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1
Baker, Spencer A., McKay D. McFadden, Emma E. Bowden, Anton E. Bowden, Ulrike H. Mitchell, and David T. Fullwood. "Accounting for Viscoelasticity When Interpreting Nano-Composite High-Deflection Strain Gauges." Sensors 22, no. 14 (July 13, 2022): 5239. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s22145239.
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High-deflection strain gauges show potential as economical and user-friendly sensors for capturing large deformations. The interpretation of these sensors is much more complex than that of conventional strain gauges due to the viscoelastic nature of strain gauges. This research endeavor developed and tested a model for interpreting sensor outputs that includes the time-dependent nature of strain gauges. A model that captures the effect of quasi-static strains was determined by using a conventional approach of fitting an equation to observed data. The dynamic relationship between the strain and the resistance was incorporated by superimposing dynamic components onto the quasi-static model to account for spikes in resistances that accompany each change in sensor strain and subsequent exponential decays. It was shown that the model can be calibrated for a given sensor by taking two data points at known strains. The resulting sensor-specific model was able to interpret strain-gauge electrical signals during a cyclical load to predict strain with an average mean absolute error (MAE) of 1.4% strain, and to determine the strain rate with an average MAE of 0.036 mm/s. The resulting model and tuning procedure may be used in a wide range of applications, such as biomechanical monitoring and analysis.
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Beisteiner, Christoph, and Bernhard G. Zagar. "A survey of inkjet-printed low-cost sensors." tm - Technisches Messen 85, no. 7-8 (July 26, 2018): 504–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/teme-2017-0136.
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Abstract Inkjet-printers from the company Epson and others can be used to fabricate low-cost sensors on coated PET films. By using nanoparticle-based dispersions resistive temperature dependent sensors, strain gauges, thermocouples and pressure sensors can be fabricated. For these purposes the gauge factors, Seebeck coefficients and temperature coefficients of resistance for Ag, Carbon Black and PEDOT:PSS dispersions on Mitsubishi® and Pelikan® PET substrates are characterized. Furthermore, piezoresistive effects in transverse and longitudinal strain directions are discussed. Additionally, a printed sensor system for measuring strains within a surface is presented. Finally, an injection-moulding process and a lamination process are used to improve the mechanical scratching of those sensors.
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Larionov, Vladimir A. "Method of metrological self-checking of a strain gauge pressure sensor." Metrologiya, no. 1 (2020): 48–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.32446/0132-4713.2020-1-48-62.
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Existing methods of metrological self-monitoring of measuring sensors for temperature and pressure of technological industries are considered. The analysis of methods of metrological self-checking of strain gauge pressure sensors is carried out. Method is proposed based on measuring the supply voltage and voltage on the measuring diagonal of the bridge. The temperature of the strain gauge bridge is determined using a semiconductor thermistor installed near the bridge. This allows you to adjust the measured value of the total resistance of the bridge from the temperature of the bridge. With aging and exposure to external conditions, a change in the overall resistance of the bridge can be used to judge the error of the sensor. An experimental sample of the sensor was made. The failure of the strain gage bridge is simulated by parallel connection of an additional resistor to one of the shoulders of the bridge. Experimental studies have shown that modern technical means make it possible to assess the effect of changes in the total bridge resistance on the sensor error.
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Tangsirinaruenart, Orathai, and George Stylios. "A Novel Textile Stitch-Based Strain Sensor for Wearable End Users." Materials 12, no. 9 (May 7, 2019): 1469. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma12091469.
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This research presents an investigation of novel textile-based strain sensors and evaluates their performance. The electrical resistance and mechanical properties of seven different textile sensors were measured. The sensors are made up of a conductive thread, composed of silver plated nylon 117/17 2-ply, 33 tex and 234/34 4-ply, 92 tex and formed in different stitch structures (304, 406, 506, 605), and sewn directly onto a knit fabric substrate (4.44 tex/2 ply, with 2.22, 4.44 and 7.78 tex spandex and 7.78 tex/2 ply, with 2.22 and 4.44 tex spandex). Analysis of the effects of elongation with respect to resistance indicated the ideal configuration for electrical properties, especially electrical sensitivity and repeatability. The optimum linear working range of the sensor with minimal hysteresis was found, and the sensor’s gauge factor indicated that the sensitivity of the sensor varied significantly with repeating cycles. The electrical resistance of the various stitch structures changed significantly, while the amount of drift remained negligible. Stitch 304 2-ply was found to be the most suitable for strain movement. This sensor has a wide working range, well past 50%, and linearity (R2 is 0.984), low hysteresis (6.25% ΔR), good gauge factor (1.61), and baseline resistance (125 Ω), as well as good repeatability (drift in R2 is −0.0073). The stitch-based sensor developed in this research is expected to find applications in garments as wearables for physiological wellbeing monitoring such as body movement, heart monitoring, and limb articulation measurement.
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Sapra, Gaurav, Renu Vig, and Manu Sharma. "Simulation and Analysis of Strain Sensitivity of CNT-Based Strain Sensors." International Journal of Nanoscience 15, no. 05n06 (October 2016): 1660005. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0219581x1660005x.
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Carbon nanotubes (CNT) is turning out to be a replacement to all the existing traditional sensors due to their high gauge factor, multidirectional sensing capability, high flexibility, low mass density, high dynamic range and high sensitivity to strains at nano and macro- scales. The strain sensitivity of CNT-based strain sensors depends on number of parameters; quality and quantity of CNT used, type of polymer used, deposition and dispersion technique adopted and also on environmental conditions. Due to all these parameters, the piezoresistive behavior of CNT is diversified and it needs to be explored. This paper theoretically analyses the strain sensitivity of CNT-based strain sensors. The strain sensitivity response of CNT strain sensor is a result of change in total resistance of CNT network with respect to applied strain. The total resistance of CNT network consists of intrinsic resistance and inter-tube resistance. It has been found that the change in intrinsic resistance under strain is due to the variation of bandgap of individual, which depends on the chirality of the tube and it varies exponentially with strain. The inter-tube resistance of CNT network changes nonlinearly due to change in distance between neighboring CNTs with respect to applied strain. As the distance [Formula: see text] between CNTs increases due to applied strain, tunneling resistance [Formula: see text] increases nonlinearly in exponential manner. When the concentration of CNTs in composite is close to percolation threshold, then the change of inter-tube resistances is more dominant than intrinsic resistance. At percolation threshold, the total resistance of CNT networks changes nonlinearly and this effect of nonlinearity is due to tunneling effect. The strain sensitivity of CNT-based strain sensors also varies nonlinearly with the change in temperature. For the change of temperature from [Formula: see text]C to 50[Formula: see text]C, there is more than 100% change in strain sensitivity of CNT/polymer composite strain sensor. This change is mainly due to the infiltration of polymer into CNTs.
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Mäder, Thomas, Inaki Navarro y de Sosa, Björn Senf, Peter Wolf, Martin Hamm, Martin Zoch, and Welf Guntram Drossel. "Highly Elastic Strain Gauges Based on Shape Memory Alloys for Monitoring of Fibre Reinforced Plastics." Key Engineering Materials 742 (July 2017): 778–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/kem.742.778.
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Conventional strain gauges made of constantan or CuCr for instance have a low value for structural health monitoring issues in plastic composites. These strain sensor materials exhibit small elastic regions and show fatigue when dynamically loaded with strain levels over 0.3 percent. For this reason, these sensors would break or fail before the composite life-time and thus cannot be integrated into this kind of composite materials. Pseudoelastic thermal shape memory alloys are therefore used as strain sensors and integrated into composites in order to allow piezoresistive strain measurement and structural health monitoring in such materials. Thermal treatments are used to create sensor structures out of shape memory alloy wires. Pseudoelastic shape memory wires can be strained up to 8 percent repeatedly. Their gauge factor is higher than 5. Shape memory strain sensors are successfully embedded into glass fibre reinforced plastics and show a significant and reproducible resistance change when the composite is strained. The dynamic strength is magnificently higher compared to conventional strain gauges. Shape memory strain sensors are an efficient alternative to fiber-bragg-grating sensors and can potentially be used for strain measurements in different plastics and textile materials. Shape memory sensor structures can be embedded or applied and are good candidates for structural characterisation and monitoring applications.
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Khalid, Hammad R., Daeik Jang, Nadir Abbas, M. Salman Haider, Syed N. A. Bukhari, Cyrus R. Mirza, Noureddine Elboughdiri, and Furqan Ahmad. "Electrical Stability and Piezoresistive Sensing Performance of High Strain-Range Ultra-Stretchable CNT-Embedded Sensors." Polymers 14, no. 7 (March 28, 2022): 1366. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/polym14071366.
