Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Renewable energy resources – united states'

Ocean currents are an attractive source of clean energy due to their inherent reliability, persistence and sustainability. The Gulf Stream system is of particular interest as a potential energy resource to the United States with significant currents and proximity to the large population on the U.S. east coast. To assess the energy potential from ocean currents for the United States, the characterization of ocean currents along the U.S. coastline is performed in this dissertation. A GIS database that maps the ocean current energy resource distribution for the entire U.S. coastline and also provides joint velocity magnitude and direction probability histograms is developed. Having a geographical constraint by Florida and the Bahamas, the Florida Current has the largest ocean current resource which is fairly stable with prevalent seasonal variability in the upper layer of the water column (~200m). The core of the Florida Current features higher stability than the edges as a result of the meandering and seasonal broadening of the current flow. The variability of the Gulf Stream significantly increases as it flows past the Cape Hatteras. The theoretical energy balance in the Gulf Stream system is examined using the two-dimensional ocean circulation equations based on the assumptions of the Stommel model for quasi-geostrophic subtropical gyres. Additional turbine drag is formulated and incorporated in the model to represent power extraction by turbines. Parameters in the model are calibrated against ocean observational data such that the model can reproduce the volume and kinetic energy fluxes in the Gulf Stream. The results show that considering extraction over a region comprised of the entire Florida Current portion of the Gulf Stream system, the theoretical upper bound of averaged power dissipation is around 5.1 GW, or 45 TWh/yr. If the extraction area comprises the entire portion of the Gulf Stream within 200 miles of the U.S. coastline, the theoretical upper bound of averaged power dissipation becomes approximately 18.6 GW or 163 TWh/yr. The impact of the power extraction is primarily constrained in the vicinity of the turbine region, and includes a significant reduction of flow strength and water level drop in the power extraction site. The turbines also significantly reduce residual energy fluxes in the flow, and cause redirection of the Gulf Stream. A full numerical simulation of the ocean circulation in the Atlantic Ocean is performed using Hybrid Coordinate Ocean Model (HYCOM) and power extraction from the Florida Current is modeled as additional momentum sink. Effects of power extraction are shown to include flow rerouting from the Florida Strait channel to the east side of the Bahamas. Flow redirection is stronger during peak summer flow resulting in less seasonal variability in both power extraction and residual fluxes in the Florida Current. A significant water level drop is shown at the power extraction site, and so is a slight water level rise along the coasts of Florida and the Gulf. The sum of extracted power and the residual energy flux in the Florida Current is lower than the original energy flux in the baseline case, indicating a net loss of energy reserve in the Florida Current channel due to flow redirection. The impact from power extraction on the mean flow field is concentrated in the near field of the power extraction site, while shifts in the far flow field in time and space have little impact on the overall flow statistics.

Worldwide energy consumption is estimated to double between 2008 and 2035. Over-dependence on energy imports from a few, often politically unstable countries, and unpredictable oil and gas prices, pushes energy to a critical agenda. While there is an agreement that we need to change the production and consumption of energy, there is still disagreement about the specific changes that are needed and how they can be achieved. The conventional energy plans relying primarily on fossil fuels and nuclear technologies, which are in need of transformation due to limited resources and carbon dioxide emissions. Energy efficiency improvements and renewable energy should play a leading role in the America's energy future. Energy and environmental organizations believe that renewable energy and energy efficiency can meet half of the world's energy needs by 2050. This thesis describes a model that predicts renewable energy portfolios for the Southern portion of the United States, by evaluating multiple renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, hydropower, biomass, and geothermal. The Southern US is divided into three regions: Southwest, South Central, and Southeast, which are chosen given their location and the level of abundance of renewable resources, thereby minimizing inefficiencies and losses associated to the present generation system. A mathematical predictor takes into account variables such as supply/demand, non-renewable/renewable sources, and time. From the results, the Southwest and South Central regions confirm an surplus of renewable electricity by 2050, but the Southeast region does not have enough renewable resources to detach itself from the use of fossil fuels. The South Central region begins producing a surplus of renewable energy in 2014 and reaches an excess amount of 14,552 billion KWh by 2050. This means there will be no need to transfer electricity over long distances, which will increase the overall efficiency of electrical generation.

