Journal articles: 'Relativizer That'

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Lester, Nicholas A. "That’s hard." International Journal of Learner Corpus Research 5, no. 1 (March 13, 2019): 1–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/ijlcr.17013.les.

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Abstract Language learners are highly sensitive to statistical patterns in the input. When a target language provides the option to include or omit a grammatical form, learners have been shown to make decisions quite similar to native speakers. For example, learners opt to include or omit the complementizer that (as in I know (that) Steffi likes hot tea). This phenomenon has been explained in terms of a universal suite of cognitive mechanisms which support native and learner performance alike. Both learners and native speakers choose to include the complementizer when they are producing more complex or unexpected structures. The present study attempts to generalize these findings to another domain of “optional” grammatical markers, namely, relativizers (as in the hot tea (that) Steffi likes). I analyze all instances of optional relativizer use in a corpus of spontaneous learner speech produced by Spanish and German learners of English. Both of these languages have obligatory relativizers. A two-step generalized additive regression modeling technique (MuPDAR) that predicts learner choices based on native-speaker choices demonstrates that native speakers use greater shares of the relativizer in complex and disfluent environments, while learners show the exact opposite tendency: they prefer to drop the relativizer in complex and disfluent environments. These findings are discussed based on differences between complementizers and relativizers, and in terms of the limited universality of optional grammatical marking in learner speech.

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Fox, Barbara A., and Sandra A. Thompson. "Relative Clauses in English conversation." Studies in Language 31, no. 2 (April 6, 2007): 293–326. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/sl.31.2.03fox.

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This paper is a usage-based study of the grammar of that set of English Relative Clauses with which a relativizer has been described as optional. We argue that the regularities in the use of relativizers in English can be seen as systematically arising from pragmatic-prosodic factors, creating frequency effects, resulting in some cases highly grammaticized formats: the more the Main Clause and the Relative Clause are integrated with each other, that is, approach monoclausal status, the more likely we are to find no relativizer used; conversely, the more separate the two clauses are, the more likely we are to find an overt relativizer. These findings have led us to suggest that the more monoclausal combinations have become unitary storage and processing chunks. We thus see these findings as a contribution not only to our understanding of Relative Clauses, but to our understanding of syntactic organization in general and of the nature of the grammatical practices in which speakers engage in everyday interactions.

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Grafmiller, Jason, Benedikt Szmrecsanyi, and Lars Hinrichs. "Restricting the restrictive relativizer." Corpus Linguistics and Linguistic Theory 14, no. 2 (September 25, 2018): 309–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/cllt-2016-0015.

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Abstract We investigate internal and stylistic factors affecting binary and ternary relativizer choice in subject (that vs which) and non-subject (that vs which vs zero) relative clauses. We employ a novel methodological approach to predicting relativizers: Bayesian regression modeling with the dimensional reduction of model inputs via factor analysis. Our factor analysis is motivated by the high degree of redundancy and collinearity in natural language data, while Bayesian regression models are robust to effects of data sparseness and (near) separation. We find that in both types of relative clauses, the more marked variant (which) is preferred in complex contexts, while the unmarked variant (that, or zero in NSRCs) is favored in contexts where the relative clause is short and more fully integrated with the NP it modifies. We also find that use of which is somewhat more sensitive to stylistic considerations in subject than in non-subject relative clauses, and that which correlates most strongly with features associated with lexical density, e. g. ‘nouniness’, rather than those often associated with formality, e. g. passivization and sentence length.

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Sigley, Robert. "The influence of formality and channel on relative pronoun choice in New Zealand English." English Language and Linguistics 1, no. 2 (November 1997): 207–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1360674300000514.

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This paper describes the effects of text formality and channel on relativizer choice in data from three corpora of written and spoken New Zealand English. That and the null relativizer Ø are typically regarded as intrinsically less formal than the wh-pronouns; but are they in fact commoner in spoken/informal texts? If so, is this a direct response to formality? Do prescriptions influence relativizer choice in written/formal texts? These questions are addressed by identifying and controlling significant linguistic influences on relativizer choice, and comparing results for text categories representing a range of formality levels from both channels.