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Highly flexible and stretchable sensors are becoming increasingly widespread due to their versatile applicability in human/robot monitoring sensors. Conductive polymeric composites have been regarded as potential candidates for such sensors, and carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are widely used to fabricate such composites. In the present study, CNT-embedded high flexible sensors were fabricated using a facile three-roll milling method, which mitigates the drawbacks of the conventional fabrication methods. CNTs content varied between 0.5 and 4.0 wt.%, and the percolation threshold range was obtained via conductivity/resistivity values of the fabricated sensors. Following this, the electrical stability of the sensors was examined against the various DC and AC signals. Furthermore, the fabricated sensors were stretched up to 500% strain, and their sensitivity against varying strain amplitudes was investigated in terms of the change in resistance and gauge factors. Lastly, the fabricated sensors were applied to human fingers for monitoring finger bending and releasing motions to validate their potential applications. The experimental results indicated that these sensors have a percolation threshold of around 2% CNTs content, and the sensors fabricated with 2 to 4% CNTs content showed measurable resistance changes against the applied strain amplitudes of 50–500%. Among these sensors, the sensor with 2% CNTs content showed the highest sensitivity in the studied strain range, exhibiting a resistance change and gauge factor of about 90% and 1.79 against 50% strain amplitude and about 18,500% and 37.07 against 500% strain amplitude, respectively. All these sensors also showed high sensitivity for finger motion detection, showing a resistance change of between 22 and 69%.
8
Chen, Rong Fa, Dun Wen Zuo, Yu Li Sun, Duo Sheng Li, Wen Zhuang Lu, and Min Wang. "Investigation on Strain Films in the Thin Film Resistance Strain Gauge." Key Engineering Materials 375-376 (March 2008): 690–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/kem.375-376.690.
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Strain films in the thin film resistance strain gauge are prepared by magnetron sputtering method. Some results concerning the electromechanical and structural properties of nichrome (Ni80Cr20 wt.%) thin films are presented. As compared to the well-known Ni-Cu (constantan) alloy film, which are widely used for manufacturing pressure and force sensors, nichrome (Ni80Cr20 wt.%) thin films exhibit gauge factor values of the same order of magnitude, but they are much more corrosion resistant and adherent to the substrate. The influences of composition and post-deposition annealing on the electrical resistance, temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR) and gauge factor of nichrome (Ni80Cr20 wt.%) thin films are discussed.
9
Yen, Yu-Hsin, Chao-Shin Hsu, Zheng-Yan Lei, Hsin-Jou Wang, Ching-Yuan Su, Ching-Liang Dai, and Yao-Chuan Tsai. "Laser-Induced Graphene Stretchable Strain Sensor with Vertical and Parallel Patterns." Micromachines 13, no. 8 (July 29, 2022): 1220. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/mi13081220.
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In intelligent manufacturing and robotic technology, various sensors must be integrated with equipment. In addition to traditional sensors, stretchable sensors are particularly attractive for applications in robotics and wearable devices. In this study, a piezoresistive stretchable strain sensor based on laser-induced graphene (LIG) was proposed and developed. A three-dimensional, porous LIG structure fabricated from polyimide (PI) film using laser scanning was used as the sensing layer of the strain sensor. Two LIG pattern structures (parallel and vertical) were fabricated and integrated within the LIG strain sensors. Scanning electron microscopy, an X-ray energy dispersive spectrometer, and Raman scattering spectroscopy were used to examine the microstructure of the LIG sensing layer. The performance and strain sensing properties of the parallel and vertical stretchable LIG strain sensors were investigated in tensile tests. The relative resistance changes and the gauge factors of the parallel and vertical LIG strain sensors were quantified. The parallel strain sensor achieved a high gauge factor of 15.79 in the applied strain range of 10% to 20%. It also had high sensitivity, excellent repeatability, good durability, and fast response times during the tensile experiments. The developed LIG strain sensor can be used for the real-time monitoring of human motions such like finger bending, wrist bending, and throat swallowing.
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Saifeldeen, Mohamed A., Nariman Fouad, Huang Huang, and Zhishen Wu. "Advancement of long-gauge carbon fiber line sensors for strain measurements in structures." Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures 28, no. 7 (October 2, 2016): 878–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1045389x16665974.
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This article proposes a new technique that advances long-gauge carbon fiber line sensor technology, with and without post-tensioning of the sensor, to measure changes in strain levels in structural areas. Carbon fiber line sensors were fabricated to produce a slim high-strength sensor with a diameter of less than 1.4 mm using a carbon fiber tow with a width of 6 mm. A theoretical analysis of these sensors as well as several series of experiments was conducted to investigate the effect of fiber arrangement on the error compensation of the carbon fiber line sensors. The results revealed that using two sets of carbon fiber line sensors, one as an active sensor and the other to compensate the errors of the first, is an effective method when both sensors have a convergent fiber arrangement and change in resistance. A post-tensioning method was implemented to enhance the overall behavior of the sensor. The results showed that the post-tensioning method yields significant improvement in the linearity and cyclic ability up to 6000 microstrains and reduces the fluctuation errors in the change in resistance from ±0.031% to ±0.007%. Finally, the possibility of repairing damaged carbon fiber line sensors is also discussed.
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Klinkhammer, Kristina, Ramona Nolden, Rike Brendgen, Manuela Niemeyer, Kerstin Zöll, and Anne Schwarz-Pfeiffer. "Coating of Silicone Monofilaments with Elastic Carbon Black-Silver-Silicone Layers and Their Characterization Especially with Regard to the Change of the Electrical Resistance in Dependence on Strain." Polymers 14, no. 4 (February 19, 2022): 806. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/polym14040806.
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Smart textiles have properties that outperform the conventional protective and decorative function of textiles. By integrating special sensors into clothing, body functions and movements can be detected. Piezoresistive sensors measure a change in electrical resistance due to the application of force in the form of stretching, pressure or bending. In order to manufacture such sensors, conventional non-conductive textile materials need to be made conductive by finishing processes. Therefore, a non-conductive silicone monofilament was coated with a conductive carbon silicone and additional silver-containing components and investigated for its suitability as a strain sensor. The changes in electrical resistance and the gauge factor as a measure of the sensitivity of a sensor were measured and calculated. In this publication, the electrical properties of such a filament-based sensor in the context of particle composition and concentration are discussed. The electrical resistance was already significantly reduced in a first step by coating with conductive carbon silicone (145 kΩ). The addition of silver-containing components further reduced the electrical resistance in a second step. Thereby, flat flakes of silver proved to be much more effective than silver-containing particles (5 kΩ at 20% addition). The former was easier to integrate into the coating and formed contact surfaces with each other at higher concentrations. Stretching the samples increased the resistance by enlarging the distance between the conductive components. With 30% silver-coated glass flakes in the coating, the highest gauge factor of 0.33 was achieved. Consequently, the changes in electrical resistance during stretching can be exploited to detect motion and the gauge factor indicates that even small changes in strain can be detected, so the herein developed coated monofilaments are suggested for use as strain sensors. Future work includes matching the particle composition and concentration to the exact application and investigating the sensors in the field.
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Schmaljohann, F., D. Hagedorn, and F. Löffler. "Thin film sensors for measuring small forces." Journal of Sensors and Sensor Systems 4, no. 1 (February 23, 2015): 91–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/jsss-4-91-2015.
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Abstract. Especially in the case of measuring small forces, the use of conventional foil strain gauges is limited. The measurement uncertainty rises by force shunts and is due to the polymer foils used, as they are susceptible to moisture. Strain gauges in thin film technology present a potential solution to overcome these effects because of their direct and atomic contact with the measuring body, omitting an adhesive layer and the polymer foil. For force measurements up to 1 N, a suitable deformation element was developed by finite element (FE) analysis. This element is designed for an approximate strain of 1000 μm m−1 at the designated nominal load. The thin film system was applied by magnetron sputtering. The strain gauge structure is fabricated by distinct photolithographic steps. The developed sensors were tested with different load increments. The functional capability of the single resistance strain gauges could be proven. Moreover, a developed sensor in a full bridge circuit showed a linear characteristic with low deviation and good stability.
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Xie, Xiaozhu, Wenjie Wu, Jincheng Xiao, and Qinglei Ren. "Fabrication of high sensitivity and stable strain sensors based on composite folded structures via embedded 3D printing." Smart Materials and Structures 31, no. 9 (July 28, 2022): 095027. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1361-665x/ac820e.