This study analyses renewable energy policy in hydrocarbons-wealthy Arab states. Integrating elements of energy policy analysis, Middle Eastern studies and sociotechnical governance theory, the thesis contributes to the understanding of renewable energy policy in this region as well as to the question of transferability of governance concepts. The thesis is structured in three parts. Part A discusses relevant research literature and presents the multi-level-perspective which structures the policy analysis. Additionally, the policy design model of transition management that closely interacts with the multilevel-perspective is presented. Then, the material content of renewable energy policies in hydrocarbons-wealthy Arab states is discussed and the research questions developed. A methodological discussion concludes Part A. Part B applies the analytical categories developed to two case studies, Algeria and the United Arab Emirates. The two countries represent the main types of Arab oil and gas wealthy states (large territorial and small city states) and two relevant regions (North Africa and the Gulf States). In addition to domestic renewable energy policy, the thesis also discusses the Desertec project, as well as Abu Dhabi’s Masdar Initiative as case studies within the larger country case studies. In the last part of this study, a cross-case analysis highlights common regional features and particularities in terms of renewable energy policy in the target region and formulates policy recommendations deriving from its critical use of the transition management approach. Lastly, it addresses theory-related outcomes of the case studies with regards to the transfer of Western policy design models to hydrocarbons-rich Arab states.

In an attempt to achieve energy independence, rural economic development, and greenhouse gas emissions reduction, the United States has turned to fuels derived from agriculture. The U.S. Congress and Environmental Protection Agency mandated the blending of biofuels into conventional gasoline until 2022 under the Renewable Fuel Standard. However, largely missing from the discussion of biofuels is their feasibility regarding environmental protection and end-use marketing to consumers. This thesis investigates the motive for biofuel mandates in the U.S., the irony in the EPA’s decision to back a resource-exhaustive fuel source, and the questionable ability of the U.S. to supply and consume greater volumes of biofuels in the transportation sector. Barriers to consumption are outlined as increased production costs and high market fuel prices, strong political backing of traditional energy sources, and environmental implications of production on ecosystems in certain regions of the United States. By analyzing Iowa and Texas as two biofuel-producing states held in high regards for biofuel production capacity—yet varying degrees of consumption—the feasibility of reaching federal biofuel mandates and promoting this alternative fuel is determined.

This thesis focused on the performance of large-scale renewable energy projects for the United States Air Force. As global energy demands continue to rise, the need to find ways to save energy and produce alternative sources of energy will increase. The Federal Government has begun to address the challenge of energy production and energy security in recent years. In order to increase both the energy production and energy security for the Air Force, there is a trend to increase the amount of renewable energy produced on military installations. The goal of this research was to compare the estimated and actual performance of these large-scale on-site renewable energy projects at Air Force installations. The variables considered for this research were the execution methods and the renewable energy sources. The performance of each project was evaluated against factors identified in previous sustainable construction studies. The study found that actual performance of third party owned and operated projects differed from the expected performance by less than the Air Force owned and operated projects, and that performance of renewable energy projects differed from the expected performance by less than high performance buildings from previous studies. The study also found factors that contributed to the gap between the expected and actual performance including optimistic modeling, unusual weather, operational issues and higher than expected maintenance of the projects. The results of this research were an initial step in understanding the actual performance of large-scale renewable energy projects.
Master of Science

Thesis (Master of Arts in Security Studies)--Naval Postgraduate School, December 2009.
Thesis Advisor(s): Lawson, Letitia ; Miller, Alice. "December 2009." Description based on title screen as viewed on January 28, 2010. Author(s) subject terms: U.S.-CHINA Competition, energy resources, economic interdependence, Africa. Includes bibliographical references (p. 47-53). Also available in print.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Missouri-Columbia, 2006.
The entire dissertation/thesis text is included in the research.pdf file; the official abstract appears in the short.pdf file (which also appears in the research.pdf); a non-technical general description, or public abstract, appears in the public.pdf file. Title from title screen of research.pdf file (viewed on April 29, 2009) Vita. Includes bibliographical references.