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Kim, Sutae. "On the Relativizer ‘-eul’." Journal of Language Sciences 21, no. 2 (May 30, 2014): 1–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.14384/kals.2014.21.2.001.

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Perić, Zdravko. "Problematiziranje relativizma u povijesnom, ali i suvremenom kontekstu." Obnovljeni život 71, no. 2 (September 9, 2016): 167–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.31337/oz.71.2.2.

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Obzirom na pojavu većeg broja filozofske literature u kojoj se tematizira i podupire relativizam reagirao je prethodni papa Benedikt XVI. nazvavši ga diktaturom relativizma. Tim je stavom motivirao mnoge filozofe, teologe i znanstvenike da iznesu svoje mišljenje o suvremenom relativizmu. Autor u prvom dijelu ovoga rada pokazuje neke specifičnosti najistaknutijih starogrčkih filozofa i njihov odnos spram relativizma. No, kako se relativizam pojavljivao, u različitim je vremenskim epohama različito bio tretiran. U drugom dijelu rada naglašena je osebujnost, izvori i značenje suvremenog relativizma u današnjem svijetu. Tu se problematizira relativizam kroz radove najeminentnijih antropologa i filozofa koji su dali doprinos u afirmiranju i nijekanju relativizma. Autor na kraju donosi zaključak da relativizam ne može biti konačan u rješavanju međuljudskih problema jer postoje opća i apsolutna rješenja koja vrijede uvijek i svuda. U tom smislu relativizam može derogirati društvene, a i osobne vrijednosti temeljene na nepromjenljivim vrijednostima ljudske naravi koja se ne mijenja.

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Rydén, Mats. "THE EMERGENCE OF WHO AS RELATIVIZER." Studia Linguistica 37, no. 2 (November 7, 2008): 126–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9582.1983.tb00317.x.

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Kim, Wonseok, and Seok-Chae Rhee. "Factor Analysis on Subject Relativizer Alternation." English Studies 101, no. 2 (January 21, 2020): 214–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0013838x.2019.1706298.

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Madsen, Richard Skultety, and Melita Koletnik. "The use of English relativizers by non-natives." Globe: A Journal of Language, Culture and Communication 14 (December 12, 2022): 79–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.54337/ojs.globe.v14i.7597.

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This paper presents a study of the acquisition and use of English relativizers by non-native university students of the English language. Danish students of English Business Communication, Serbian students of general English studies and Slovene students of Translation Studies serve as informants for this work, which is quantitative and comparative in nature. The informants' mastery of English relativizers is investigated by questionnaire surveys. The study tests 3 hypotheses concerning challenges that the learners are likely to face due to possible interference from their mother tongues. The study does not only address the hypotheses themselves, but also possible ramifications for the theory of cross-linguistic influence. Two of the hypotheses are shown to be valid, showing that cross-linguistic influence is indeed real. The hypotheses in question concern the correct choice of relativizer with respect to animacy, and the misuse of whom in subject position. The results regarding the third hypothesis, i.e. concerning problems thought to be specific to Danish informants, are inconclusive, suggesting that cross-linguistic influence alone cannot explain all the challenges that non-native users of a language face.

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Hancock, Ian F. "Scots English and the English-lexifier creole relativizer we." English World-Wide 29, no. 1 (January 25, 2008): 1–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/eww.29.1.02han.

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We (wey, whey, way) as relativizer occurs in the English-lexifier creoles on both sides of the Atlantic, and has been assumed to originate in English what (e.g. by Cassidy and Le Page 1967: 459). Instances of this word as a relativizer in English, however, date only from the beginning of the 19th century — too late by over a century to have provided the widespread creole form. This essay examines alternative possibilities for its origin, and concludes that it must be sought in Scottish and/or northern English who. Determining its ultimate origin may shed light upon the age and development of these particular languages.

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Akinlotan, Mayowa. "WEY and the structure of relative clauses in Nigerian Pidgin English." Poznan Studies in Contemporary Linguistics 58, no. 1 (March 1, 2022): 1–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/psicl-2022-0001.