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Abstract Flexible strain sensors provide a practical and straightforward detection technique for the human motion to convert strain changes into resistance changes. We present extremely sensitive and stable strain sensors prepared by embedded 3D printing technology in this paper. By incorporating polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) material and printing a folded structure, the sensing performance of the sensors is explored. The combination of PDMS with high Poisson’s ratio and silicone rubber with low modulus of elasticity endow strain sensors with an ideal combination of great sensitivity and strong stretchability (gauge factor of 6 in the strain of 50%, good durability (stretch/release test of 1000 cycles). The strain sensor attached to the hand demonstrates good sensing performance.
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Krasiński, Adam, and Tomasz Kusio. "Pile Model Tests Using Strain Gauge Technology." Studia Geotechnica et Mechanica 37, no. 3 (September 1, 2015): 49–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/sgem-2015-0032.
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Abstract Ordinary pile bearing capacity tests are usually carried out to determine the relationship between load and displacement of pile head. The measurement system required in such tests consists of force transducer and three or four displacement gauges. The whole system is installed at the pile head above the ground level. This approach, however, does not give us complete information about the pile-soil interaction. We can only determine the total bearing capacity of the pile, without the knowledge of its distribution into the shaft and base resistances. Much more information can be obtained by carrying out a test of instrumented pile equipped with a system for measuring the distribution of axial force along its core. In the case of pile model tests the use of such measurement is difficult due to small scale of the model. To find a suitable solution for axial force measurement, which could be applied to small scale model piles, we had to take into account the following requirements: - a linear and stable relationship between measured and physical values, - the force measurement accuracy of about 0.1 kN, - the range of measured forces up to 30 kN, - resistance of measuring gauges against aggressive counteraction of concrete mortar and against moisture, - insensitivity to pile bending, - economical factor. These requirements can be fulfilled by strain gauge sensors if an appropriate methodology is used for test preparation (Hoffmann [1]). In this paper, we focus on some aspects of the application of strain gauge sensors for model pile tests. The efficiency of the method is proved on the examples of static load tests carried out on SDP model piles acting as single piles and in a group.
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Lin, Yu Li, Kuan Tung Su, Gin Shin Chen, and Jia Shing Liu. "Fabrication and Characterization of Microscale Sensors for Strain Measurement in Flexible Polymer Heart Valve Leaflet." Advanced Materials Research 47-50 (June 2008): 270–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.47-50.270.
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Flexible polymer heart valves are promising clinical prostheses for replacement of diseased or malfunctioned natural heart valves. However, the flexible polymer leaflets are prone to fatigue fracture, which hinders their practicality in clinical applications. In this study, micro strain sensor (gauge) for strain measurement is designed in the polyurethane (PU) thin film to measure the stress/strain in situ. In our design, the strain gauge is embedded in PU which is different to the commercial strain gauge of sticking to the sample. The metal layer of strain gauge used in this study is gold. The overall size of the designed strain gauge is 1 mm x 1 mm x 0.1 μm and the resistance value was measured to be 200±30Ω. The static test of strain gauge without damp proof shows that gauge sensitivity G was measured to be 4 and 1.8 when strain range is less than 1% and between 1-1.5%, respectively. While, the static test of strain gauge with damp proof shows that gauge sensitivity G was measured to be 2.6 when strain range is less than 1.2%. Dynamic test of strain gauge was also applied in this study.
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Hu, Kun, Zhishu Yao, Yanshuang Wu, Yongjie Xu, Xiaojian Wang, and Chen Wang. "Application of FBG Sensor to Safety Monitoring of Mine Shaft Lining Structure." Sensors 22, no. 13 (June 26, 2022): 4838. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s22134838.
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The use of fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensors is proposed to solve the technical problem of poor sensor stability in the long-term safety monitoring of shaft lining structures. The auxiliary shaft of the Zhuxianzhuang coal mine was considered as the engineering background, and a test system implementing FBG sensors was established to monitor the long-term safety of the shaft lining structure. Indoor simulation testing revealed that the coefficient of determination (r2) between the test curves of the FBG sensor and the resistance strain gauge is greater than 0.99 in both the transverse and vertical strains. Therefore, the FBG sensor and resistance strain gauge test values are similar, and the error is small. The early warning value was obtained by calculation, according to the specific engineering geological conditions and shaft lining structure. The monitoring data obtained for the shaft lining at three test levels over more than three years reveal that the measured vertical strain value is less than the warning value, indicating that the shaft lining structure is currently in a safe state. The analysis of the monitoring data reveals that the vertical strain increment caused by the vertical additional force is approximately 0.0752 με/d. As the mine drainage progresses, the increasing vertical additional force acting on the shaft lining will compromise the safety of the shaft lining structure. Therefore, the monitoring must be enhanced to facilitate decision-making for safe shaft operation.
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Brandt, Bjoern, Marion Gemeinert, Ralf Koppert, Jochen Bolte, and Torsten Rabe. "LTCC Substrates for High Performance Strain Gauges." Additional Conferences (Device Packaging, HiTEC, HiTEN, and CICMT) 2012, CICMT (September 1, 2012): 000175–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.4071/cicmt-2012-tp43.
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Recent advances in the development of high gauge factor thin-films for strain gauges prompt the research on advanced substrate materials. A glass ceramic composite has been developed in consideration of a high coefficient of thermal expansion and a low modulus of elasticity for the application as support material for thin-film sensors. Constantan foil strain gauges were fabricated from this material by tape casting, pressure-assisted sintering and subsequent lamination of the metal foil on the planar ceramic substrates. The sensors were mounted on a strain gauge beam arrangement and load curves and creep behavior were evaluated. The accuracy of the assembled load cells correspond to accuracy class C6. That qualifies the load cells for the use in automatic packaging units and confirms the applicability of the LTCC substrates for fabrication of accurate strain gauges. To facilitate the deposition of thin film sensor structures onto the LTCC substrates, the pressure-assisted sintering technology has been refined. By the use of smooth setters instead of release tapes substrates with minimal surface roughness were fabricated. Metallic thin films deposited on these substrates exhibit low surface resistances comparable to thin films on commercial alumina thin-film substrates. The presented advances in material design and manufacturing technology are important to promote the development of high performance thin-film strain gauges.
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Wang, Rui, Xiaoyang Zhu, Luanfa Sun, Shuai Shang, Hongke Li, Wensong Ge, and Hongbo Lan. "Cost-Effective Fabrication of Transparent Strain Sensors via Micro-Scale 3D Printing and Imprinting." Nanomaterials 12, no. 1 (December 30, 2021): 120. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nano12010120.
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The development of strain sensors with high sensitivity and stretchability is essential for health monitoring, electronic skin, wearable devices, and human-computer interactions. However, sensors that combine high sensitivity and ultra-wide detection generally require complex preparation processes. Here, a novel flexible strain sensor with high sensitivity and transparency was proposed by filling a multiwalled carbon nanotube (MWCNT) solution into polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) channel films fabricated via an electric field-driven (EFD) 3D printing and molding hybrid process. The fabricated flexible strain sensor with embedded MWCNT networks had superior gauge factors of 90, 285, and 1500 at strains of 6.6%, 14%, and 20%, respectively. In addition, the flexible strain sensors with an optical transparency of 84% offered good stability and durability with no significant change in resistance after 8000 stretch-release cycles. Finally, the fabricated flexible strain sensors with embedded MWCNT networks showed good practical performance and could be attached to the skin to monitor various human movements such as wrist flexion, finger flexion, neck flexion, blinking activity, food swallowing, and facial expression recognition. These are good application strategies for wearable devices and health monitoring.
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Zhu, Feng, Min Liu, Chengjun Xu, Sheng Zou, Chentong Chen, and Xinyi Xiao. "Research on Temperature Compensation of the Fiber Bragg Grating Sensor and the Resistance Strain Gauge." Journal of Nanoelectronics and Optoelectronics 16, no. 6 (June 1, 2021): 1020–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1166/jno.2021.3041.
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The fiber Bragg grating sensor is widely used in strain monitoring of large metal structure and trend to replace the resistance strain gauge due to its advantages of strong stability, high measurement accuracy, multiple points measuring, strong environmental suitability and long transmission distance. The temperature-induced strain, which can have the same order of magnitudes as the mechanically-induced strain, will cause great errors in the strain monitoring. Therefore, the temperature compensation for the sensors is essential to guarantee the measurement accuracy. The existing theoretical models and experiment platforms for analyzing the temperature compensation are established by assuming that the testing temperature is constant. However, the surrounding temperature of some large metal structure is not stable, and the effect of temperature change cannot be neglected. This paper aims to establish an analytic model and an experiment platform to compare the temperature compensation of the fiber bragg grating sensor and the resistance strain gauge. The superiority of the temperature compensation for the fiber bragg grating sensor is verified. The result provides theoretical support for choosing the fiber bragg grating sensor in the long-time strain monitoring.