Based on the Open Door Policy, the United States has pursued an informal empire based on spreading its economic influence by ensuring open access to vital goods and raw materials, and establishing military presence in areas of interest, as America’s corporate and strategic interests worked together in harmony. This approach has been especially evident in energy-producing regions, where the US seeks to establish economic and military dominance to support its global economic power. George W. Bush, like all his predecessors, pursued the Open Door Empire, especially with respect to access to foreign energy resources, which took on an even higher priority because of his ties to the oil industry and the belief that the US was suffering from an energy crisis and relative economic decline. Energy procurement was linked to his other foreign policy priority as he took office; military advancement. After the September 11 attacks, two other foreign policy priorities were established: the War on Terror, and global power projection. Bush used the War on Terror to implement the Open Door Policy and meld the four priorities. He used the military to solve America’s economic and energy problems by invading Afghanistan and Iraq to control vital energy routes and resources, both as an end in itself (due to the economic and corporate benefits to the US) and a means to other, greater ends (as control over global energy supplies strengthened America’s imperial status). The Bush Doctrine stipulated that in the War on Terror, the US should take the war to the enemy and spread democracy as a tool to combat terrorism. Invading Iraq was meant to demonstrate US military power, fight terrorism (based on the false claims of Saddam Hussein’s ties to al Qaeda), secure Iraq’s oil resources and rebuild the country, using Iraq’s oil revenues. Thus Iraq would become a democratic model for the Middle East and a substitute for Saudi Arabia as America’s main strategic ally and source of oil. Compared to the George H.W. Bush and Clinton Administrations, the George W. Bush Administration is unique in two ways. First, it put energy resources at the fore of its foreign policy goals during his first days in office. Second, unlike previous US administrations that preserved undemocratic regimes in the Middle East to stabilize the region’s oil resources, the Bush Administration tried to democratise the region, using Iraq’s oil to rebuild the country into a democratic model. In pursuing these aims, the Bush Administration can be blamed for negligence, as it ignored warnings of post-war violence while planning for the Iraq war. The Bush Doctrine was too dependent on success in Iraq and on rebuilding the Iraqi oil sector. The post-war instability led to the failure of the Bush Doctrine’s plans for the region, meaning that the Bush Administration had to return to supporting undemocratic regimes in the Middle East. Despite endeavours to spread its global military power, promote global economic influence and diversify energy resources away from the Middle East, the US will continue to suffer from relative decline and will be less energy secure than ever.

Master of Arts
Department of Economics
Tracy M. Turner
This report provides a summary of the state of wind energy in the United States, the policy instruments used to encourage renewable energy and the research finding on the benefits of wind energy. It provides insight from a Texas case study, as well as international perspectives. Renewable and non-renewable energy sources are defined and compared. The report discusses the negative environmental impacts of conventional power generation, in contrast to lack of emissions from renewable power. Background information on U.S. energy consumption and climate change are provided. The primary policies used to promote renewable energy, which apply to wind power, are explained. The economic theory behind the relationship of subsidies and externalities is explained, as well as the implications that firm profit-maximization has on market outcomes. This report finds that the benefits derived from wind energy production and the promoting policies outweigh the costs associated with them.

Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited
In response to Presidential Executive Order 13514, the Secretary of the Navy established the 1GW Task Force to meet theNavy's goal of producing at least half of shore-based energy requirements from alternative energy sources. In this thesis, the question is investigated whether renewably produced hydrogen can contribute to the accomplishment of this goal. It is known that ocean wind energy has yet to be fully exploited as a renewable energy source. It is therefore proposed to use sailing ships equipped with hydroturbines and electrolysers to convert this ocean wind energy into storable energy in the form of hydrogen. The hydrogen is then compressed and transported to nearby naval facilities. The technical and economic aspects of this energy-ship concept are analyzed by estimating the drag of the sailing ships, sail lift, and the power requirements of the desalinator, electrolyser, and hydrogen compressor. A previous study of the power requirements of the 76 inhabitants of Grimsey Island, near Iceland, is used to compare the energy-ship power production method with wind turbine based hydrogen production. It is found that 13 Catalina 36 sized, autonomously operating, sailboats can provide the Grimsey Island power at an economically competitive cost with the previously proposed wind-hydrogen method.