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Abstract A comprehensive corpus-driven account of the internal structure, meaning and interpretation of relative clauses in Nigerian Pidgin English (NPE) is missing in the literature. Relativisation, including its process, strategies, constraints, structural patterning, meaning and interpretation, is an important syntactic structure in any language, and therefore is crucial to our understanding of the extent to which syntactic and semantic structures in NPE differ from standard varieties of English. Relying on corpus material extracted from a popular web media outlet BBC News Pidgin, the study shows that user/speakers of NPE are cognitively enabled and creative in varying relative clauses along simple and complex choices and that structural and semantic complexities operative in the relativisation process in NPE are not too different from standard Englishes. Unlike in standard English where relativisers who and which clearly relate to the animacy of the relativised NP, relativiser representing wey, which can be classified as a prototype for relativisers weh, wen, and wia, does not clearly make such distinction. Also, it is shown that wey embodies the syntactic and semantic properties of these other relativisers, a phenomenon classified as relativiser reduction.

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Wagner, Esther-Miriam. "Subordination in 15th- and 16th-Century Judeo-Arabic." Journal of Jewish Languages 2, no. 2 (November 10, 2014): 143–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/22134638-12340028.

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Judeo-Arabic sources from the 15th and 16th centuries are of great interest for research into subordinate syntax, as they are written in a repertoire that echoes the Classical Arabic elements of Medieval Judeo-Arabic as much as the colloquial forms of Late Judeo-Arabic. The most interesting phenomena concern the adverbial clauses, which show a great variation of adverbial connectives. It is also notable that compounds of prepositions and relativizers or complementizers appear to have become very popular, whereas few of the inherited non-prepositional Classical Arabic adverbial connectives occur. This article also raises the possibility that adverbial clauses may have only developed in the course of the codification of the Semitic languages, and perhaps of languages in general. Relative and complement clauses in the 15th- and 16th-century sources are less conspicuous, but in relative clauses, the form ʾan, homophonous with the complementizer and originating from constructions using thetanwīn, may occur as relativizer after indefinite antecedent. A noteworthy point regarding complement clauses is the lack of asyndetical constructions as compared with earlier Judeo-Arabic documentary material.

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Dirdal, Hildegunn. "Cross-linguistic influence in the acquisition of relative clauses by Norwegian learners of English." Nordic Journal of Language Teaching and Learning 10, no. 2 (January 17, 2023): 327–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.46364/njltl.v10i2.1079.

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This paper reports on an exploratory study of cross-linguistic influence in the acquisition of relative clauses by young Norwegian learners of English, comparing L1 Norwegian and L2 English material from the TRAWL (Tracking Written Learner Language) Corpus to L1 English material from the GiG (Growth in Grammar) Corpus. Previous reports of cross-linguistic influence in this domain have usually involved language pairs that have very different relativization strategies. This study investigates whether similarities between relative clause systems may lead to more subtle effects in the choice of relativizer, the type of head nominal, the syntactic function of the relativized item, the extent of relativization from embedded clauses and the use of relative clauses in special constructions such as existentials and clefts. Although the material is limited, the study found traces of the Norwegian system in the learners L2 English, signalling that this is an area worth further investigation. The learners struggled with the choice between who and which, but used that/zero in a very similar way to their L1 English peers. The L2 English group also had slightly higher frequencies of relative clauses belonging to existentials and clefts, and where the relativized item stemmed from a further embedded clause. These results are consistent with a usage-based theory of second language acquisition, where learners are assumed to transfer features of constructions from their L1 when they are similar enough for them to make a cross-linguistic identification.

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Estrada Fernández, Zarina. "Cláusulas relativas em pima bajo." LIAMES: Línguas Indígenas Americanas, no. 8 (April 29, 2010): 69. http://dx.doi.org/10.20396/liames.v0i8.1472.