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Kao, Hsuan-Ling, Cheng-Lin Cho, Li-Chun Chang, Chun-Bing Chen, Wen-Hung Chung, and Yun-Chen Tsai. "A Fully Inkjet-Printed Strain Sensor Based on Carbon Nanotubes." Coatings 10, no. 8 (August 14, 2020): 792. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/coatings10080792.
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A fully inkjet-printed strain sensor based on carbon nanotubes (CNTs) was fabricated in this study for microstrain and microcrack detection. Carbon nanotubes and silver films were used as the sensing layer and conductive layer, respectively. Inkjet-printed CNTs easily undergo agglomeration due to van der Waals forces between CNTs, resulting in uneven films. The uniformity of CNT film affects the electrical and mechanical properties. Multi-pass printing and pattern rotation provided precise quantities of sensing materials, enabling the realization of uniform CNT films and stable resistance. Three strain sensors printed eight-layer CNT film by unidirectional printing, rotated by 180° and 90° were compared. The low density on one side of eight-layer CNT film by unidirectional printing results in more disconnection and poor connectivity with the silver film, thereby, significantly increasing the resistance. For 180° rotation eight-layer strain sensors, lower sensitivity and smaller measured range were found because strain was applied to the uneven CNT film resulting in non-uniform strain distribution. Lower resistance and better strain sensitivity was obtained for eight-layer strain sensor with 90° rotation because of uniform film. Given the uniform surface morphology and saturated sheet resistance of the 20-layer CNT film, the strain performance of the 20-layer CNT strain sensor was also examined. Excluding the permanent destruction of the first strain, 0.76% and 1.05% responses were obtained for the 8- and 20-layer strain sensors under strain between 0% and 3128 µε, respectively, which demonstrates the high reproducibility and recoverability of the sensor. The gauge factor (GF) of 20-layer strain sensor was found to be 2.77 under strain from 71 to 3128 µε, which is higher than eight-layer strain sensor (GF = 1.93) due to the uniform surface morphology and stable resistance. The strain sensors exhibited a highly linear and reversible behavior under strain of 71 to 3128 µε, so that the microstrain level could be clearly distinguished. The technology of the fully inkjet-printed CNT-based microstrain sensor provides high reproducibility, stability, and rapid hardness detection.
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Demidenko, N. A., A. V. Kuksin, E. S. Davydova, V. A. Zaborova, L. P. Ichkitidze, S. P. Bordovsky, and A. Yu Gerasimenko. "Studying of a sensitive material based on Ecoflex and CNTs for flexible strain sensors." Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2086, no. 1 (December 1, 2021): 012010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/2086/1/012010.
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Abstract Nowadays there is a great need for the development of flexible strain sensors that can register human body’s movements. In the field of wearable and smart electronics such sensors are actively being developed. Resistive-type flexible sensors are the easiest to manufacture. Their mechanism of sensitivity to deformations is based on a change in electrical resistance during deformations. In this work, we have developed the functional material for strain sensor with high tensile properties, strength and electrical conductivity. This material based on a matrix of silicone elastomer and a multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MCNTs) filler. The material showed a high elongation of 950 % with a tensile strength of 1.437 MPa. The manufacturing process included laser structuring of MCNTs to form an electrically conductive network. The linear gauge factor was 3.4, and the angular gauge factor was 0.26.
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Smith, Austin, SM Mahdi Mofidian, and Hamzeh Bardaweel. "Three-dimensional printed embedded channel–based resistive strain sensor: Fabrication and experimental characterization." Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures 30, no. 10 (March 19, 2019): 1518–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1045389x19835961.
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This work explores the feasibility of commercially available elastic filament and desktop fused deposition modeling three-dimensional printing as a simple and cost-effective route to develop flexible sensors. The fabricated sensor consists of a three-dimensional printed flexible substrate with embedded U-shaped channels that are filled with Galinstan (Ga 68.5% In 21.5% Sn 10%) liquid metal conductor. When the sensor is strained, the cross-sectional area of the channels decreases causing a reduction in the conducting area and, therefore, a change in resistance. First, sensors measuring approximately 2100 μm by 200 μm are fabricated. Results demonstrate gauge factors of approximately 2.1 at 38.8% strain with high linearity and little hysteresis. In addition, smaller strain sensors, measuring approximately 696 µm by 203 µm, are fabricated with gauge factors of nearly 1.0 at 13.2% strain. Results show that substrate relaxation plays an essential role in determining the functionality of these sensors. The Mullins effect largely influences the recovery properties of the rubber-like sensor substrate. This leads to a noticeable relaxation in the substrate during cyclic loading. The results demonstrate the potential of commercially available fused deposition modeling three-dimensional printing technology and filaments to produce complex designs and sensor platforms.
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Druzhinin, A. A., A. P. Kutrakov, S. I. Nichkalo, and V. M. Stasiv. "Information and measuring system on the basis of strain sensors based on silicon microcrystals." Технология и конструирование в электронной аппаратуре, no. 3 (2018): 9–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.15222/tkea2018.3.09.
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One of the promising directions of development of information and measuring systems for monitoring and diagnostics is the use of intelligent sensors of various physical quantities, in particular pressure, temperature, deformation, acceleration, etc. The main functional feature that distinguishes such sensors is the possibility of signal processing directly in the measuring zone, which involves the temperature compensation of the output signal, linearization of the transformation function. Along with primary converters, intelligent sensors include analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog converters, microcontroller, memory-storage device, input/output interfaces. However, the technologies used today for the creation of existing microelectronic sensors are quite complex and require special process equipment and materials, that leads to an increase in their value. The aim of this work is to develop an information and measurement system for use in conjunction with mechanical sensors based on strain gauges made of silicon whiskers in terms to provide a higher efficiency. The deformation and temperature characteristics of sensors of mechanical quantities (pressure, force and deformation) with strain gauges on the basis of p-type Si whiskers (ρ=0.005—0.02 Ω∙cm) in the temperature range from –60 to +60°C were analyzed. It has been established that at a deformation level of ±6∙10–4 relative units, the high values of sensitivity and linearity of strain gauge characteristics are maintained, and the hysteresis effect due to the characteristics of elastic elements is shown to the smallest extent. It is shown that the temperature dependence of relative change in the resistance of strain gauge resistors based on p-Si whiskers with resistivity of 0.005 Ω∙cm is characterized by the smallest nonlinearity. This simplifies the problem of compensation of the temperature errors, which are typical for such sensors. The temperature coefficient of resistance for strain gauges was found to be 0.15%/°Ñ. The information and measuring system was developed on the basis of pressure sensor with strain gauges made of silicon whiskers (ρ=0.005 Ω∙cm). This pressure sensor provides the simultaneous measurement of pressure and temperature in the ranges 0...100 kPa and –60...+60°Ñ, respectively. The measuring channel of the developed system was based on the AVR ATmega328P microcontroller, which provides the ability to create modern high-precision distributed data gathering and display systems. As a result of testing, satisfactory results were obtained regarding stability, sensitivity and measurement ranges of the developed information and measuring system. The main measurement error did not exceed 0.1%. The measuring circuit can be easily adapted to a new task without making any significant changes to its hardware, the function of the device is easily adjusted by changing the work program.
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Naveed, Shayan, Tayyaba Malik, Muhammad Muneer, and Mohammad Ali Mohammad. "A Laser Scribed Graphene Oxide and Polyimide Hybrid Strain Sensor." Key Engineering Materials 778 (September 2018): 169–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/kem.778.169.
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Strain sensors are devices used in applications such as electronic skin, prosthetic limbs, and e-textile applications, etc., for the purpose of measuring the physical elongation of a desired structure under a given or applied force. An artificial throat, using a strain sensor, was recently developed as an aid for speech impaired individuals. Strain sensors have been developed using graphene and polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), with a reported gauge factor ranging from (5~120). We have developed a strain sensor through laser scribing. Using laser scribing is a recent and facile technology, used for printed electronics. Complex geometries and patterns can be drawn very easily using this method. The laser scribing method relies on the property of certain materials to form a graphene-like conductive material upon irradiation by lasers. Polyimide and graphene oxide (GO) are two such materials.In these experiments, 2×2 cm sheet of polyimide were taken and printed 1×1 cm box on the sheet using a laser patterning setup of 450 nm wavelength. Graphene oxide solution was drop-casted on the reduced polyimide sheet of 1×1cm, to increase its sensitivity, and then the drop-casted graphene oxide was reduced using the same laser. The strain sensor was characterized by a micro-strain testing machine. The normalized resistance was plotted against strain and the gauge factor was calculated. The effect of the laser intensity was investigated and different gauge factors were calculated by varying the intensity of the laser. The gauge factors were found to be in the range of 49-54 and was compared with the polyimide reduced strain sensor (without drop-casting the GO).