Thesis (M. S.)--Building Construction, Georgia Institute of Technology, 2008.
Committee Chair: Dr. Linda Thomas-Mobley; Committee Member: Dr. Del Kiernan-Lewis; Committee Member: Professor Kathy Roper.

xii, 97 p.
Electricity generated from woody biomass material is generally considered renewable energy and has been considered carbon neutral. However, recent criticism from scientists argues that the greenhouse gas (GHG) emission profile of bioenergy is nuanced and the carbon neutral label is inappropriate. An initial carbon debt is created when a forest is harvested and combusted for bioenergy. Because forests re-grow over a period of years, life cycle analyses show that bioenergy generated from whole trees from forests may not reduce GHG emissions in the short term, as required to combat climate change. State renewable portfolio standards and federal laws and proposed legislation designed to incentivize renewable energy typically define eligible forms of biomass that qualify for these incentives. Most of these definitions are very broad and do not account for GHG emissions from bioenergy. Federal and state laws should incorporate life cycle analyses into definitions of eligible biomass so that these laws incentivize biomass electricity that reduces GHG emissions in the next several decades.
Committee in charge: Roberta Mann, Chairperson; Scott Bridgham, Member

Several scholars have highlighted that energy consumption in general and consumption of renewable energy in particular may be a potential driver of economic growth. In this paper we examine the relationship between renewable energy production and economic activity in Canada, between May 1966 to December 2015, and in the U.S., between January 1973 to December 2015. By applying quantile causality, we take a nonlinear approach considering all quantiles of the distribution, analysing monthly data containing renewable energy production and Industrial Production Index. We find evidence of a nonlinear relationship in both Canada and the U.S., indicating that widely used linear models fail to describe important aspects of the renewable energy-economic growth nexus. The main Canadian results imply a unidirectional relationship from Industrial Production Index to renewable production in most quantiles of the distribution which supports the Conservation hypothesis. However, we also find weak evidence of a bi-directional relationship, which supports the Feedback hypothesis, for the lower and higher quantiles. This may indicate the renewable energy drives economic growth for some market conditions in Canada. For the U.S. we find evidence of a weak and negative feedback relationship between renewable energy and industrial production, indicating an inefficient production of renewable energy which not is well integrated in the overall energy system. Based on theory concerning the potential benefits of renewable energy, the minor role of renewable energy production in Canada and the U.S. could be a result of institutional barriers and absence of supporting infrastructure. Both countries need policies directed to overcome these barriers in order to benefit from the potential of renewable energy.
Tidigare studier har indikerat att energi generellt främjar ekonomisk tillväxt, förnybar energi i synnerhet. I den här uppsatsen undersöker vi sambandet mellan förnybar energi och ekonomisk aktivitet mellan maj 1966 till december 2015 i Kanada, och mellan januari 1973 till december 2015 i USA. Vi använder oss av månadsdata för produktionen av förnybar energi och industriell produktion. Genom att tillämpa Granger kausalitet i kvantiler kunde vi identifiera ickelinjära samband och analysera sambanden över hela distributionen. Våra resultat indikerar att sambandet mellan förnybar energi och industriell produktion förändras vid olika marknadslägen i båda länderna. Detta innebär att de linjära modeller som normalt använts i liknande studier missar viktiga aspekter av dessa samband. Våra modeller för Kanada implicerar i huvudsak att förändringar i industriell produktion leder förändringar i produktionen av förnybar energi, men vi fann även att förändringar i produktionen av förnybar energi påverkar industriell produktion i vissa kvantiler. Våra modeller för USA visar på ett svagt och negativt samband mellan förnybar energi och industriell produktion vilket kan tyda på att produktionen av förnybar energi i USA är ineffektiv och dåligt integrerad i det övergripande energisystemet. Utifrån att produktionen av förnybar energi har många teoretiska fördelar skulle dess begränsade roll i Kanada och USA kunna bero på institutionella barriärer och avsaknad av välanpassad infrastruktur. Om förnybar energi ska bli en drivande faktor för ekonomisk tillväxt i de studerade länderna krävs därför policys som stödjer en sådan utveckling.