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ABSTRACT According to the grammaticalization approach, the main goal of this theory is to describe the way grammatical forms arise and how they are developed through time. This article deals with the grammaticalization of the demonstrative higam from Pima Bajo as a relativizer suffix. The discussion also covers the grammaticalization of other elements which are also used to mark relative clauses. The study of the relativizers in Pima Bajo argues in favor of analogy as a principle that motivates the grammaticalization of these elements.KEYWORDS: Relative clauses; Grammaticalization; Uto-Aztecan languages. RESUMEN De acuerdo a los estudios de gramaticalización, la principal meta de esta teoría es la descripción de los procesos mediante los cuales se forman nuevos elementos gramaticales y de cómo evolucionan a lo largo del tiempo. Este artículo trata sobre la gramaticalización del demostrativo higam de Pima Bajo como sufijo relativizador. La discusión abarca la gramaticalización de otros elementos que codifican construcciones funcionalmente equivalentes a las cláusulas relativas. El estudio de los relativizadores en Pima Bajo permite argumentar a favor del principio de analogía como el que motiva la gramaticalización de esos elementos.PALABRAS-CLAVES: Cláusulas relativas; Gramaticalización; Lenguas yutoaztecas.

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HUNDT, MARIANNE, DAVID DENISON, and GEROLD SCHNEIDER. "Relative complexity in scientific discourse." English Language and Linguistics 16, no. 2 (June 1, 2012): 209–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1360674312000032.

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Variation and change in relativization strategies are well documented. Previous studies have looked at issues such as (a) relativizer choice with respect to the semantics of the antecedent and type of relative, (b) prescriptive traditions, (c) variation across text types and regional varieties, and (d) the role that relative clauses play in the organization of information within the noun phrase.In this article, our focus is on scientific writing in British and American English. The addition of American scientific texts to the ARCHER corpus gives us the opportunity to compare scientific discourse in the two national varieties of English over the whole Late Modern period. Furthermore, ARCHER has been parsed, and this kind of syntactic annotation facilitates the retrieval of information that was previously difficult to obtain. We take advantage of new data and annotation to investigate two largely unrelated topics: relativizer choice and textual organization within the NP.First, parsing facilitates easy retrieval of relative clauses which were previously difficult to retrieve from plain-text corpora by automatic means, namely that- and zero relatives. We study the diachronic change in relativizer choice in British and American scientific writing over the last three hundred years; we also test for the accuracy of the automatically retrieved data. In addition, we trace the development of the prescriptive aversion to which in restrictive relatives (largely peculiar to American English).Second, the parsed data allow us to investigate development in the structure of the NP in this genre, including not only phrasal but also clausal modification of the head noun. We examine the contribution of relative clauses to NP complexity, sentence length and structure. Structural changes within the NP, we argue, are related to the increased professionalization of the scientific publication process.

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FUKUCHI, Hajime. "Two Types of Unlocalizable Relativizer in English Restrictive Relative Constructions." Interdisciplinary Information Sciences 6, no. 1 (2000): 23–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.4036/iis.2000.23.

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Levey, S., and C. Hill. "SOCIAL AND LINGUISTIC CONSTRAINTS ON RELATIVIZER OMISSION IN CANADIAN ENGLISH." American Speech 88, no. 1 (March 1, 2013): 32–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1215/00031283-2322628.

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Lee, Jae Seung. "A Corpus-based Study on the Factors of English Relativizer Variation." Journal of Language Sciences 21, no. 2 (May 30, 2014): 111–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.14384/kals.2014.21.2.111.

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GROŠELJ, Robert. "THE FATE OF THE BULGARIAN WORD ДЕТО IN SLOVENE LITERARY TRANSLATIONS." Ezikov Svyat volume 19 issue 1, ezs.swu.v19i1 (March 1, 2021): 34–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.37708/bf.swu.v19i1.4.

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The aim of the article is to determine and to analyse translation equivalents of the Bulgarian lexical item дето in Slovene translations of five Bulgarian novels. After the introductory overview of the uses of дето (with a contrastive Bulgarian-Slovene perspective) and the functional-semantic analysis of all the occurrences of дето (including само дето and освен дето) in the novels analysed, their Slovene translation counterparts were extracted and analysed functionally, semantically, as well as quantitatively. The most frequent function of дето in the analysed novels is that of the absolute relativizer, followed by дето as a causal and a locative conjunction, and a relativizer with a concessive meaning; дето is also a part of two complex conjunctions, with само дето indicating limitation-contrast or unfoundedness, and освен дето signalling limitation. In addition, дето is found in the parenthetical clause дето се казва ‘as the saying goes’. The translation equivalents show a higher diversity in comparison with the source text forms. Bulgarian дето, само дето and освен дето have – within separate functional-semantic categories – a broad array of functional-semantic, lexical and structural Slovene translation equivalents: pronouns (mainly relative), various conjunctions, omissions, modal particles, adverbs, and clauses. The analysis has shown that дето (with само дето and освен дето) does not have an analogous lexical counterpart in Slovene. Moreover, translators frequently depart from the semantic, syntactic and stylistic features of the source text.

