Journal articles on the topic 'Res ecclesiasticae'

Omnibus quidem notum est Concilium Vaticanum II impulisse (multoties etiam instituisse) motum in Toto mutationum organorum in Ecclesia. Copiosa illa postconciliarls legum editio signum est manifestum pro dictis. Eiusmodi factum organizativum perpendi potest e diversis prospectibus. Nostra interest perpendere e solo prospectu organizativo, scilicet quod attinet ad technican (artem) definitam quae maiorem efficaciam praebet utilitati finium pastoralium. Ideo fit necessarium illam cognoscere technicam, i. e., illa iuridica principia quodlibet motum organizativum inspirantia. Hoc studium inseritur isti demum contextui. Cum elucet quonam consistunt, ut technice fertur, illa principia, tum quid eorundem applicatio afterat organizationi ecclesiasticae exponit. Agitur suggerentia criteriorum fundamentalium, generalium principiorum ac organizativae expostulationes quas sibi vindicat vel exigit, tempore hodierno, gravis conatus efficacem organizationem ecclesiasticam instituendi. In specie studet principiis luridicis, ut aiunt, deseentralibationis, desconcentrationis organicae functionum, hierarchiae, coordinationis ac consultationis. Res his enuntiationibus inclusae sunt vere implicatae cum ad cardines eccleslasticae organizationis referantur. Summas quaestiones adet pro mutatione structurarum potestatis, iurldlca eius exercitationis normativa, ecclesiastica gubernatione, necessaria unitate et coordinatione, etc, Quaestiones quidem actualissimae quipus primas deftert attentio, praesentlbus rerum adiunctis, et doctrinae et lpsae ecclesiastlcae auctoritatls

Canones Hibernienses, saeculi VIII, rarae sunt collections canonicae quae librum integrum decem novem capitulorum christianis in Ecclesia res magisterii agentibus dedicant. Figura «Doctoris», fungens in societate Christiana munus veteris «Didascali», contemplatur collectionis auctoribus sub notione augustiniana, i. e., defensor studii et culturaereligiosae profanaeque tanquam elementa neccesaria ad fidem discendam atque augendam. Ceterum, collectio testatur statum ac momentum historiae in quibus Ecclesia chrlstianis cultis per eorum rectores disciplinae poscit usum vlgilantiae et prudentis iudicii in eorum laborioso studio de fidei deposito atque in docendo populo christiano. Irlanda insula non solum est sanctorum, verum etiam paradisus doctis qui caeteris christianis docere possunt magna ex parte ad prudentem arbitrium propium, pro re et iussu ecclesiasticae-religiosae sociologiae.

Documenta Concilii Vaticani II nullam directam mentionem de Synodis dioecesanis faciunt, attamen de doctrina conciliari circa Synodum dioecesanam dici potest. Hoc in casu de Synodo pastorali, quae scilicet iuxta normas pastorales huius Concilii celebratur, agitur. Ista Synodus non tantum leges ad res pastorales pertinentes edere sibi proponit, sed etiam ipsa in actu celebrationis characterem actionis pastoralis induit. Synodus pastoral is etiam hoc sibi proponit, ut renovationem vitae ecclesiasticae a Concilio Vaticano II inspiratam realizare. Post Concilium Vaticanum II, id. post annum 1965, in Polonia septem Synodi dioecesanae iam celebratae sunt et novem nunc celebrantur. Si agitur de Synodis iam celebratis duae, scilicet Cracoviensis et Catovicensis — ut videtur — inrter synodos pastoraeles primo loco enumerari debent. Synodus Cracoviensis annis 1972—1979 celebrata est et eius documenta cum plena documentatione, tam in lingua polona quam in italica, edita sunt. Synodus ista a Carolo Card. Wojtyła convocata ab ipso quoque, sed iam uti Romano Ponitifice, clausa est. Synodus Catovicensis annis 1972—1975 celebrata est et eius documenta („Fides, oratio et vita in Ecclesia Catovicensi”) anno 1976 Romae in lingua polona edita sunt. Omnes Synodi dioecesanae in Polonia celebratae, in maiore vel minori gradu, doctrinam Vaticani II, saltem aliquo modo in normis, praebent.

Abstract This paper offers the first survey of evidence for the translation of Middle English literature beyond the English-speaking world in the medieval period. It identifies and discusses translations in five vernaculars: Welsh, Irish, Old Norse-Icelandic, Dutch, and Portuguese. The paper examines the contexts in which such translation took place and considers the role played by colonial, dynastic, trading, and ecclesiastical networks in the transmission of these works. It argues that English is in the curious position of being a vernacular with a reasonable international reach in translation, but often with relatively low literary and cultural prestige. It is evident that most texts translated from English in this period are works which themselves are based on sources in other languages, and it seems probable that English-language texts are often convenient intermediaries for courtly or devotional works more usually transmitted in French or Latin.

One might perceive the Middle Ages as an era of certain rights and privileges. Social stratification or the conformation of a group’s identity were all established around privileges in the Kingdom of Hungary. In the medieval period, as opposed to a modern state, the most important constructors of a group’s identity were privileges. When members of a social group bear identical prerogatives, that group can be recognized as an order or estate. The ecclesiastic order existed side-by-side with the noble estate. In possession of political power were strictly those who were at the top of the strongly hierarchical system. However, in the Kingdom of Hungary, the significance of the ecclesiastical order was dwarfed by the importance of landed nobility. Some five percent of the population was of nobles, who also held political power. Until the end of the 15th century, the members of this stratum were equal in law. Only distinctions in financial situation can be noticed during the 14th and 15th centuries. The first law differentiating the rights within nobility was enacted by the national assembly, the diet of Wladislaus II (1490–1516), in 1498. Only from then on can we speak of gentry and aristocracy. This almost two-century-long process can be observed by examining a representational tool, the usage of red wax in seals. Upon studying medieval Hungarian history, we must use all sources available due to their rapid destruction, hence examining seal usage to explain aristocratic representation. In this paper, we briefly summarize the social structure of medieval Hungary and its traditions in seal usage, and present several unique seals. Our goal is to highlight some connections that historiography would benefit from, to provide new data, and to arouse the interest of a broad spectrum of audiences in Hungarian social history.

AbstractThis essay examines visitors’ experiences in the antiquity collections of Rome between 1550 and 1600. It argues that access to private collections was not as casual as has previously been thought, but that, in fact, it is possible to identify changes in the reception of visitors in this period as the city’s collections became increasingly public and institutionalized. Particular pressures on ecclesiastical collectors and parallels elsewhere in the development of the display of objects can explain the change at Rome: because of the city’s centrality, its collections serve as an important case study for a wider phenomenon, the growth of the museum.