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Martinez, Fernando, Gregorio Obieta, Ion Uribe, Tomasz Sikora, and Estibalitz Ochoteco. "Polymer-Based Self-Standing Flexible Strain Sensor." Journal of Sensors 2010 (2010): 1–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2010/659571.
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The design and characterization of polymer-based self-standing flexible strain sensors are presented in this work. Properties as lightness and flexibility make them suitable for the measurement of strain in applications related with wearable electronics such as robotics or rehabilitation devices. Several sensors have been fabricated to analyze the influence of size and electrical conductivity on their behavior. Elongation and applied charge were precisely controlled in order to measure different parameters as electrical resistance, gauge factor (GF), hysteresis, and repeatability. The results clearly show the influence of size and electrical conductivity on the gauge factor, but it is also important to point out the necessity of controlling the hysteresis and repeatability of the response for precision-demanding applications.
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Hwang, Mun-Young, and Lae-Hyong Kang. "Analysis of Important Fabrication Factors That Determine the Sensitivity of MWCNT/Epoxy Composite Strain Sensors." Materials 12, no. 23 (November 24, 2019): 3875. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma12233875.
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Composite sensors based on carbon nanotubes have been leading to significant research providing interesting aspects for realizing cost-effective and sensitive piezoresistive strain sensors. Here, we report a wide range of piezoresistive performance investigations by modifying fabrication factors such as multi-wall carbon nanotubes (MWCNT) concentration and sensor dimensions for MWCNT/epoxy composites. The resistance change measurement analyzed the influence of the fabrication factors on the changes in the gauge factor. The dispersion quality of MWCNTs in the epoxy polymer matrix was investigated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images and conductivity measurement results. A configuration circuit was designed to use the composite sensor effectively. It has been shown that, in comparison with commercially available strain gauges, composites with CNT fillers have the potential to attain structural health monitoring capabilities by utilizing the variation of electrical conductivity and its relation to strain or damage within the composite. Based on the characteristics of the MWCNT, we predicted the range of conductivity that can be seen in the fabricated composite. The sensor may require a large surface area and a thin thickness as fabrication factors at minimum filler concentration capable of exhibiting a tunneling effect, in order to fabricate a sensor with high sensitivity. The proposed composite sensors will be suitable in various potential strain sensor applications, including structural health monitoring.
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Qu, Muchao, Zixin Xie, Shuiyan Liu, Jinzhu Zhang, Siyao Peng, Zhitong Li, Cheng Lin, and Fritjof Nilsson. "Electric Resistance of Elastic Strain Sensors—Fundamental Mechanisms and Experimental Validation." Nanomaterials 13, no. 12 (June 6, 2023): 1813. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nano13121813.
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Elastic strain sensor nanocomposites are emerging materials of high scientific and commercial interest. This study analyzes the major factors influencing the electrical behavior of elastic strain sensor nanocomposites. The sensor mechanisms were described for nanocomposites with conductive nanofillers, either dispersed inside the polymer matrix or coated onto the polymer surface. The purely geometrical contributions to the change in resistance were also assessed. The theoretical predictions indicated that maximum Gauge values are achieved for mixture composites with filler fractions slightly above the electrical percolation threshold, especially for nanocomposites with a very rapid conductivity increase around the threshold. PDMS/CB and PDMS/CNT mixture nanocomposites with 0–5.5 vol.% fillers were therefore manufactured and analyzed with resistivity measurements. In agreement with the predictions, the PDMS/CB with 2.0 vol.% CB gave very high Gauge values of around 20,000. The findings in this study will thus facilitate the development of highly optimized conductive polymer composites for strain sensor applications.
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Pan, Xiaochuan, Fan Lin, Chao Wu, Yingjun Zeng, Guochun Chen, Qinnan Chen, Daoheng Sun, and Zhenyin Hai. "Additive-Manufactured Platinum Thin-Film Strain Gauges for Structural Microstrain Testing at Elevated Temperatures." Micromachines 13, no. 9 (September 5, 2022): 1472. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/mi13091472.
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This paper investigates the feasibility and performance of the fabrication of platinum high-temperature thin-film strain sensors on nickel-based alloy substrates by additive manufacturing. The insulating layer was made of a dielectric paste by screen printing process. A 1.8-micron-thick platinum film was deposited directly on the insulating layer. The four-wire resistance measurement method was used to eliminate the contact resistance of the solder joints. Comprehensive morphological and electrical characterization of the platinum thin-film strain gauge was carried out, and good static and dynamic strain responses were obtained, which confirmed that the strain gauge was suitable for in situ strain monitoring of high-temperature complex components.
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Yi, Ying, Bo Wang, and Amine Bermak. "A Low-Cost Strain Gauge Displacement Sensor Fabricated via Shadow Mask Printing." Sensors 19, no. 21 (October 30, 2019): 4713. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s19214713.
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This work presents a cost-effective shadow mask printing approach to fabricate flexible sensors. The liquid-state sensing material can be directly brushed on a flexible substrate through a shadow mask. The ink leakage issue which often occurs in printed electronics is addressed with a custom taping scheme. A simple thermal compression bonding approach is also proposed to package the functional area of the sensor. To verify the feasibility and robustness of the proposed fabrication approach, a prototyped strain gauge displacement sensor is fabricated using carbon ink as the sensing material and a flexible polyimide (PI) film as the substrate. Once the substrate is deformed, cracks in the solidified ink layer can cause an increased resistance in the conductive path, thus achieving function of stable displacement/strain sensing. As a demonstration for displacement sensing application, this sensor is evaluated by studying its real-time resistance response under both static and dynamic mechanical loading. The fabricated sensor shows a comparable performance (with a gauge factor of ~17.6) to those fabricated using costly lithography or inkjet printing schemes, while with a significantly lower production cost.
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Kang, Ting-Kuo. "Piezoresistive Characteristics of Nylon Thread Resistive Memories for Wearable Strain Sensors." Coatings 9, no. 10 (September 28, 2019): 623. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/coatings9100623.
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A nylon thread (NT) resistive memory is fabricated by performing a simple dip-and-dry solution process using graphene–poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(4-styrenesulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS) conductive ink. The piezoresistive characteristics of the NT resistive memory are further evaluated for wearable strain sensors. While a stretching strain (ε) is applied to the NT resistive memory, the relative resistance change of low-resistance state (LRS) is found to be higher than that of high-resistance state (HRS). This result implies that the contribution of the local overlapping interconnection change in graphene and PEDOT:PSS materials to the LRS resistance change is greater than that to the HRS resistance change. In addition, through many cycles of repeatedly stretching and releasing the LRS of the NT resistive memory at a fixed ε = 7.1%, a gauge factor of approximately 22 is measured and achieved for a highly sensitive and durable strain sensor. Finally, the actual integration of the NT resistive memory into textiles can provide resistive memory and piezoresistive sensor applications simultaneously for wearable electronic textiles.
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Demidenko, Natalia A., Artem V. Kuksin, Victoria V. Molodykh, Evgeny S. Pyankov, Levan P. Ichkitidze, Victoria A. Zaborova, Alexandr A. Tsymbal, et al. "Flexible Strain-Sensitive Silicone-CNT Sensor for Human Motion Detection." Bioengineering 9, no. 1 (January 13, 2022): 36. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering9010036.
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This article describes the manufacturing technology of biocompatible flexible strain-sensitive sensor based on Ecoflex silicone and multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT). The sensor demonstrates resistive behavior. Structural, electrical, and mechanical characteristics are compared. It is shown that laser radiation significantly reduces the resistance of the material. Through laser radiation, electrically conductive networks of MWCNT are formed in a silicone matrix. The developed sensor demonstrates highly sensitive characteristics: gauge factor at 100% elongation −4.9, gauge factor at 90° bending −0.9%/deg, stretchability up to 725%, tensile strength 0.7 MPa, modulus of elasticity at 100% 46 kPa, and the temperature coefficient of resistance in the range of 30–40 °C is −2 × 10−3. There is a linear sensor response (with 1 ms response time) with a low hysteresis of ≤3%. An electronic unit for reading and processing sensor signals based on the ATXMEGA8E5-AU microcontroller has been developed. The unit was set to operate the sensor in the range of electrical resistance 5–150 kOhm. The Bluetooth module made it possible to transfer the received data to a personal computer. Currently, in the field of wearable technologies and health monitoring, a vital need is the development of flexible sensors attached to the human body to track various indicators. By integrating the sensor with the joints of the human hand, effective movement sensing has been demonstrated.