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Phoocharoensil, Supakorn. "A Corpus-based Analysis of The Relativizer That in L1-Thai Speakers’ Interlanguage." International Journal of Communication and Linguistic Studies 13, no. 4 (2015): 49–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.18848/2327-7882/cgp/v13i04/43659.

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Kholodilova, Maria A. "Competition Between ‘Who’ and ‘Which’ in Slavic Light-Headed Relative Clauses." Slovene 6, no. 1 (2017): 118–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.31168/2305-6754.2017.6.1.4.

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The relativization systems of most Slavic languages include relative pronouns that can be conventionally labelled as ‘who’ and ‘which’ and differ in a number of logically independent parameters (etymology, animacy, grammaticality of attributive contexts, and morphological distinction for number and gender). Prior research has shown that the choice between ‘who’ and ‘which’ in Slavic languages is largely dependent on the head type. Some of the languages allow the ‘who’ pronouns to be used with pronominal heads, but not with nouns in the head, while in others, the pronominal heads in the plural are also ungrammatical with the pronoun ‘who.’ The present study aims to complement the available qualitative data on the distribution of the relativizers with quantitative data and to propose a unified account for all the observed tendencies. A corpus-based study was conducted in order to establish language-internal statistical tendencies comparable to the known grammaticality restrictions. The results show much agreement between the qualitative and quantitative tendencies. Thus, the head ‘those,’ unlike the head ‘that,’ is incompatible with the relativizer ‘who’ in Slovak, Polish, Upper Sorbian, and Lower Sorbian languages, while the same tendency is quantitative in Czech, Slovene, Serbo-Croatian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, and the older varieties of Russian. Corpus data suggest that there is also a stronger tendency for the relative pronoun ‘who’ to be avoided with the head ‘those’ than with the head ‘all.’ One more relevant parameter is the semantic type of the clause, maximalizing semantics being the preferred option for ‘who.’ I suggest that all these and some other tendencies can be subsumed under a macro-parameter of the extent to which the head is integrated into the relative clause.

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Bergs, Alexander. "Letters." Journal of Historical Pragmatics 5, no. 2 (June 10, 2004): 207–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/jhp.5.2.04ber.

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This paper explores the question how far “letters” as one specific text type can be subdivided into smaller groups of texts (i.e. subtypes such as “requests”, “orders”, or “reports”) on the basis of socio-psychological and pragmatic dimensions and factors, including speech act and accommodation theory. This paper argues that this differentiation into socio-pragmatic subtypes actually can be made and that these subtypes materialize in significant systematic morphosyntactic variability. The idea is explored and illustrated on the basis of pronoun and relativizer variation in the late Middle English Paston Letters. In particular, it is shown how authors use their individual stylistic freedom to pursue specific communicative purposes in different types of letters.

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Loureiro-Porto, Lucía, and Cristina Suárez-Gómez. "Language contact in Gibraltar English: A pilot study with ICE-GBR." Revista Alicantina de Estudios Ingleses, no. 30 (December 15, 2017): 93. http://dx.doi.org/10.14198/raei.2017.30.04.