A partir dos artigos publicados na Revista Eclesiástica Brasileira, a Autora aponta e analisa como a instituição eclesiástica aborda, conceitua e se posiciona perante as manifestações religiosas designadas populares durante os anos de 1963 a 1980. Dentre as principais tendências teológicas, sociológicas, antropológicas e históricas presentes nos artigos publicados, destaca a histórico-sociológica, que teve na figura do Padre José Comblin seu principal representante.Abstract: Using as her source material articles published in the Brazilian Ecclesiastical Journal (REB), the author identifies and analyses this ecclesiastical institution’s conceptualization of and its approach and position towards the so-called popular religious manifestations during the period between 1963 and 1980. Among the major theological, sociological, anthropological and historical trends present in the published articles, Ms David gives emphasis to the historical-sociological trend that had, as its main representative, Father José Comblin.

One of the most important events of the summer of 1917 was the opening of the All–Russian Council of the Orthodox church on 15 August in Moscow. In a dramatic opening ceremony, solemn processions from all the churches of Moscow converged on Red Square for the service led by Metropolitan Tikhon. The council had been convened by a 5 July order of the Holy Synod and its chief procurator, V. N. L'vov, with the concurrence of the Provisional Government. The calling of a church council–the first since Peter's establishment of the collegial system of administration–was a substantive change in church governance and also had a symbolic meaning. In pre-Petrine Russia, the councils not merely had played an ecclesiastical role but had formed an integral part of national government. (For example, Ivan IV and the church council had worked together to implement changes in the secular code of law as well as in spiritual and ecclesiastical matters.)

The first book of medieval Latin beast epic, Ysengrimus, relates imaginary trials. In the episodes of the stolen ham and the fishing, the characters, Ysengrin and Renart, imagine that they would convene an ecclesiastic assembly, a synod, and that they would plead their case. Their plead reverses right and wrong (translatio criminis), invents speeches to denigrate each other (sermocinatio), and seems to take the form of large digressions. These speeches, which have been considered as “interminable” and “wordy” by J. Mann and É. Charbonnier, can be reassessed through classical rhetoric. This paper aims to demonstrate that, in spite of the extent of these speeches' apparent rambling, we can extricate some rhetorical structures (constitutiones) from the judicial oratory. This is the first point of a speech that also uses prolixity as an “art of being right.”

The Church of the Nativity of the Mother of God in Brănești, Orhei district, built between 1911–1928, is located not far from the center of the village. There is a cemetery around it, where very old Moldovan families can be found, but also a place where Germans were buried after a bloody battle during the Second World War. The church is built of stone extracted from the limestone mines on the outskirts of the village. It represents a Russian architectural style, combined with traditional Moldovan motifs and ornaments. The axial-longitudinal plan of the church is composed of three parts: the square vestibule (narthex), the central rectangular nave and the faceted altar. A two-tiered belfry rises above the pronaus of the Church, which is the main compositional focus of the ecclesiastical complex. The sides of the belfry are enriched with arched openings, and the crowning part of the belfry is represented by a tetrahedral geometric element with a spacious dome. The laconic, even dry interpretation of the volume of the building is enriched with decorative elements, and attention is paid to the entrance to the Church yard. At the entrance to the Church, a profiled arch and a triangular pediment are carved in stone above the door.

The paper discusses a special aspect of the papal-Hungarian relations, namely the operation of the delegated jurisdiction in the second half of the 13th century, from the Mongol invasion of 1241–42 to the death of the last Árpádian king, Andrew III in 1301. The focus of the study is on the cases, in which the judges-delegate appointed by the pontiffs had to face questions of ecclesiastical hierarchy or church-discipline. It is to be determined, when (and partially: why) members of the Hungarian Church turned to the Holy See to make use of the delegation of papal judges. Furthermore, it is to be examined, what was the effect of the authorizations, and if so, under which circumstances did the popes want to intervene in Hungarian matters by using one of their universal tool to shape the regions of Western Christianity, their delegated jurisdiction. The issue of the Bosnian bishopric, the quarrel over the borders between the dioceses of Kalocsa and Pécs, or the allegations and the procedure against Bishop Job of Pécs are all helping to fi nd answers to those questions.

This paper is part of a study devoted to the role of the so-called old bishoprics in the medieval history of Serbia. Most of the towns functioning as epsicopal sees grew on early Christian sites and traditions, and were renovated in the Byzantine period. The goal of the research, focused on two towns, Ras and Nis, with the findings cross-checked against Prizren and Belgrade, is to examine the attitude of the Serbian rulers towards the pre-existing ecclesiastical organization. The research also addresses the issue of the capital city of the medieval Serbian state.

AbstractOne of the riddles of the history of late medieval philosophy is the identity of a certain Hugo who is frequently quoted in manuscripts as well as in early prints. This article offers solutions to the relevant problems, identifying the work to which these quotations refer. One of the manuscripts presents the author’s name as “Hugo de Reyss,” Reyss being identified with Rees in North-Rhine/Westphalia. A passage in that work links the author to the University of Paris. Among the Hugos documented at the University of Paris at the relevant time, Hugo de Hervorst is the most promising candidate. Hugo of Hervorst and his family had close relations to Rees. In sum, a chain of arguments leads to the identification of Hugo de Reyss as Hugo de Hervorst, whose academic and ecclesiastical careers can thus be outlined. Documented for the first time in 1372, he died in 1399.

This paper presents a multi-analytical investigation performed for the study of the ecclesiastical vestment, with insignia, of Pope Pius VII, painted from the end of the 18th up to the beginning of the 19th century, made of five clothing elements: chasuble, stole, maniple, chalice veil and purse. The aim of this research was to assess the conservation state of the silk and painted backgrounds; to define the manufacturing technique of the work; to localize, if present, the underdrawing and any retouching; to identify the pigments and, where possible, the binders used. A diagnostic protocol was developed based on preliminary investigations through multiband imaging techniques known as MBI (visible, ultraviolet-induced visible luminescence (UVL), near-infrared reflected (NIR) and infrared reflected false color (IRRFC) photography). The images acquired with MBI techniques ensured a more specific choice of spots to be analyzed directly in situ by non-invasive techniques. In particular, portable digital optical microscopy and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) were performed. Two fragments detached from the chasuble were also analyzed by microFT-IR, microRaman, scanning electron microscopy (SEM-EDS) and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Application of the multi-analytical protocol enabled the materials used to be characterized and helped to define the peculiar execution technique used. The presence of an underdrawing made with a carbon pencil was highlighted by MBI. Red lakes, iron-based pigments and copper-based pigments have been identified on the painting palette, applied with arabic gum as a binder.