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Zhao, Yinming, Yang Liu, Yongqian Li, and Qun Hao. "Development and Application of Resistance Strain Force Sensors." Sensors 20, no. 20 (October 15, 2020): 5826. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s20205826.
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Resistance strain force sensors have been applied to monitor the strains in various parts and structures for industrial use. Here, we review the working principles, structural forms, and fabrication processes for resistance strain gauges. In particular, we focus on recent developments in resistance stress transfer for resistance strain force sensors and the creep effect due to sustained loads and/or temperature variations. Various error compensation methods to reduce the creep effect are analyzed to develop a metrology standard for resistance strain force sensors. Additionally, the current status of carbon nanotubes (CNTs), silicon carbide (SiC), gallium nitride (GaN), and other wide band gap semiconductors for a wide range of strain sensors are reviewed. The technical requirements and key issues of resistance strain force sensors for future applications are presented.
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Borghetti, Michela, Mauro Serpelloni, and Emilio Sardini. "Printed Strain Gauge on 3D and Low-Melting Point Plastic Surface by Aerosol Jet Printing and Photonic Curing." Sensors 19, no. 19 (September 28, 2019): 4220. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s19194220.
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Printing sensors and electronics directly on the objects is very attractive for producing smart devices, but it is still a challenge. Indeed, in some applications, the substrate that supports the printed electronics could be non-planar or the thermal curing of the functional inks could damage temperature-sensitive substrates such as plastics, fabric or paper. In this paper, we propose a new method for manufacturing silver-based strain sensors with arbitrary and custom geometries directly on plastic objects with curvilinear surfaces: (1) the silver lines are deposited by aerosol jet printing, which can print on non-planar or 3D surfaces; (2) photonic sintering quickly cures the deposited layer, avoiding the overheating of the substrate. To validate the manufacturing process, we printed strain gauges with conventional geometry on polyvinyl chloride (PVC) conduits. The entire manufacturing process, included sensor wiring and optional encapsulation, is performed at room temperature, compatible with the plastic surface. At the end of the process, the measured thickness of the printed sensor was 8.72 μm on average, the volume resistivity was evaluated 40 μΩ∙cm, and the thermal coefficient resistance was measured 0.150 %/°C. The average resistance was (71 ± 7) Ω and the gauge factor was found to be 2.42 on average.
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Wolterink, Gerjan, Remco Sanders, Bert-Jan van Beijnum, Peter Veltink, and Gijs Krijnen. "A 3D-Printed Soft Fingertip Sensor for Providing Information about Normal and Shear Components of Interaction Forces." Sensors 21, no. 13 (June 22, 2021): 4271. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s21134271.
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Sensing of the interaction forces at fingertips is of great value in assessment and rehabilitation therapy. Current force sensors are not compliant to the fingertip tissue and result in loss of touch sensation of the user. This work shows the development and characterization of a flexible fully-3D-printed piezoresistive shear and normal force sensor that uses the mechanical deformation of the finger tissue. Two prototypes of the sensing structure are evaluated using a finite element model and a measurement setup that applies normal and shear forces up to 10 N on a fingertip phantom placed inside the sensing structure, which is fixed to prevent slippage. Furthermore, the relation between strain (rate) and resistance of the conductive TPU, used for the strain gauges, is characterized. The applied normal and shear force components of the 3D-printed sensing structure can be partly separated. FEM analysis showed that the output of the sensor is largely related to the sensor geometry and location of the strain gauges. Furthermore, the conductive TPU that was used has a negative gauge factor for the strain range used in this study and might cause non-linear behaviors in the sensor output.
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Jansen, Kaspar M. B. "Performance Evaluation of Knitted and Stitched Textile Strain Sensors." Sensors 20, no. 24 (December 17, 2020): 7236. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s20247236.
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By embedding conductive yarns in, or onto, knitted textile fabrics, simple but robust stretch sensor garments can be manufactured. In that way resistance based sensors can be fully integrated in textiles without compromising wearing comfort, stretchiness, washability, and ease of use in daily life. The many studies on such textile strain sensors that have been published in recent years show that these sensors work in principle, but closer inspection reveals that many of them still have severe practical limitations like a too narrow working range, lack of sensitivity, and undesired time-dependent and hysteresis effects. For those that intend to use this technology it is difficult to determine which manufacturing parameters, shape, stitch type, and materials to apply to realize a functional sensor for a given application. This paper therefore aims to serve as a guideline for the fashion designers, electronic engineers, textile researchers, movement scientists, and human–computer interaction specialists planning to create stretch sensor garments. The paper is limited to textile based sensors that can be constructed using commercially available conductive yarns and existing knitting and embroidery equipment. Within this subtopic, relevant literature is discussed, and a detailed quantitative comparison is provided focusing on sensor characteristics like the gauge factor, working range, and hysteresis.
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Kaiyan, Huang, Yuan Weifeng, Tong Shuying, and Liu Haidong. "A fabrication process to make CNT/EP composite strain sensors." High Performance Polymers 30, no. 2 (January 23, 2017): 224–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0954008316689132.
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Carbon nanotube (CNT)/epoxy resin (EP) conductive composite can be obtained by solidifying the mixture of CNT and EP at specific temperature. The conductivity of the CNT/EP composite rises as the CNT content increases. It has been proven that the electrical resistance of a CNT/EP film varies when it experiences tension or compression. Therefore, the current research focuses on the design of strain sensors, based on the piezoresistivity of CNT/EP composite. In this article, an efficient method used to fabricate CNT/EP sensors is introduced in detail. One main novelty of the present method is that it provides an easy process to install metal electrodes for each piece of CNT/EP film. Another importance of the method is that it tackles the obstacles on the way to bulk production. A cantilever beam system was used to test the sensors fabricated through the self-developed process. The experimental results show that the sensors have consistent properties, and their gauge factors are much higher than that of typical foil strain gauges.
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Nankali, M., NM Nouri, N. Geran Malek, and MA Sanjari Shahrezaei. "Electrical properties of stretchable and skin–mountable PDMS/MWCNT hybrid composite films for flexible strain sensors." Journal of Composite Materials 53, no. 21 (June 29, 2019): 3047–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0021998319853034.
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Flexible strain sensors based on carbon nanofillers have great potential in the application of skin-adhesive sensors, wearable sensors, and tactile sensors, due to their superior electrical properties. Herein, the electrical properties of highly sensitive PDMS/MWCNT strain sensors made by vacuum filtration method were investigated. In order to obtain the electrical percolation curve of the flexible conductive films, first different samples were made with the same surface area but with different wt. % of CNTs. Then, depending on CNT content, the obtained conductive films exhibited initial electrical resistance in the range of 12.5 KΩ to 22.8 MΩ. The piezoresistive films with the CNT concentration of 1.4 to 2.9 [Formula: see text] had shown superior resistance drop, so this interval was determined as the percolation threshold region. According to the SEM images, the nanocomposite layer thickness of the flexible strain sensors in this region was 790 nm to 1210 nm. Afterward, the percolation curve was obtained using curve fitting to the experimental data and the exact value of the percolation threshold was defined as [Formula: see text]. Finally, in order to determine the minimum gauge factor ([Formula: see text]) of the sensors in percolation region, a flexible strain sensor in the upper limit of this region was selected and the piezoresistive properties of the selected sample were investigated.
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Hausmann, Maximilian, Peter Welzbacher, and Eckhard Kirchner. "DEVELOPMENT OF A GENERAL SENSOR SYSTEM MODEL TO DESCRIBE THE FUNCTIONALITY AND THE UNCERTAINTY OF SENSING MACHINE ELEMENTS." Proceedings of the Design Society 1 (July 27, 2021): 1243–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/pds.2021.124.
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AbstractSensor integration as close to the process as possible provides advantages in the quality of the measurement results as well as the possibility to implement completely new sensor principles and to measure novel quantities of interest. Sensor integration at positions close to the process can be made possible, for example, through the development and application of Sensing Machine Elements (SME). In the first part of this contribution, a general sensor system model is proposed. It is based on the concept of measuring chains and allows the uniform description of functions and uncertainties within a conventional sensor or SME application. For this purpose, essential quantities are defined, which are required for a uniform understanding. In the second part, the presented sensor system model is applied to a load measuring strain gauge on a drive shaft. This enables the condition monitoring of the shaft and drive train by measuring the electrical resistance of the strain gauge and thus allowing conclusions about the acting drive torque. The individual functions and uncertainties of the strain gauge integration are presented in the system model. This example shows the applicability of the presented system model for sensors and SME.