Because cisterns are exposed to the environment via their direct attachment to catchment surfaces, cistern water quality is often poor. In the U.S. Virgin Islands cisterns are involved in supplying the water needs for private homes, hotels, businesses and public housing, making them subject to the mandates of the Federal Safe Drinking Water Act. This study compares the results of the occurrence of various water quality indicators in Private Residential, Public Housing, and Hotels and Guest House cisterns in the U.S. Virgin Islands in a side-by-side analysis. Forty-seven separate independent variables were created and tested for correlation, of which only the rate at which chlorination was applied was significant. A high degree of correlation was found to exist between total and fecal coliforms. A moderate, but still significant correlation between the coliform and the heterotrophic levels in the cistern was also noted. There was no correlation between any of the bacterial indicators studied and the opportunistic pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The results show, depending upon on the type and amount of chlorination received, different bacterial indicators will predominate and that there is a logical succession from one to the next with chlorination. On the unchlorinated end of the scale, normally associated with privateresidential homes, there is a correlation between the heterotrophic bacteria and total coliform. On the other end where chlorination is constant, normally associated with public water supply systems, correlation is between total coliform and fecal coliform. The proportion at which these indicators occur is a function of the diligence at which chlorination takes place. Regression analysis showed that the heterotrophs and total coliforms were the most sensitive to chlorination while the streptococci and fecal coliform were the most resistant. Thus, what is seen is fecal coliform unmasking based upon chlorination pattern. Depending upon whether the cistern is a private or public water supply which is mandated to be treated, an appropriate indicator system based upon the likelihood of treatment can be suggested. For unchlorinated private residential home cisterns the prime indicator should be the heterotrophic plate count and for chlorinated systems the take-action organism should be the fecal coliform. P. aeruginosa should be tested for in both domestic cistern water supplies and public cistern water supply systems.

State policy incentives for solar power have grown significantly in the past several years. This paper examines the effectiveness of policy incentives to increase residential solar PV capacity. County-level solar adoption data and controls for demographic characteristics, solar resources, and pro-environmental preferences are used to estimate a model of residential solar adoption. Empirical findings show that financial incentives, solar-specific mandates, and loan financing programs are important drivers of residential PV capacity growth. Incentives that reduce the up-front cost of adoption and that are subject to low uncertainty are found to have the largest impact. Results also point to a significant positive relationship between hybrid vehicle sales and residential PV capacity growth, indicating the importance of pro-environmental preference as a predictor of solar PV demand.

In recent decades, interest in placing renewable resources in conventional power systems has increased because of their ability to reduce fossil fuel consumption, which leads to the preservation of the environment. The rapid increase in employing these renewable resource-based DGs drives the system to be more dynamic, and causes many obstacles that need to be overcome. Power system planners and operators should look at the distribution system from another angle, taking into consideration the intermittent behavior of most renewable resources. Furthermore, solid models that are able to handle the uncertainty in generation levels are required. This thesis presents a comprehensive probabilistic model for representing renewable energy resources in long term planning problems. This model utilized large historical data sets, grouping technique, and statistical analysis in order to handle the fluctuations that are caused by the variations in wind speed or solar irradiance. In this research, renewable resources (wind and PV based DGs) ae well as dispatchable units are optimally allocated and sized using a probabilistic optimization model. This model incorporates the intermittent nature of wind speed and solar radiation into the deterministic optimal power flow equations. The variability from the load side and the uncertainty from the feeding side are considered. Genetic algorithm is used in order to minimize the annual energy losses of a distribution system. This thesis proposes a new iterative-based optimization algorithm is proposed in order to determine the minimum number of states that can precisely describe or represent the behavior of wind speed and solar irradiance in operational planning problems. This algorithm is evaluated using a power system planning problem. The proposed algorithm takes into account the annual energy losses and the total DG penetration level and considers them as an indication of how far the proposed method's outcomes are from the actual results. Three di fferent data groupings are applied (hourly, seasonally, and yearly) to investigate the variety of weather and electricity demands on the proposed method. The obtained results should be maintained within an acceptable limit of error which is in this thesis, 2:5%, and any violation of this limit will interrupt the algorithm sequences. The importance of this method actually lies in its ability to reduce the complexity in reliability analysis such that the number of overall system states will be minimized when the analytical evaluation methods are utilized.

Growing concerns about greenhouse gas emissions as well as electricity prices have led to more serious efforts by the state and federal government to provide promote renewable energy at affordable costs. I examine the effect of policies and incentives on added commercial solar PV capacity while controlling for pro-environmental preferences, energy prices, geographic controls, and demographic controls. I use county-level data that spans twelve northeastern states and the District of Columbia from 2005 through 2013. I utilize the Tobit estimator to account for a mass point of solar PV capacity at zero kilowatts. The results suggest that loans, performance-based incentives, rebates, sales tax waivers, and net metering standards increase the amount of added solar PV capacity. Solar Renewable Energy credits have a small impact on PV capacity growth, while interconnection standard and renewable portfolio standards are not statistically significant. If policy administrators aim to increase the amount of commercial solar PV, then they should consider loans, rebates, and performance-based incentives as the most effective policies.