Abstract ‘Gender Ideology’ (‘GI’), as an expression, appeared at the beginning of this century within documents of the Catholic Church with the aim of delegitimising what had been produced in the field of Gender Studies. That intent was strongly clarified, being coincident with the discussion in France about the law on equal marriage, during the protests of Manif pour Tous. Likewise, in Italy, oppositions to draft laws about homophobia and civil unions generated movements unified by the denouncing of ‘GI’. This essay presents research conducted between 2014 and 2017 about online materials of some Italian associations that are positioned as ‘GI opponents’. The content analysis underlines the use of a violent communication style that aims to create alarm and panic regarding presumed ‘gender drifts’ within social and educational contexts. This operation reveals the attempt to reaffirm an anthropological vision of sexuality based on the hierarchical–complementary relationship between male and female. The analysis highlights the risk of a sort of ‘Silence Spiral’, where – in the face of a noisy and violent minority – numerous and various voices disappear. These voices differentiate and invoke the urgency of a deeper debate about the concept of gender and its implications within educational, social and ecclesiastical contexts.

In 1868, during the British military expedition to Magdala in Abyssinia (Ethiopia), an archaeological excavation was undertaken, under the auspices of R. Holmes, a representative of the British Museum, at the ancient port-city of Adulis a few kilometres from the Red Sea coast. The excavation, of which some details were reported in a War Office Publication of 1870, was one of the earliest undertaken in Africa south of the Sahara. As a result an ancient church was discovered and cleared. Among the finds were a number of items of ecclesiastical furniture, some apparently imported in a prefabricated state from the Roman eastern Mediterranean. Some of these pieces, now lodged in the British Museum, are here published for the first time.

An organ case from Lincoln, England, designed by the architect Temple Moore in 1907 was examined during conservation work using Raman spectroscopy in order to analyze the decorative paint composition. Samples from the six principal colours were extracted and examined using a Bruker Senterra R200-L spectrometer. The results are the first known formal analysis of a painted scheme by this architect, and they reveal a mixture of commonly used pigments for the period and the unexpected use of simpler, earth pigments, along with an unusual admixture in the red, along with an organic additive. The findings are of importance to both the conservation of Temple Moore’s artwork, in understanding the experimentation used in early twentieth-century England, and in furthering our knowledge of ecclesiastical decorative artwork of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

Abstract The growth of written culture between the twelfth and thirteenth centuries made it possible to preserve information on customary lore and on cultures that were expressed and perpetuated through the senses. Once transcribed, these sensory experiences became subordinate to a medium (writing) that claimed to replace their performative and legal efficacy, eventually relegating them to the realm of folklore, superstition, and deviance. Using two case studies, matrimonial litigation and proceedings about sanctity, this article examines the role of the senses in performing and proving legal reality in early modern ecclesiastical courts. It analyzes the dynamics of a sensory community with shared sensory norms, practices, and perceptions. Looking at culturally coded senses as a basis for regulating social relationships and creating and transferring collective memory, I ref lect on the hierarchy of the senses that accompanied the process of institutionalization and was marked by gender competition.

In this paper researches were carried out on fragments of textiles from the 18[sup]th[/sup] century from Dubrovnik, for which, based on the design and art-historical analysis, it was determined that it was a part of an object (pluvial, cope) from liturgical vestments (ecclesiastical textiles) of the Dubrovnik diocese. Using modern non-destructive and micro-destructive methods we conducted the identification of green, blue and red as the dominant tones on the artefacts of historical textiles from Dubrovnik. The identification was based on the application of modern complementary techniques: UV / VIS, HPLC, SEM-EDX and FTIR-ATR. We analysed samples of coloured fiber, as well as ones obtained by the extraction of dyes from the dyed fibers. Archival data on natural dyes used in the Dubrovnik region in the period 14-19th century was taken into account in the identification of the historical textile dyes.

This article analyzes the relationship between the Orthodox Church and the communist regime during one of the most intense periods of religious persecution in the Romanian People's Republic from 1956 to 1959. The church hierarchy demonstrated its support for the socialist construction of the country, while, at the same time, the regime began a campaign against religion by arresting clergy and reducing the number of religious people in monasteries; rumours even circulated that in 1958 Patriarch Justinian was under house arrest. Seeking closer contact with Western Europe, the regime allowed the hierarchy to meet foreign clergymen, especially from the Church of England. These diplomatic religious encounters played a double role. The regime realised that it could benefit from international ecclesiastical relations, while the image of Justinian in the West changed from that of “red patriarch” to that of a leader who was genuinely interested in his church's survival.

Preachers in Restoration England carved out a space for the expression of political counsel and criticism towards those in power. Using sermons at the court of Charles ii (1660–1685), this article shows how they intervened in questions of ecclesiastical policy and how they supported and shaped the representation of monarchy through moral criticism. It puts forward the thesis that the official preachers of the Church of England were not merely voices of admonishment but active participants in political discourse. Der Aufsatz untersucht, wie sich Prediger im England der Restaurationszeit Raum für die Äußerung von politischem Rat und Kritik erarbeiteten. Am Beispiel von Predigten am Hof Karls II. (reg. 1660–1685) wird gezeigt, wie durch Predigten in (kirchen-)politische Debatten eingegriffen wurde und wie sie durch moralische Kritik bestimmte Repräsentationsarten des Königtums unterstützen und gleichzeitig mitgestalteten. In dieser Hinsicht sind, so die These des Aufsatzes, gerade die Prediger der anglikanischen Staatskirche nicht nur Wächter und Mahner, sondern direkte Akteure in der politischen Debatte.

A 15th century St Theodoros icon of outstanding quality is on display at the Zakynthos Ecclesiastical Art Museum. On the basis of certain stylistic characteristics, this icon has been attributed to the legendary Cretan painter Angelos Akotantos. In order to explore the latter attribution, the icon was subjected to examination via multispectral imaging, while microsamples were investigated through an optical microscope (OM), a scanning electron microscope coupled with an energy dispersive analyzer (SEM-EDX), μ-Raman and X-ray diffraction (XRD). The data were evaluated in the light of the findings of recent analytical studies conducted on several genuine Angelos icons. Identified materials include gypsum, gold leaf, bole, natural ultramarine, lead white, charcoal, green earth, red lake, minium, cinnabar, and red and yellow ochres. The identified materials resemble those employed by Angelos, while the identification of ultramarine is of particular significance, as this extremely expensive and rather rare pigment was very often used by the particular painter. Moreover, multispectral imaging reveals notable painting technique similarities between the icon in consideration and known Angelos icons, while cross sections of corresponding samples exhibit almost identical structures. Overall, the present work considerably strengthens the suggestion that the St Theodoros icon in consideration was painted by Angelos and also widens our knowledge regarding the late Byzantine painting.