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Bragaglia, Mario, Lorenzo Paleari, Francesca R. Lamastra, Debora Puglia, Francesco Fabbrocino, and Francesca Nanni. "Graphene nanoplatelet, multiwall carbon nanotube, and hybrid multiwall carbon nanotube–graphene nanoplatelet epoxy nanocomposites as strain sensing coatings." Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites 40, no. 17-18 (March 12, 2021): 632–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0731684421994324.
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Strain monitoring is of great interest in order to check components structural life, to prevent catastrophic failures, and, possibly, to predict residual life in case of unexpected events. In this study, strain sensing epoxy-based coatings containing carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs), graphene nanoplatelets (GNPs), and a mix of the two (MWCNT+GNP) have been produced, with the same initial electrical resistivity, and applied on glass fiber reinforced composites. Morphological, mechanical, and electrical tests have been then performed evaluating the resistance variation and the strain sensing performance of the sensors. A theoretical model to relate the resulting gauge factors to the different types of nanofillers has been applied. The results showed that all systems present a strain sensing performance with different gauge factors (and hence sensitivity) at low strain: GNP samples showed the highest gauge factor (10.3), MWCNT samples the lowest (1.5), and the mixed system lies in the middle (4.3). From analytical analysis, the value of initial distance among conductive particles was found to be 0.3 nm in the case of MWCNT and 1.2 nm for GNP, explaining why the gauge factors of the produced sensors are different.
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Yang, Seongjin, Minjae Kim, Seong Kyung Hong, Suhyeon Kim, Wan Kyun Chung, Geunbae Lim, and Hyungkook Jeon. "Design of 3D Controller Using Nanocracking Structure-Based Stretchable Strain Sensor." Sensors 23, no. 10 (May 21, 2023): 4941. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s23104941.
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In this study, we introduce a novel design for a three-dimensional (3D) controller, which incorporates the omni-purpose stretchable strain sensor (OPSS sensor). This sensor exhibits both remarkable sensitivity, with a gauge factor of approximately 30, and an extensive working range, accommodating strain up to 150%, thereby enabling accurate 3D motion sensing. The 3D controller is structured such that its triaxial motion can be discerned independently along the X, Y, and Z axes by quantifying the deformation of the controller through multiple OPSS sensors affixed to its surface. To ensure precise and real-time 3D motion sensing, a machine learning-based data analysis technique was implemented for the effective interpretation of the multiple sensor signals. The outcomes reveal that the resistance-based sensors successfully and accurately track the 3D controller’s motion. We believe that this innovative design holds the potential to augment the performance of 3D motion sensing devices across a diverse range of applications, encompassing gaming, virtual reality, and robotics.
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Choy, Ji-Yeon, Eun-Bee Jo, Chang-Joo Yim, Hae-Kyung Youi, Jung-Hoon Hwang, Jun-Ho Lee, and Hyun-Seok Kim. "Improvement in Strain Sensor Stability by Adapting the Metal Contact Layer." Sensors 22, no. 2 (January 14, 2022): 630. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s22020630.
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Research on stretchable strain sensors is actively conducted due to increasing interest in wearable devices. However, typical studies have focused on improving the elasticity of the electrode. Therefore, methods of directly connecting wire or attaching conductive tape to materials to detect deformation have been used to evaluate the performance of strain sensors. Polyaniline (PANI), a p-type semiconductive polymer, has been widely used for stretchable electrodes. However, conventional procedures have limitations in determining an appropriate metal for ohmic contact with PANI. Materials that are generally used for connection with PANI form an undesirable metal-semiconductor junction and have significant contact resistance. Hence, they degrade sensor performance. This study secured ohmic contact by adapting Au thin film as the metal contact layer (the MCL), with lower contact resistance and a larger work function than PANI. Additionally, we presented a buffer layer using hard polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) and structured it into a dumbbell shape to protect the metal from deformation. As a result, we enhanced steadiness and repeatability up to 50% strain by comparing the gauge factors and the relative resistance changes. Consequently, adapting structural methods (the MCL and the dumbbell shape) to a device can result in strain sensors with promising stability, as well as high stretchability.
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Han, Tao, Anindya Nag, Nasrin Afsarimanesh, Fowzia Akhter, Hangrui Liu, Samta Sapra, Subhas Mukhopadhyay, and Yongzhao Xu. "Gold/Polyimide-Based Resistive Strain Sensors." Electronics 8, no. 5 (May 22, 2019): 565. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/electronics8050565.
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This paper presents the fabrication and implementation of novel resistive sensors that were implemented for strain-sensing applications. Some of the critical factors for the development of resistive sensors are addressed in this paper, such as the cost of fabrication, the steps of the fabrication process which make it time-consuming to complete each prototype, and the inability to achieve optimised electrical and mechanical characteristics. The sensors were fabricated via magnetron sputtering of thin-film chromium and gold layer on the thin-film substrates at defined thicknesses. Sticky copper tapes were attached on the two sides of the sensor patches to form the electrodes. The operating principle of the fabricated sensors was based on the change in their responses with respect to the corresponding changes in their relative resistance as a function of the applied strain. The strain-induced characteristics of the patches were studied with different kinds of experiments, such as consecutive bending and pressure application. The sensors with 400 nm thickness of gold layer obtained a sensitivity of 0.0086 Ω/ppm for the pressure ranging between 0 and 400 kPa. The gauge factor of these sensors was between 4.9–6.6 for temperatures ranging between 25 °C and 55 °C. They were also used for tactile sensing to determine their potential as thin-film sensors for industrial applications, like in robotic and pressure-mapping applications. The results were promising in regards to the sensors’ controllable film thickness, easy operation, purity of the films and mechanically sound nature. These sensors can provide a podium to enhance the usage of resistive sensors on a higher scale to develop thin-film sensors for industrial applications.
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Lu, Hsuan-Chin, and Ying-Chih Liao. "Direct Printed Silver Nanowire Strain Sensor for Early Extravasation Detection." Nanomaterials 11, no. 10 (September 30, 2021): 2583. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nano11102583.
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In this study, we presented a wearable sensor patch for the early detection of extravasation by using a simple, direct printing process. Silver nanowire (AgNW) ink was first formulated to provide necessary rheological properties to print patterns on flexible plastic sheets. By adjusting printing parameters, alignments of AgNWs in the printed patterns were controlled to enhance the resistance change under stretching conditions. A resistive strain-sensing device was then fabricated by printing patterned electrodes on a stretchable film for skin attachment. The designed sensor pattern was able to detect forces from a specific direction from the resistance change. Moreover, the sensor showed excellent sensitivity (gauge factor (GF) = 100 at 50% strain) and could be printed in small dimensions. Sensors of millimeter size were printed in an array and were used for multiple detection points in a large area to detect extravasation at small volumes (<0.5 mL) at accurate bump location.
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Zlebic, Cedo, Ljiljana Zivanov, Aleksandar Menicanin, Nelu Blaz, and Mirjana Damnjanovic. "Inkjet printed resistive strain gages on flexible substrates." Facta universitatis - series: Electronics and Energetics 29, no. 1 (2016): 89–100. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/fuee1601089z.
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In this paper, resistive strain gages designed and fabricated in inkjet printing technology with three different silver nanoparticle inks are presented. Inks have different Ag content (15, 20 or 25 wt%) and solvents (water type or organic type). Strain gages were printed on a 50 ?m thick polyimide and 140 ?m thick PET-based substrate with different printer types (professional and desktop). All printed sensors have the same size (17 mm ? 5 mm). To determine the change of resistance due to bending of the steel beam, tensile tests were performed up to 1500 microstrains. Due to performed cycles of loading and unloading of the steel beam, gauge factor and stability of the response of the strain gages are measured. Resistance change was measured with Keithley SourceMeter 2410. For acquisition of measured data, in-house software tool was developed. Measured gauge factors of the sensors are in the range between 1.07 and 2.03 (depending on a used ink, substrate and printer). Results of this research indicate the strain gages with good GF can be produced even with low-cost equipment, such as desktop printer EPSON C88+ and PET-based substrate.