For the past few decades, the renewable energy industry has grown and expanded its influence and competitiveness in global markets. This thesis analysis whether certain factors related to the energy industry are conducive to mergers and acquisitions. Using regression analysis, it concludes that solar industry growth, power industry growth, and crude oil prices have no impact on M&A activity on the given timeframe.

The study’s main purpose is to propose a governance framework that meets the priority of sustainable development for the regulation of offshore renewable resources in the OECS region. The study develops an analytical framework for evaluating the recently adopted “Round 3 model of governance” for the regulation of offshore wind and other marine activities in the United Kingdom. The focus is on the licensing procedures applicable to offshore wind development. Thereafter, the study examines the appropriateness of the application of the Round 3 model to the regulation of marine renewables in the OECS, and makes recommendations in that regard. Additionally, through the study of marine renewable resource development, this thesis looks at general conditions for effective ocean governance. In this regard, the thesis argues that strict hierarchical governance of the marine environment is not a desirable approach to effective ocean governance.

China's flourishing economy depends upon access to and greater use of energy resources, especially oil. Consequently, energy security has become of paramount importance to the Chinese government. China, however, perceives a reliance on international oil markets as dangerous and also considers itself vulnerable to the United States, which could conceivably restrict oil imports to China in a time of conflict. In order to enhance China's energy security, Chinese oil companies have sought to obtain oil resources throughout the world, and Beijing has cultivated closer relations with various oil-producing nations. China's heightened demand for oil and its efforts to secure access to oil resources are worrisome to the United States. Fears largely stem from the idea that increased consumption by both the United States and China will inevitably lead to fiercer competition between the two nations and result in a zero-sum game in which a gain for one country comes at the expense of the other country. Anxiety in the United States also is based upon the notion that, as China exerts greater influence around the world through its economic expansion and as it establishes closer bonds with oil-producing nations, China will undermine American interests and foreign policy objectives. Not all concerns regarding China are inflated, but many of them are. Indeed, China's rise will pose certain challenges to American influence and supremacy in some regions, and China's relationships with states that the United States would like to isolate are troublesome. It is important, however, for the United States to be selective in its criticisms of China. Unsubstantiated apprehension will lead to counter-productive policies with respect to China, which, in turn, will alienate China and render other attempts to support American interests fruitless. China's acquisitions of oil resources do not inherently contravene American energy security interests. Thus, the United States should not fret about China's pursuit of oil. The United States should continually reaffirm its professed faith in free markets, including their ability to provide energy security, and in that way allay Chinese concerns about its own vulnerability. If the United States can set aside its uneasiness about China's quest for oil, it can more effectively address Chinese actions that directly and negatively affect American interests and also recognize that opportunities for mutual gain and cooperation abound.
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碩士
國立雲林科技大學
科技法律研究所
102
The risks of energy resources and human beings’ requirements of natural resources are increasing day by day. In the other words, the development of energy resources in the new generation cannot be followed up the speed of exhaustion on natural resources. Under this situation, every country should develop new resources with agricultural nonfood products, high reduction of carbon and high energy power. In this content of essay, it focuses on the movement of biofuel. In addition, the coverage of biofuel in the United States is the central discussion because the United States has maturity and pays more attention on the development of biofuel among the numbers of renewable resources. The United States not only produces output volume of biofuel in the top of the world, but it puts biofuel into the supply networks of transportation as well, besides, the biofuel can be adapted on the climate changes. Due to those reasons, the development of biofuel is to be recognized from the public. However, the development of biofuel in the United States still has faced challenges so far. Take an example, the standard of Renewable Fuel Standard Part II has been disputing because except food price is influenced by the climate changes, such as drought, actually, the standard of volume every year is to be suspicious by the public. In this essay, it concentrates on legal policy and law as well as relative controversial problems in the United States and also reviews the development of biofuel in the United States. What’s more, the essay is going to be illustrated biofuel through different levels of current conditions and controversial problems and utilized statistical comparisons and literature reviews to support the analysis. Finally, the essay is provided the conclusion of analysis and sufficient suggestions in order to be given to new advancers or relative organizations as reference.

Renewable Natural Gas (RNG) is a low-carbon fuel source that is derived from the anaerobic digestion (AD) or thermal gasification (TG) of biomass, or produced using renewable electricity through the methanation of carbon dioxide. This thesis uses a thermodynamic balance to determine the total technical potential of RNG in the United States, as well as the future technical potential of methanation-derived RNG based on growth curves for renewable electricity. Furthermore, this work establishes an analytic decision-making framework for determining on a rolling basis, from an economic standpoint, whether to sell electricity directly to the grid, or produce and sell methanation-derived RNG. This framework is used to establish the economic potential of RNG, based on Texas wind resources. This work details the formulation of a model that determines which production option generates more marginal profit, based on fluctuating electricity and gas prices. The model also aggregates the total amount of electricity and RNG sold, assuming that the main objective is to maximize the marginal profit of integrated wind- and methanation facilities. This work concludes that the annual technical potential of methanation-derived RNG nationally was 1.03 Quads in 2011. The technical potential of biomass-derived RNG was 9.5 Quads. Thus, the total 2011 technical potential of RNG in the United States was 10.5 Quads, or equal to roughly 43% of the total US consumption of natural gas that year. Assuming a constant, 80% electrolyser efficiency, the technical potential of methanation-derived RNG is expected to rise at an average rate of 1.4% per year, following growth curves for renewable power, until the year 2040, when it will be 1.54 Quads. The 2011 economic potential of methanation-derived RNG in Texas was between 2.06×10⁷ MMBTU and 3.19×10⁷ MMBTU, or between 19.4% and 30.1% of the corresponding annual technical potential. Furthermore, the total marginal profit increase from introducing the option of producing and selling methanation-derived RNG was around $366 million, given a ‘best case scenario’ for the state of Texas.
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The North American forest industry has long been an important part of North America’s economy. The industry has traditionally been the only industrial demand on timberland creating a long established balance between the supply (timberland) and the demand (manufacturing). Recently the forest industry has been troubled due to the collapse of the solid wood products largest market, housing, and a global recession. These troubled times have lead many operation in the industry to curtail operations. Since the industry curtailed, high oil prices and increasing environmental concern have advocated the investment in renewable energy sources. As a renewable energy source, biomass holds great potential for satisfying a portion of our continental energy demands. This increased demand for timberland products could be very profitable to the timberland owners but also holds many concerns to the extent of additional supply that can be harvested from our timberlands. Further complicating the balance of supply and demand are the large global and domestic effects that are reducing the total amount of timberland and increasing the demand for the remaining timberlands. The supply and demand changes have the potential to make the forest industry evermore important part of the North American economy but care must be taken to not over extend our resources.

Celem prezentowanej pracy jest przedstawienie procesu ewolucji Szanghajskiej Organizacji Współpracy (SOW), od momentu powołania jej do życia w 2001 r., aż do pierwszego rozszerzenia o nowe państwa członkowskie w roku 2015, w wymiarze regionalnym i globalnym.Tłem dla analizy ewolucji SOW jest przedstawienie specyfiki geopolitycznej Azji Centralnej, poszerzone o analizę kształtowania zmiennych relacji między Rosją a Chinami. Oprócz identyfikacji determinantów politycznych i ekonomicznych poradzieckich republik będących członkami SOW, przedstawione też zostały zagadnienia związane z regionalną rolą neutralnych politycznie Turkmenistanu i Mongolii, a także Afganistanu - strategicznie ważnego dla bezpieczeństwa regionalnego i kontynentalnego.Rdzeniem pracy jest identyfikacja i analiza poszczególnych etapów kreowania obecnego kształtu SOW, zwłaszcza przyczyn jej powstania oraz jej założeń i celów, jak też postrzegania tego procesu w świecie zachodnim. Analizę podzielono na trzy obszary: kształtowania struktury wewnętrznej tej organizacji, jej rozbudowy i wzmacniania potencjału militarnego oraz wzrostu roli czynnika ekonomicznego w jej funkcjonowaniu.Znaczny obszar pracy poświęcono rozważaniom w zakresie identyfikacji szans i barier rozwojowych SOW w aspekcie regionalnym i globalnym. Szczególnie znacząca dla przyszłej pozycji globalnej organizacji zdaje sie być skuteczność w rozwiązywaniu problemów o zasięgu globalnym, oczywiście jak dotąd jedynie w wymiarze regionalnym. Stąd wydzielenie w pracy kluczowych obszarów w tym zakresie, jak walka z separatyzmem i ekstremizmem religijnym, zróżnicowanymi problemami społecznymi, zagrożeniami ekologicznymi i programami przeciwdziałania ich skutkom, jak też problemowi niedostatku wody pitnej jako źródłu potencjalnych konfliktów międzynarodowych. Ze względu na rangę, oddzielnie przedstawione zostało zagadnienie surowców energetycznych w regionie, ich rozmieszczenia i zasobów, roli w kształtowaniu politycznych i ekonomicznych relacji regionalnych oraz wykorzystywaniu jako strategicznego narzędzia dla wzmacniania roli politycznej w regionie, jak również jako mechanizmu napędowego dla gospodarek.Obszernej analizie poddano stopniowe wychodzenie SOW z roli regionalnej organizacji, której głównym kierunkiem działań było bezpieczeństwo regionalne w oparciu siłę militarną jej członków (głównie Rosji), jak też wzmacnianie roli znaczącego gracza na kontynencie azjatyckim oraz na świecie również na płaszczyźnie ekonomicznej. Jak wykazano w pracy, proces ten odbywa się nie tyle poprzez bezpośrednie oddziaływanie SOW, lecz pośrednio, poprzez inicjatywy i działania państw członkowskich. Jest to zarazem szansa i bariera dla rozwoju organizacji jako platformy politycznego i ekonomicznego porozumienia ponadnarodowego, ukierunkowanego na wzmocnienie siły przetargowej państw członkowskich w relacjach z BRICS, UE, NATO czy ASEAN.W pracy wskazano też na bardzo ważną kwestię, będącą szansą dla włączenia SOW w globalne procesy polityczne i ekonomiczne. Stanowią ją nowe chińskie inicjatywy ekonomiczne - Azjatycki Bank Inwestycji Infrastrukturalnych (AIIB) oraz projekt reaktywacji Jedwabnego Szlaku, pod nazwą Jeden Pas Jedna Droga (OBOR, obecnie Inicjatywa Pasa i Drogi). Realizacja tych dwóch geostrategicznych projektów, jak wskazują przedstawione w pracy fakty, może skutkować przebudowaniem istniejącego światowego porządku finansowego i ekonomicznego, a zarazem stanowić szansę na wzmocnienie globalnej roli SOW.
The purpose of this paper is to present the process of regional and global evolution of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), from its inception in 2001 until its first expansion through the accession of new member states in 2015.The evolution of the SCO will be analyzed in the context of geopolitical specifics of Central Asia as well as the changing relations between Russia and China. In addition to identifying the political and economic determinants of the post-Soviet republics - current SCO members, the paper presents issues related to the regional role of the neutrally political Turkmenistan and Mongolia as well as Afghanistan – strategically important for regional and continental security.The core of the paper is identification and analysis of the individual stages in the creation of the present shape of the SCO, in particular the reasons for its establishment, its goals and objectives as well as perception of this process in the Western world. The analysis is divided into three areas: shaping the internal structure of the organization, its expansion and increasing the military potential as well as the growing role of the economic factor in its functioning.A considerable part of the paper is devoted to the considerations in the scope of identifying the SCO's develoment opportunities and barriers in regional and global aspects. Particularly significant for the future position of the global organization seems to be efficiency in solving global problems, so far only in regional dimension. Hence the separation of such key areas as fighting separatism and religious extremism, diverse social problems, ecological threats and counteracting measures as well as water scarcity problem as the source ot potential international conflicts. Due to its significance, the issue of regional energy resources, their location, the role they play in shaping regional political and economic relations and their use as a strategic tool to increase political influence in the region as well as a driving force for the economies, has been presented separately.SCO's gradual evolution from the role of regional organization whose main focus was regional security based on the military power of its members (mainly Russia) as well as strengthening the role of a significant player in Asia and the rest of the world, also in the economic aspect, was subject to an extensive analysis. As demonstrated in the paper, such process takes place not through the SCO's direct impact but indirectly, through initiatives and actions of its member states. It is both a chance and a barrier to the organization's development as a platform for political and economic transnational understanding, aimed at strengthening the bargaining power of the member states in relations with BRICS, EU, NATO and ASEAN.The paper also points to a very important issue that is a chance to integrate SCO into global political and economic processes, namely the new Chinese economic initiatives – the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB) and the Silk Road reactivation project called One Belt One Road (OBOR, now the Belt and Road Initiative). Implementation of these two geostrategic projects, as indicated by the facts presented in the paper, may result in transformation of the existing financial and economic world order as well as give SCO the chance to strenghten its global role.