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The variety of English used in Gibraltar has been in contact with a number of European languages, such as Spanish, Italian, Hebrew and Arabic (Moyer, 1998: 216; Suárez-Gómez, 2012: 1746), for more than 300 years. Studies of this variety have traditionally been based on interviews and observation (e.g. Moyer, 1993, 1998; Cal Varela, 1996; Levey, 2008 2015; Weston, 2011, 2013, etc.), and a detailed morphosyntactic description is yet to be published. In this context, the compilation of a reliable Gibraltar corpus using the standards of the International Corpus of English (ICE) will constitute a landmark in the analysis of this lesser known variety of English. In the present paper we describe the ICE project and the current state of the compilation of ICE-GBR. In addition, we present a detailed comparison between the section on press news reports of ICE-GB (standard British English) and ICE-GBR, with the aim of identifying morphosyntactic features that reveal the influence of language contact with Spanish in this territory. We explore variables such as the choice of relativizer (assuming a higher preference for that in GBR, in agreement with Spanish que, the most frequent relativizer, Brucart, 1999: 490), the use of titles and pseudo-titles preceding proper names (which, as shown by Hundt and Kabatek, 2015, are very frequent in English journalese and extremely infrequent in Spanish), and the frequency of the passive voice (expected to be lower in ICE-GBR), among others. A preliminary analysis of these variables reveals that the influence of Spanish on the variety of English used in the Gibraltarian press, at the morphosyntactic level, is almost non-existent, limited to occasional cases of code-switching between the two varieties. We hypothesize that a possible explanation for this strong exonormative allegiance to British English, at least in press news reports, can be found in a strong editorial pressure to reflect the prestigious parent-variety.

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KIRJAVAINEN, MINNA, EVAN KIDD, and ELENA LIEVEN. "How do language-specific characteristics affect the acquisition of different relative clause types? Evidence from Finnish." Journal of Child Language 44, no. 1 (January 11, 2016): 120–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0305000915000768.

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AbstractWe report three studies (one corpus, two experimental) that investigated the acquisition of relative clauses (RCs) in Finnish-speaking children. Study 1 found that Finnish children's naturalistic exposure to RCs predominantly consists of non-subject relatives (i.e. oblique, object) which typically have inanimate head nouns. Study 2 tested children's comprehension of subject, object, and two types of oblique relatives. No difference was found in the children's performance on different structures, including a lack of previously widely reported asymmetry between subject and object relatives. However, children's comprehension was modulated by animacy of the head referent. Study 3 tested children's production of the same RC structures using sentence repetition. Again we found no subject–object asymmetry. The pattern of results suggested that distributional frequency patterns and the relative complexity of the relativizer contribute to the difficulty associated with particular RC structures.

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Brandt, Patrick, and Eric Fuß. "A corpus-based analysis of pronoun choice in German relative clauses." Current trends in analyzing syntactic variation 31 (December 31, 2017): 195–218. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/bjl.00008.bra.

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Abstract This paper investigates the conditions that govern the choice between the German neuter singular relative pronouns das ‘that’ and was ‘what’. We show that das requires a lexical head noun, while in all other cases was is usually the preferred option; therefore, the distribution of das and was is most successfully captured by an approach that does not treat was as an exception but analyzes it as the elsewhere case that applies when the relativizer fails to pick up a lexical gender feature from the head noun. We furthermore show how the non-uniform behavior of different types of nominalized adjectives (positives allow both options, while superlatives trigger was) can be attributed to semantic differences rooted in syntactic structure. In particular, we argue that superlatives select was due to the presence of a silent counterpart of the quantifier alles ‘all’ that is part of the superlative structure.

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Dachkovsky, Svetlana. "From a demonstrative to a relative clause marker." Special Issue in Memory of Irit Meir 23, no. 1-2 (October 30, 2020): 142–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/sll.00047.dac.

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Abstract Demonstratives provide an important link between gesture, discourse and grammar due to their communicative function to coordinate the interlocutor’s focus of attention. This underlies their frequent cross-linguistic development into a wide range of function words and morphemes (Diessel 1999). The present study provides evidence for a link between gesture and grammar by tracking diachronic development of a relative clause marker in Israeli Sign Language (ISL) restrictive relative clauses, which starts as a gestural locative pointing sign, and grammaticalizes into a relative pronoun connecting relative and main clauses and agreeing with referent loci, and then into an invariant relativizer. Diachronic changes are inferred from the data collected from three generations of signers. The results reveal that the behavior of demonstratives in the data varied with the signers’ ages according to four diagnostic criteria of grammaticalization (e.g., Hopper & Traugott 2003): increased systematicity, distributional and morphological changes, and phonetic reduction.

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Akinlotan, