John M. "Alcoa’s Mining and Restoration Process in South Western Australia." Restoration Ecology 15 (December 12, 2007): S11—S16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1526-100x.2007.00288.x.

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Ecker, S., A. Karafilis, and R. Taylor. "Challenges of the Blackwood Basin, Western Australia." Water Science and Technology 43, no. 9 (May 1, 2001): 37–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2001.0504.

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Growing concern about the declining state of the catchment and river led to the formation of the Blackwood Basin Group in 1992. Funded primarily by the Natural Heritage Trust and using the river as the focus, the group aims to provide leadership and support to achieve sustainable management of natural resources in the catchment. Through an Integrated Catchment Management approach, the Blackwood Basin Group has managed a range of projects to improve the community's understanding and management of the Blackwood River and its catchment. A number of research, education, demonstration and on-ground action activities relating to river management have been undertaken in partnership with community and local, state and federal government organisations. Activities include demonstrations and evaluations of riparian restoration, funding riparian restoration activities, protection of high conservation value remnant vegetation, a flood risk study, zone action planning and monitoring the condition of the river and its tributaries.

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Smith, G. T. "Ecology of the Western WhipbirdPsophodes nigrogularisin Western Australia." Emu - Austral Ornithology 91, no. 3 (August 1991): 145–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/mu9910145.

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Standish, Rachel J., and Richard J. Hobbs. "Restoration of OCBILs in south-western Australia: Response to Hopper." Plant and Soil 330, no. 1-2 (October 9, 2009): 15–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11104-009-0182-z.

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Debrincat, B. "Networking, Habitat Restoration, and Restoration Education in Sydney, Australia." Ecological Restoration 28, no. 2 (May 7, 2010): 146–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.3368/er.28.2.146.

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Bradshaw, A. D. "Wasteland Management and Restoration in Western Europe." Journal of Applied Ecology 26, no. 3 (December 1989): 775. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2403689.

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Bell, David T., Julie A. Plummer, and Susan K. Taylor. "Seed germination ecology in southwestern Western Australia." Botanical Review 59, no. 1 (January 1993): 24–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02856612.

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Cochrane, HR, G. Scholz, and AME Vanvreswyk. "Sodic soils in Western Australia." Soil Research 32, no. 3 (1994): 359. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/sr9940359.

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Sodic soils are common throughout Western Australia, particularly in the south-west agricultural area where they occur mainly as duplex or gradational profiles. Soils with sodic properties are dominant in 26% of the state; saline-sodic sediments and soils in intermittent streams, lakes and estuarine plains occupy a further 5%. Sodic soils are moderately common throughout the south and western portion of the rangeland areas (38% of the state). The south-west coastal sands and the desert and rangeland soils to the north and east of the state are rarely sodic. Although sodicity has been recognized as a discrete problem in W.A. soils since the 1920s, the extent and severity of sodicity has been satisfactorily described only for small areas of the state and most land managers are unaware of the role sodicity plays in limiting the productivity of their soils. Sodicity is implicated in a diversity of problems for both agricultural and non-agricultural uses of Western Australian soils. Subsoil impermeability is probably the most widespread of these, but no comprehensive, quantitative assessment of the influence of exchangeable sodium on subsoil properties has been undertaken. Topsoil sodicity is much less extensive but can severely restrict land productivity, particularly on sandy loam and finer textured soils which set hard when dry. The physical behaviour of Western Australian topsoils cannot usefully be predicted from measurements of exchangeable sodium alone because soils differ so greatly in their response to changing exchangeable sodium. Some remain structurally stable at ESP values >15 while others are so 'sodium-sensitive' that they exhibit highly dispersive behaviour at ESP values as low as 2%. Land values over much of the dryland farming and pastoral areas of W.A. do not justify sustained use of amendments which would reduce soil exchangeable sodium contents. Efficient management of sodic soils in these areas must rely on the prevention of degradation and the use of biological and physical means to maintain adequate soil physical properties. Effective restoration of degraded sodic soils, however, often does require application of inorganic amendments in combination with tillage to initiate structural recovery. Sodicity is currently not considered to be a problem at any of the three main irrigation areas in W.A., but all have sodic soil within their potentially irrigable lands, which may limit their future expansion.

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Journal articles on the topic 'Restoration ecology – Western Australia'

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