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Liu, Mingjie, Qi Zhang, Yiwei Shao, Chuanqi Liu, and Yulong Zhao. "Research of a Novel 3D Printed Strain Gauge Type Force Sensor." Micromachines 10, no. 1 (December 29, 2018): 20. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/mi10010020.
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A 3D printed force sensor with a composite structure developed by combining digital light processing (DLP) based printing and inkjet printing technologies is described in this paper. The sensor has cost effectiveness and time-saving advantages compared to the traditional sensor manufacturing process. During this work, the substrate of the force sensor was printed by a DLP based 3D printer using a transparent high-temperature resin, and the strain gauge of the force sensor was inkjet printed using poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) polystyrene sulfonate (PEDOT/PSS) conductive ink. Finite element (FE) simulation was conducted to find the print origin of the strain gauge. The relationship between the mechanical properties of the post-cured resin and the curing time was investigated and the resistance of the printed strain gauges was characterized to optimize process parameters. Afterward, the force sensor was characterized. Experimental results show that the sensitivity of the sensor is 2.92% N−1 and the linearity error is 3.1485% full scale (FS) within the range from 0 mN–160 mN, and the effective gauge factor of the strain gauge is about 0.98. The resistance drifting is less than 0.004 kΩ within an hour. These figures prove that the device can perform as a force sensor and 3D printing technology may have great applied potential in sensor fabrication.
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Raji, Rafiu K., Xuhong Miao, Shu Zhang, Yutian Li, Ailan Wan, and Andrews Boakye. "Knitted piezoresistive strain sensor performance, impact of conductive area and profile design." Journal of Industrial Textiles 50, no. 5 (March 31, 2019): 616–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1528083719837732.
Full textAbstract:
While many of the factors influencing strain sensor properties have been explained in literature, other very important parameters that influence actual design performance of sensors remain obscure. This paper investigates the impact of conductive profile and area design including post fabric treatments such as dyeing and washing on sensor performance. 1 × 1 mock rib was the fabric structure of choice, and silver-plaited nylon was the conductive yarn used in knitting all the samples. Six main polygonal shapes including ellipse, diamond shape, corrugated rectangular shape, rectangular horse shoe, rectangular dough roller shape, and plain rectangular shape were designed and knitted. Plain rectangular profile has been found to deliver the best results characterized by noiseless signals, highest gauge factor, and good result repeatability. The analysis of results also reveals a positive linear correlation between conductive path and initial electrical resistance of a sensor. The inverse is true for the relation between the conductive width values and their corresponding initial resistances. Higher conductive widths led to low initial resistance, and values less than 20 Ω for a sensor could lead to inferior sensor sensitivity. High conductive paths produced high initial resistances, and values within the range of 40–120 Ω could deliver higher sensitivity. This study thus concludes that the optimum aspect ratio range for conductive area to deliver satisfactory sensitivity results is approximately between 24:1 and 77:1 cm. Laundry and dyeing have also been found to result in reduced sensor dimensions, resistance, and sensitivity levels.
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Karapepas, Christos, Daisy Nestler, and Guntram Wagner. "Influence of Sputtering Temperature and Layer Thickness on the Electrical Performance of Thin Film Strain Sensors Consisting of Nickel-Carbon Composite." Key Engineering Materials 809 (June 2019): 413–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/kem.809.413.
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Hybrid laminates consisting of fibre-reinforced thermoplastic films and metallic thin sheets are successively replacing thermoset based systems due to their obvious advantages of higher formability and aptitude for mass production. In order to monitor the material under operating conditions, hybrid laminates need to be equipped with smart sensor units. Artifact-free integration of commercial strain gauges into hybrid laminates is almost impossible. Therefore, a new thin film strain sensor based on a PVD sputtering process was developed.The aim of this work was to evaluate the influence of the layer thickness as well as the elevated temperature during the sputtering process on the electrical performance of Ni-C strain sensors. The Ni-C films with different layer thickness and different sputtering temperatures manufactured by means of a magnetron sputtering process were investigated for the sheet resistance and the change of temperature coefficients of resistance. In addition, Raman spectroscopy was utilized to investigate the phase development with regard to different sputtering temperatures. It can be seen that the gauge factor gets doubled while optimizing the layer thickness. When the sputtering temperature was increased, the graphitic phase formation was preferred and the impurities were reduced. These results are discussed in this paper and appropriate solution concepts are provided.
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Druzhinin, A. O., I. I. Maryamova, and O. P. Kutrakov. "High temperature strain sensors based on gallium phosphide whiskers." Технология и конструирование в электронной аппаратуре, no. 3-4 (2019): 26–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.15222/tkea2019.3-4.26.
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The paper presents a study of tensoresistive characteristics of p-type GaP whiskers with [111] crystallographic orientation coinciding with the direction of the maximal piezoresistive effect for this material. The authors present a newly-developed technology of creating the ohmic contacts to GaP crystals that allows using these crystals at high temperatures (400—600°C). Tensoresistive characteristics of p-type GaP whiskers were studied in the strain range of ±1,2•10–3 rel. un. These studies show that the gauge factor for these crystals at 20°C is rather large. Thus, for p-type GaP crystals with a resistivity of 0.025—0.03 Ω•cm, the gage factor is in the range of 90—95. The study of tensoresistive properties shows that in the temperature range of 20—300°C for p-type GaP crystals with the resistivity of 0,01—0,03 Ω•cm, the gage factor decreases as the temperature rises, but in the temperature range of 300—550°C for this crystals, very slight temperature dependence of the gage factor was observed. In this temperature range, the temperature coefficient of gage factor is no more than –0,03%/°Ñ. In the temperature range of 300—500°C, the value of gage factor is high (40—50). It could be noticed that in the entire investigated temperature range, the strain sensors based on p-type GaP whiskers have the linear resistance vs. strain dependence in the strain range of ±5,0•10–4 rel. un. The developed strain sensors based on p-type GaP whiskers have high mechanical strength at the static and dynamic strain (more than 108 cycles), which makes them operable in dynamic mode.
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Vo, Tan Thong, Hyeon-Jong Lee, Sang-Yun Kim, and Ji Won Suk. "Synergistic Effect of Graphene/Silver Nanowire Hybrid Fillers on Highly Stretchable Strain Sensors Based on Spandex Composites." Nanomaterials 10, no. 10 (October 19, 2020): 2063. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nano10102063.
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Embedding conductive nanomaterials into elastomeric polymer matrices is one of the most promising approaches for fabricating stretchable strain sensors capable of monitoring large mechanical movements or deformation through the detection of resistance changes. Here, hybrid fillers comprising graphene and silver nanowires (AgNWs) are incorporated into extremely stretchable spandex to fabricate strain sensors. Composites containing only graphene and those containing the graphene/AgNW hybrid fillers are systematically investigated by evaluating their electrical and mechanical properties. The synergistic effect between graphene and AgNWs enable the strain sensors based on the composites to experience a large strain range of up to 120%, and low hysteresis with a high gauge factor of 150.3 at a strain of 120%. These reliable strain sensors are utilized for monitoring human motions such as heartbeats and body movements. The findings of this study indicate the significant applicability of graphene/AgNW/spandex composites in future applications that demand high-performance stretchable strain sensors.
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Lanzolla, Anna Maria Lucia, Filippo Attivissimo, Gianluca Percoco, Mattia Alessandro Ragolia, Gianni Stano, and Attilio Di Nisio. "Additive Manufacturing for Sensors: Piezoresistive Strain Gauge with Temperature Compensation." Applied Sciences 12, no. 17 (August 28, 2022): 8607. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app12178607.
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Additive manufacturing technologies allow the fabrication of smart objects, which are made up of a dielectric part and an embedded sensor able to give real-time feedback to the final user. This research presents the characterization of a low-cost 3D-printed strain sensor, fabricated using material extrusion (MeX) technology by using a conductive material composed of a polylactic acid (PLA)-based matrix doped with carbon black and carbon nanotubes (CNT), thus making the plastic conductive. A suitable measurement set-up was developed to perform automatic characterization tests using a high repeatability industrial robot to define either displacement or force profiles. The correlation between the applied stimulus and the variation of the electrical resistance of the 3D-printed sensor was evaluated, and an approach was developed to compensate for the effect of temperature. Results show that temperature and hysteresis affect repeatability; nevertheless, the sensor accurately detects impulse forces ranging from 10 g to 50 g. The sensor showed high linearity and exhibited a sensitivity of 0.077 Ω g−1 and 12.54 Ω mm−1 in the force and displacement range of 114 g and 0.7 mm, respectively, making them promising due to their low cost, ease of fabrication, and possible integration into more complex devices in a single-step fabrication cycle.