O presente artigo tem como objetivo descrever como os intelectuais da libertação atuaram entre os anos de 1972 a 1986, descritos na Revista Eclesiástica Brasileira. Na Revista foi detectada a forma como estes intelectuais atuaram frente ao aparelho do Estado, especialmente no regime militar e com relação à Igreja “oficial”. Foi feita a chamada análise Bibliométrica com a finalidade de mensurar a revista, para levantar dados referentes à atuação de alguns autores no período mencionado. Foram levantados os seguintes itens: ano, mês, artigos/comunicação, título do artigo, formação acadêmica, vínculo institucional, titulação e categorização.Abstract: The present article aims to describe how the liberation intellectuals acted between the years 1972 to 1986, described in the Brazilian Ecclesiastical Magazine. In the magazine was detected how these intellectuals acted in front of the state apparatus, especially in the military regime and in relation to the “official” church. The so called Bibliometric analysis was done with the purpose of measuring the journal, in order to gather data referring to the performance of some authors in the aforementioned period. The following items were raised: Year, Month, Articles/Communication, Title of the article, Academic formation, Institutional Link, Titling and Categorization.Keywords: Intellectuals; REB Magazine; Catholic Church; Release.

<p><strong>Resumo:</strong> O presente artigo tem como finalidade abordar a postura da Igreja Católica, diante do regime militar e dos direitos humanos. A nossa pesquisa tem como fonte principal a Revista Eclesiástica Brasileira (REB) no período entre 1972 a 1986. Inicialmente a Igreja apoia o golpe cívico/militar e depois parte dela denuncia as violações de direitos humanos por parte do regime. Assim, identificamos tendências conservadoras e progressistas na instituição eclesial, travando guerras de posição segundo a concepção de Gramsci.</p><p><strong>Palavras-chaves:</strong> Regime militar; Igreja; Direitos humanos; Teologia da Libertação.</p><p><strong>Abstract:</strong> This article has purpose to approach the position of the Catholic Church, before the military regime and human rights. Our research has as its main source Revista Brasileira Ecclesiastical (REB) in the period from 1972 to 1986. Initially the Church supports the civic/military coup and then part of it denounces human rights violations by the regime. Thus, we identified conservative and progressive trends in the ecclesial institution, locking position of wars according to the conception of Gramsci.</p><p><strong>Keywords:</strong> Military regime; Church; Human Rights; Libertation Theology.</p>

Intendit hoc studium responsum dare articulo P. Romualdo Rodrigo, O. A. R., edito in recensione Romanae Universitatis Gregorianae, «Periodica», a. 1973, p. 503-550. Per copiosa data considerationesque significatur status processuum matrimonialium in Hispania. Urgetur character iudicialis, non administrativus, Decreti ratificantis, sicut in Motu proprio «Causas matrimoniales » regulatur. Respectu matrimonii, Hispania non est fautor divortii, et tramitatio causarum matrimonii canonici, vel nullitatis sint vel separationis, reservatur tribunalibus Ecclesiae. Res publica agnoscit valorem harum decisionum quantum ad effectus civiles, quorum determinatio iudicibus civilibus competit Animadvertitur praestantia quam pro matrimonio et familia leges hispanae habent, non enim tribuunt effectus iuridicos separationi consensuali ad mentem doctrinae et iuris Ecclesiae. Ideo non permittitur transigere in solutione vinculi, neque in ruptura cohabitationis, neque in officio patrum. catholicae filiorum instructionis. Statu actuali divortiorum, nullitatum separationumque considerato, urgetur convenientia Ecclesiae tuendi, ubi possibile sit, sanctitatem atque dignitatem matrimonii familiaeque et non cedendi ius suumcognitionis causarum matrimonialium separationis. Pro munere quod Ecclesia fidelibus suis praestare debet quantum ad iustitiam de matrimoniis, principia, quibus tribunalium ecclesiasticorum ordinatio regi debeat, studuuntur. Specialiter considerata est convenientia Rotae Nuntiaturae Apostolicae Matritensis, in relatione cum tribunalibus minoribus Hispaniae et cum pontificiis, praesertim cum sacra Rota Romana. Auctor examinat argumenta adducta contra tribunalia ecclesiastica hispana. Denique proponuntur conclusiones et sugerentiae circa tribunal unipersonale in unaquaque dioecesi, circa tribunalia facultativa provincialiaet dioecesana, circa tribunalia Barcinonis Matritique, et circa Rotam Nuntiaturae Apostolicae. Magni momenti sunt varia schemata circa gradationem tribunalium. Erectio Studii Rotalis postulatur.

Abstract This article examines the relationship between the magistrate and his subjects as developed in the Tractatus de regimine seculari et ecclesiastico (1619) by the German jurist Dietrich Reinking (1590–1664). The Tractatus represents the magistrate-subject relationship by reference to the adjectives publicus and privatus. We argue that these adjectives carry particular weight within the context of Reinking’s political theory that bases itself upon the Lutheran doctrine of the two kingdoms. Publicus is associated with a figure of authority that has been divinely ordained and governs the world, while privatus refers to the inferior subjects, who must obey the political authorities, even when these authorities act unjustly. This obedience has limits, however. If the magistratus issues a precept that contradicts divine and natural law, private subjects are entitled to disobey. Indeed, subjects, who participate in public administration, may actively resist, if the magistrate violates the fundamental laws of the empire. Such violations amounts to committing a sin against the divine authority that has ordained the officium of the magistrate, and which defines him as something more than a private man. Thus, the adjectives publicus and privatus belong to the worldly kingdom, where personae privatae are governed by personae publicae: this governance is parcelled into different officia that govern the res publica and are constrained by divine and natural law. In the spiritual kingdom, this distinction between private and public collapses, and individuals are placed on the same level vis-à-vis Christ, who is the sole persona publica.

Theologicae atque canonicae fontes Eccleslae et examini ac definitioni Subiectorum Traditlonls, etiam «Veritates catholicae» dictorum vel «loci theologici». (Sacra Scriptura, Concilia, Sedes Romana, Patres Ecclesise, Theologia, Sensus fidelium, etc.) operam saepe dant, et eorum hierarchiae et mutuis connexionibus. Res agitur gravis vel fideli communltatl veritates definitas profitenti quas illam oportet scire ubl invenlri possent; vel magisteriali quoque auctoritatl testimoniorum interpreti quibus revelationis deposltum asservatur; vel etiam theologicae methodo quae his locis enutritur eosque simul illustrat et ordinat. Hac in re Decretum Burchardl Wormsiensis, canonica collectio saeculo XI, testis est magnl commodi quia videre permittit, plus quam alia documenta, locorum Traditionis historiam doctrinalem in discrimine. Loei cum sint quoque res ecclesiologicae, praesens studium primo prorrigit (II) ecclesiologiam In Decreto implicitam. Burchardo Wormslensi, atque theologicis adiunctis in quibus versatur et cogitat, Ecclesia visibilis compagem accipit circum sul Ipsius elementa fundamentalia (Summum Pontificatum, Episcopos, etc.) atque ordinum communionem constituit. Nec rigidum aedificium hierarchicum quo Summus Pontifex sihi contrahit totam rem ecclesialem vel ecclesiasticam ea concipitur, sed potius charismatum sidus et ordinum vel graduum, qUibus peculiare pondus unusquisque confert vocemque atque praesentiam actuosam in aedificationem corporis Christi. l'raebet Igltur Decretum notas quibus ampla explanatione opus est, praesertim quod attinet actionem centmlizatlonis Primatus in Ecclesia; theo!ogiam vero continet etiam Episcopatus quae in posterum servabitur. Burchardi Decretum duplicem prospectum concedit veritatibus catholicis studendis. Et concedlt et exigit. Primum quidem (III) testis est sllens sed eloquens doctrinalis incrementi quod loei experti sunt decem saeculis suae collectioni praecurrentibus. Stratorum instar impositorum materiis, quas tempora slgnarunt et theologiae dlversae, composita collectio nobls Ipsa loquitur historiam utilitate confertam. Hoc demum sensu habet vitam propriam, libera a consilio eorum auctorum. 'Disputatur delnde (IV) methodologia conceptlonesque peculiares Burchardi, et cum eo laborantlum, pro Conciliis, Ecclesiae Patrlbus, Documentis. Pontlflciis et theologorum doctrina. Hoc studium ostendlt quomodo Burchardo Concilia sint auctoritas fundamentalis, alveus scilicet praestantlssimus qui nobis tradidit S. Scripturae sensum. Possunt dici Concilia medium 10- cum obtinere inter S. Scripturam et ceteros locos theologicos. Ecclesiae Patres Collectioni suppeditant textus judiciorum moralium, sententias indoles sapientiaBs, in rectas mores adhortationes, praecepta definida ac praesertim textus doctrinales, libro XX (De contemplatione) collectos. Patres sunt iam non tantum Episcopi in Concilio congregati quantum auctores christiani magnam doctrlnae opinlonem habentes, qui saltem implicitam Eccleslae probationem acceperunt. Hls ergo utitur magls doctrinaliter quam iurldlce. Deoretalia et documenta pontificia In Collectione munere funguntur declarativo et completivo. Sedes Romana iudicium vldetur cul maxime competlt ordinare ae Interpretari ius et traditiona antiquas. Burchardi denique Deeretum timide nuntlat configurationem In Ecclesia novi doctorum hominum ordlnis, qul cito dlgredletut a Patrlbus ut mlnorem constituta locum sed magnl ponderls doctrinalis.

John Johnstone was an Edinburgh printer and publisher, from 1849 in partnership with Robert Hunter. In 1839, Johnstone and the printer Robert Fairly established a separate firm, Johnstone & Fairly, to publish the Witness, a newspaper edited by the geologist Hugh Miller. The firm became Miller & Fairly in 1844 when Miller bought out Johnstone's share. The editorial office was in the High Street. The steam-powered printing office was in Horse Wynd, in the former gatehouse of Minto House and later also in the former house of the physician Dr John Clerk of Listonshiels. Johnstone's own publishing business specialized in religious and ecclesiastical works. Nevertheless, Miller chose that firm to publish The Old Red Sandstone (1841), and later books, until the firm ran into financial trouble in the mid-1850s, and Miller placed The testimony of the rocks (1857) with Shepherd & Elliot of Edinburgh. Miller's original choice of Johnstone was perhaps to protect the reputation of Miller and the Witness when geology was often regarded with suspicion on religious grounds. It may also have given Miller more creative freedom. Miller & Fairly printed many, but not all, impressions of Miller's books for Johnstone and other publishers. This was to Miller's, and Miller's heirs', presumed double profit as copyright holder and printer, with implications for his relationships with publishers. Miller's dual role may help explain his reluctance to resign the newspaper's editorship even at the cost of his health and life.

The article analyzes the mutual influence of the key factor of the “Stalinist turn” in the religious policy of the Soviet government – the vocation of the Moscow Patriarchate to participate in international politics (implementation of a large-scale program of inter-church and church-state contacts in the countries and regions where the influence of the Soviet Union was spread) with the revival of the infrastructure of higher spiritual education in the post-war USSR. Despite its obviousness, this fact, repeatedly mentioned in historiography, has not yet been the object of a special research. At the same time, it is important both for confessional history, especially for the reconstruction of the factors that formed a special model of state-church relations in the post-war USSR, and for the reconstruction of how the Soviet foreign policy line of the Cold War era was forming and what role religious factor played in it. These trends carry a certain universalism and reflect the global trend: in the Soviet foreign policy of the second half of the 1940s, Orthodoxy served as a “façade” for coming to a particular region based on the revival of historical confessional ties. In other cases, the spread of ecclesiastical jurisdiction (the transfer of hierarchs and parishes of one territory or another to the Moscow Patriarchate) acquired the character of a full-fledged springboard for cultural and political consolidation of Soviet presence. During this period, the Church had to overcome the stereotype of the “red church” (dependent on the Soviet government), which was widespread abroad. To do this, church charismatics, bright preachers, negotiators-diplomats were in demand in the international arena. They were to be formed in the institutions of church education due to the almost complete elimination of the church infrastructure in the pre-war USSR.

Current research on Rococo sculpture in Mazovia and northern Lesser Poland has not taken into consideration Lvov Rococo sculpture. A total of thirteen works by a yet unidentified woodcarving workshop, probably of Lvov provenance, was located at the intersection of these two artistic regions, in the vicinity of Końskie, Opoczno, Przysucha and Rawa Mazowiecka. Its activity, commenced after 1780 in Pełczyska near Wiślica, lasted until ca. 1800, when the reredoses and lesser works of sculpture in Studzianna-Poświętne, Skrzyńsko, Nowy Kazanów, Końskie, Gowarczów, Drzewica, Rawa and Regnów were created. In formal terms, the anonymous “Master of Pełczyska”, as an epigone of the Lvov school of Rococo sculpture, shows a far-reaching dependency on the style of sculptures similar to that in the side altar of the Virgin Mary of Dzików in Tarnogród, in the Zamoyski family fee tail. This reredos was indirectly attributed to master Franciszek Olędzki from Lvov (active since 1771, d. 1792). The oeuvre of the “Master of Pełczyska” constitutes the second-largest assembly of Lvov Rococo sculptures outside the historical Ruthenian lands of the Crown of Poland. At the current stage of research, the discussed works, located at the intersection of the former Sandomierz and Rawa voivodeships, indicate the maximal influential range of these remarkably mobile artists towards the north-west of the Crown of Poland. Their migrations were directly connected, on the one hand, with the artistic crisis that followed the First Partition of the Commonwealth in 1772 and the annexation of Lvov by Austria, and, on the other hand, with the liquidation of monasteries after 1780 and the termination of existing ecclesiastic commissions. The short-lived activity of this workshop in the vicinity of Rawa is an important contribution to the research on the mosaic of external influences on provincial late Rococo sculpture in the fourth quarter of the 18th century in Mazovia.

The object of this paper is the diagnostic campaign performed on the polychrome wooden statue, revered as St. John, stored in the church dedicated to the “Beata Vergine d’Itria” (Blessed Virgin of Itria), (Noragugume town, Sardinia, Italy). The restoration of the statue gave the occasion to investigate micro-samples from the wooden support and from the polychromy in order to gather information that could be useful for the intervention. In fact, there was limited information on this fine carved statue and its iconographic pattern appeared to be not strictly canonical. Moreover, these kinds of artworks, having religious significant for the faithful, have been generally modified over time to satisfy possible changes in artistic or religious needs or ecclesiastical reforms. The aims of this study are: (i) support the restorers in defining the conservation status of the statue, and (ii) perform a series of analyses to identify the wood and the materials of the painting layers. Specifically, wood micro-sample was examined under the microscope in order to investigate the anatomical characteristics useful to identify the species; pigments were studied through X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF) and scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy dispersive spectroscopy (SEM-EDS); organic materials were analysed by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR); and, lastly, the panting technique was investigated through micro-stratigraphy (MS). The analysis performed on the micro-sample taken from the support allowed for identifying the wood as poplar. XRF detected chemical elements that could be associated to pigments such as azurite, blue smalt, red lead, white lead and ochres, and Au for the gilding. SEM-EDS confirmed these pigments and allowed to find also other elements useful to suggest the presence of further materials such as Ag in the metal foil. FTIR detected proteinaceous binder and siccative oils that were mapped in the micro-stratigraphy by using histochemical tests. All this information was used by the restorers to address the intervention from the cleaning to the final retouching.

Intercommunio multo iam tempore thema disscussionis vividae inter chiristifideles diversarum confessionum facta est. Quaestio haec in finibus Poloniae non tam urgens erat quam in aliis regionibus orbis terrarum . Attamen iuxta semtentiam auctoris huius articuli II Congressus Eucharisticus hoc anno in Polonia celebrandus oportunitatem affert quaestionem hanc in forum publicum revocare, quandoquidem quaestio haec praxim attinet, id est admissionem christifidedium allarum Ecclesiarum vel communitatum ecclesiasticarum quoad participationem earum in dicto Congressu. Normae iuris canonici intercommunionem pertinentes secundaniae esse videntur, uipote a Magisterio Ecclesiae statutae atque hoc in casu dependentes, quae simul fidem Ecclesiae in sacramentum Eucharistiae exprimant. Articulus in tres partes divisus est. Prima in parte auctor sensum terminorum explanare studet. Terminus „intercommunio”, nota bene in documentis Concilii Vaticani II non adhibitus, multimodo explicari potest necnon exprimere varios modos eiusdem exsecutionis practicae. Inde sequitur primo necesse esse acuratissime determinare quibus terminis formae practicandi intercommunionem permissibiles vocentur. In secunda parte auctor possiblitates et difficultates intercommunionem practicandi post Vaticanum II demonstrat. Auctor verbis expressis asserit communionem eucharisticam atque communionem cum Ecclesia plenam strictissime cohaerere. Ita enim res se habebat a primordiis Christianitatis. Decretum Vaticani II „Unitatis reintegratio” atque Directorium oecumenicum communicationem in sacris permissibilem declaraverunt ergo etiam intercommunionem cum fratribus seiunctis Ecclesiarum. Orientalium propter sacramenta ordinationis et Eucharistiae valideministrata. Ecclesia catholica sodalibus aliarum Ecclesiarum vel communitatum ecclesialium intercommunionem permittit in periculo mortis vel urgente necessitate, dummodo conditiones adimpleantur quae a frequentantibus sacramenta requiruntur. Participatio catholicorum in Eucharistia celebrata in eorundem ecclesiis magnopere determinata est necnon a validitate sacramenti ordinationis et Eucharistiae ibidem exsistentium dependet. Quaestiones, quae successionem Apostolicam, munus sacerdotale atque essentiam sacramenti Eucharistiae spectant, iam a multis annis obiectum dialogo oecumenici fiunt, sed non obstante notabili convergentia ad optatum consensum plenum nondum perduxerunt. Pars tertia articuli interpretationem normarum CIC 1983 ab auctore peractum continet. Iuxta normam CIC solus sacerdos valide ordinatus sacramentum Eucharistiae conficere valet (can, 900 §1). In eodem CIC prohibetur sacerdotibus catholicis Eucharistiam concelebrare una cum sacerdotibus Ecclesiarum vel communitatum ecclesialium, qui communionem plenam cum Ecclesia catholica non habent (can. 908). Normae demum congruentes et ad intercommunionem pertinentes in can. 844 §§ 1—4 continentur. Normae hic statutae dispositiones Concilii Vaticani II, Directorii oecumenici atque Instructionis anno 1072 promulgatae resplendent. Legislator ecclesiasticus in can. 844 possibilitates intercommunionis, respectu habito supradictorum documentorum , amplificat. Auctor in conclusione articuli asserit, comparatione facta cum CIC 1917, innovationes essentiales interim ortas esse, quae simul sumptas fructum , dialogi oecumeni produnt. Idemque spem nutrit fore Spiritum Sanctum , Auctorem unitatis, omnes credentes in Christum ad plenam communionem eucharisticam adducturum esse.

My article recounts the story of the restoration of 19th century priest’s vestments in the Slavic Orthodox style for use once again. The garments were dateable from the lily stripes known to date from the late 19th century (Säppi 2008), as well as archival material from the National Heritage Board (ERA11152). My article will also present an overview of the parts of Orthodox vestments used in Estonia today, as well as the stripes found on the garments and their meaning. To determine the age, origin, and technological characteristics of the making of these vestments, three analogous sets (priests’ vestments and veils from Riisa Orthodox Church Museum of Finland, Hiiumaa, and Kohila (Angerja)) were studied and church supplies catalogues from the Tsarist era (1907, 1910/11, 1911, and 1912) were examined. These vestments were also most probably made in Russia. I restored the phelonion (the large conicalsleeveless garment worn over all other vestments), the zone (the cloth belt worn over the epitrachelion), and the epimanikia (cuffs), and reconstructed the missing epitrachelion (the priestly stole worn around the neck) based on these analogues. Studying other similar sets enabled me to choose suitable materials for restoration, although finding fabrics identical to the original proved impossible. A certain amount of modernisation was also prompted by the fact that the vestments were meant to be worn, rather than be placed in a museum. My chief goal in restoring the vestments was to ensure that it was visually as close as possible to the original and that it was characteristic of the time it was made. First, I carried out a detailed study of the processes used for sewing the items, then unsewed all unusable parts. This further reinforced the observations made about the technology. I decided not to use linen reinforcements, as they would make the phelonion heavy and uncomfortable to wear. While linen can easily be pressed into shape, it loses its shape just as quickly when wet. And given the storage conditions typically found in churches, it is worth remembering that linen fabrics also absorb moisture. My study of textile items used in churches have shown that old priests’ vestments have often developed mould growth under the linen reinforcement. Modern synthetic materials were used instead of golden glacé; the old binding was also replaced with modern one. This could also have been made by hand from velvet, but I found this to be too labour-intensive and This striking stripe 149 time-consuming. Since no golden brocade of a similar pattern was available, I made the cuffs, zone, and epitrachelion from velvet, following my analogues here in the choice of fabric. I used old technologies for the sewing, utilising a sewing machine from the same era for attaching the stripes. The restored phelonion is similar in appearance to the original one, while the cuffs (epimanikia), zone, and epitrachelion are closer to the analogues and include new details, namely crosses of tatted lace. The restored vestments were meant to be the most solemn red (Easter vestments), but the result was closer to purple, the colour of martyrs. The appearance of liturgical garments can be better understood if we recall the words ofJesus in the Scriptures: ‘The kingdom of God is come nigh unto you’ (Luke 10:9). Thus, the dignified and beauteous liturgical garments of the Orthodox Church symbolise the presence of the Divine Light on Earth.Keywords: ecclesiastical textiles, priests’ vestments, liturgical textiles, sacral textiles, border stripes on orthodox liturgical vestments

My article recounts the story of the restoration of 19th century priest’s vestments in the Slavic Orthodox style for use once again. The garments were dateable from the lily stripes known to date from the late 19th century (Säppi 2008), as well as archival material from the National Heritage Board (ERA11152). My article will also present an overview of the parts of Orthodox vestments used in Estonia today, as well as the stripes found on the garments and their meaning. To determine the age, origin, and technological characteristics of the making of these vestments, three analogous sets (priests’ vestments and veils from Riisa Orthodox Church Museum of Finland, Hiiumaa, and Kohila (Angerja)) were studied and church supplies catalogues from the Tsarist era (1907, 1910/11, 1911, and 1912) were examined. These vestments were also most probably made in Russia. I restored the phelonion (the large conicalsleeveless garment worn over all other vestments), the zone (the cloth belt worn over the epitrachelion), and the epimanikia (cuffs), and reconstructed the missing epitrachelion (the priestly stole worn around the neck) based on these analogues. Studying other similar sets enabled me to choose suitable materials for restoration, although finding fabrics identical to the original proved impossible. A certain amount of modernisation was also prompted by the fact that the vestments were meant to be worn, rather than be placed in a museum. My chief goal in restoring the vestments was to ensure that it was visually as close as possible to the original and that it was characteristic of the time it was made. First, I carried out a detailed study of the processes used for sewing the items, then unsewed all unusable parts. This further reinforced the observations made about the technology. I decided not to use linen reinforcements, as they would make the phelonion heavy and uncomfortable to wear. While linen can easily be pressed into shape, it loses its shape just as quickly when wet. And given the storage conditions typically found in churches, it is worth remembering that linen fabrics also absorb moisture. My study of textile items used in churches have shown that old priests’ vestments have often developed mould growth under the linen reinforcement. Modern synthetic materials were used instead of golden glacé; the old binding was also replaced with modern one. This could also have been made by hand from velvet, but I found this to be too labour-intensive and This striking stripe 149 time-consuming. Since no golden brocade of a similar pattern was available, I made the cuffs, zone, and epitrachelion from velvet, following my analogues here in the choice of fabric. I used old technologies for the sewing, utilising a sewing machine from the same era for attaching the stripes. The restored phelonion is similar in appearance to the original one, while the cuffs (epimanikia), zone, and epitrachelion are closer to the analogues and include new details, namely crosses of tatted lace. The restored vestments were meant to be the most solemn red (Easter vestments), but the result was closer to purple, the colour of martyrs. The appearance of liturgical garments can be better understood if we recall the words ofJesus in the Scriptures: ‘The kingdom of God is come nigh unto you’ (Luke 10:9). Thus, the dignified and beauteous liturgical garments of the Orthodox Church symbolise the presence of the Divine Light on Earth.Keywords: ecclesiastical textiles, priests’ vestments, liturgical textiles, sacral textiles, border stripes on orthodox liturgical vestments

Dancing is not often associated with Christian liturgy, at least in modern experience. Yet according to theMitralis de Officioof Sicard, bishop of Cremona (1185–1215), composed about 1200, the circular dance (chorea) provides a key metaphor for understanding the liturgy of Easter. Sicard here draws together two earlier discussions of the subject, both from the twelfth century and of enormously wide influence, manifesting a more positive attitude toward dance than found in many early medieval commentators on the liturgy: theGemma animae(Jewel of the soul) of Honorius Augustodunensis, composed for a monastic audience in the early twelfth century, probably in Germany, and theDe ecclesiasticis officiisof John Beleth, a secular cleric writing probably in Pariscirca1150–1160. While many scholars have observed the renewal of interest in the pagan authors within a literary context in the twelfth century, the witness of liturgical commentaries from the period has been little noticed. Sicard implies that the festivities of the pagan Saturnalia and its associated freedom of expression (the so-called “December freedom”) can legitimately be used to explain the festivities that take place at Easter:All Christians ought to come together freely at the above mentioned daily offices to celebrate the glory of the resurrection, which will be revealed in us. This solemnity is therefore the jubilee of Christians, when quarrels are settled, offenses forgiven. Let those who had sinned be reconciled, let debts be canceled. Let work places not be opened, merchandise not displayed for sale except for those things without which a meal cannot take place. Let prisoners be freed, shepherds and servants not forced to service so that they are able to enjoy freedom and to delight in the festivity of future joy. Thus it is that in the cloisters of certain churches even bishops enjoy the December freedom with their clerics, even to descending to the game of the circular dance or ball (ludum choreae vel pilae)—although it seems more praiseworthy not to play; this “December freedom” is so called in that in the month of December, shepherds, servants, and maidservants were governed among the gentiles with a kind of freedom by their masters, so that they could celebrate with them after the harvest was collected. And note that the gentiles established circular dances to honor idols, so that they might praise their gods by voice and serve them with their whole body, wanting to foreshadow in them in their own way something of the mystery. For through the circling, they understood the revolution of the firmament; through the joining of hands, the interconnection of the elements, through the gestures of bodies, the motions of the signs or planets; through the melodies of singers, the harmonies of the planets; through the clapping of hands and the stamping of feet, the sounding of thunder; but what those people showed to their idols, the worshipers of the one God converted to his praise. For the people who crossed from the Red Sea are said to have led a circular dance, Mary is reported to have sung with the tambourine; and David danced before the ark with all his strength and composed psalms with his harp, and Solomon placed singers around the altar, who are said to have created sound with voice, trumpet, cymbals, organs, and other musical instruments.

ROMAN LAW AS A PART OF THE ENGLISH DOCTRINE AND PRACTICE OF THE INTERNATIONAL LAWSummary This paper presents views on the role played by Roman Law as a factor in creating the roots of international law which developed within the English legal doctrine from the 16,h to the 19th century. In addition, it exemplifies applications of the institutions of Roman law in international legal practice. The general theory discounts the influence of Roman law on the British system of law. This, however, should be reviewed, as the evidence shows that Roman law has always played a vital role in the English legal system (e. g. Courts of Chancery, Admiralty, Constable and Marshall, Ecclesiastical Courts, Doctors’ Commons organisation). The Roman influences on the doctrine of English international law (Gentilis, Zouche, Duck, Wiseman, Westlake, Maine, Phillimore) indicate a positive, or even enthusiastic attitude towards the use of Roman law as a source of international law. One of the public branches where English practitioners and theorists of civil law could always find employment was in HM Foreign Service, which had a strong need for lawyers qualified in Roman law who were often educated and trained at English universities.One of the earliest authors describing the use of the theory and practice of Roman law in international law was Alberigo Gentili. Although he was Italian, his professional life and career was bound to England as both a Regius Professor at Oxford University and as a legal counsellor for the Privy Council. He gained much prominence and his works on international law, De Jure Belli, De Legationibus and Advocationis Hispanicae have become frequently quoted in the theory of international law. Another Oxford Regius Professor, and a judge in the Admiralty Court, Sir Richard Zouche, together with Gentili and Grotius, is regarded as the father of international law. Among his many works, Jus inter Gentes and Juris et Judicii Fecialis illustrate the influences of Roman law on the developing theory (and practice) of international law. The Roman ideas are particularly visible in Jus Inter Gentes, where Zouche had used the Roman systematic of status, dominium., delictum and judicium to classify and explain international law theory. Another 17th century civil lawyer, Sir Robert Wiseman, in The Excellency o f the Civil Law above all other Human Law glorifies the Roman law as universal law for all nations, applicable to many international debates. One of the most famous British civilians and international law experts, Sir Henry Maine considered the Roman law as an important resource and element of the 19th century doctrine of international law. According to Sir Robert Phillimore, the Roman law could be used in the controversies between independent States. As an example he described the cases between the USA and Spain concerning navigation in the Mississipi River, boundary disputes and arbitration. He proposed application of the Roman law to numerous cases concerning overseas properties.Apart from theory, hundreds of international cases bear traces of successful application of the Roman law to resolve situations when there was no actual law institution to bridge the legal divide. This paper presents five international cases in which an important role was played by Roman law. Arbitration of the Behring Sea dispute in 1893, where the UK and the USA argued about the UK’s right to hunt seals outside the three miles boundary area of the Pribilof s Isles. Both sides used arguments based on Roman law. The Americans view was that seals born on the isles would always return to the shore, not losing animus revertendi of Roman law, thus not becoming res nullius and not subject to „occupation” by the UK fishermen. The British delegates claimed that the seals were born ferae naturae (another Roman law category), and so everyone should be entitled to hunt them.The Alaskan Boundary Tribunal proceedings of 1903 declared that Roman law rules, as a source of international law, should take precedence over the rules of common law.During the Venezuelan arbitration before the Hague Tribunal in 1903, the opponents dealt with many Roman law institutes (like pignus> hypotheca, cessio bonorum, negotiorum gestio and others), trying to adjust them to their actual position.In 1910 the Arbitration Tribunal concerning fishing on the North Atlantic coast allowed the Roman definition of servitude and attempted to treat a state’s territory as a Roman property.The last case dealt with in the paper is the famous Indian Oil Corp. Ltd v. Greenstone Shipping dispute of 1987. The British judge applied the Roman law of confusioy declaring that no previous common law precedent was applicable to this case in which crude oil had been accidentally mixed on board the tanker.Taking into consideration these examples, one may draw the conclusion that Roman law has been an inspiration for European lawyers, as well as English common lawyers, in both the theory and practice of international law.

RESUMENEl objetivo de este artículo es reflexionar sobre los mecanismos de financiación y de control de las instituciones religiosas por los laicos en las primeras décadas de la conquista y colonización de Hispanoamérica. Investigar sobre la inversión laica en lo sagrado supone en un primer lugar aclarar la historiografía sobre laicos, religión y dinero en las sociedades de Antiguo Régimen y su trasposición en América, planteando una mirada desde el punto de vista de las motivaciones múltiples de los actores seglares. A través del ejemplo de restituciones, donaciones y legados en losAndes, se explora el papel de los laicos españoles, y también de las poblaciones indígenas, en el establecimiento de la densa red de instituciones católicas que se construye entonces. La propuesta postula el protagonismo de actores laicos en la construcción de un espacio cristiano en los Andes peruanos en el siglo XVI y principios del XVII, donde la inversión económica permite contribuir a la transición de una sociedad de guerra y conquista a una sociedad corporativa pacificada.PALABRAS CLAVE: Hispanoamérica-Andes, religión, economía, encomienda, siglos XVI y XVII.ABSTRACTThis article aims to reflect on the mechanisms of financing and control of religious institutions by the laity in the first decades of the conquest and colonization of Spanish America. Investigating lay investment in the sacred sphere means first of all to clarifying historiography on laity, religion and money within Ancien Régime societies and their transposition to America, taking into account the multiple motivations of secular actors. The example of restitutions, donations and legacies inthe Andes enables us to explore the role of the Spanish laity and indigenous populations in the establishment of the dense network of Catholic institutions that was established during this period. The proposal postulates the role of lay actors in the construction of a Christian space in the Peruvian Andes in the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, when economic investment contributed to the transition from a society of war and conquest to a pacified, corporate society.KEY WORDS: Hispanic America-Andes, religion, economics, encomienda, 16th and 17th centuries. BIBLIOGRAFIAAbercrombie, T., “Tributes to Bad Conscience: Charity, Restitution, and Inheritance in Cacique and Encomendero Testaments of 16th-Century Charcas”, en Kellogg, S. y Restall, M. 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In the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries, successive archbishops of Salzburg attempted to consolidate their power and implement ecclesiastical reforms by means of commissioned printed liturgical books. Achieving uniform worship, however, proved difficult. In editions of the Missale Salisburgense, the revised musical mass prefaces required typographically challenging red notation. The addition or omission of coloured notes by printers and users reveals that the technical limitations of printing together with variable performance practices hindered liturgical uniformitas.

This essay explores the relationship between the Roman Catholic Church and the Metis in the Red River colony in the nineteenth century. It demonstrates how missionaries, via their intellectual artifacts, have been responsible for shaping popular contemporary images of Metis culture. In analyzing the writings of missionaries, this paper also notes the ambiguity with which these individuals viewed Metis society. Priests steeped in European ecclesiastical and national values who hoped the Metis might form the basis of a new Francophone prairie society viewed some mixed-blood cultural practices as inimical to this end. From the perspective of the missionaries, the tantalizing familiarity of the French, Catholic aspect of the Metis contrasted jarringly with their 'alien' indigenous cultural and economic traits. As such, the Metis represented both a promise and a threat to the nation-building project. Although Metis identity has been stamped with the official seal of the church, the contradictions missionaries saw in this culture offer a promising avenue for the exploration of the complex processes of identity formation.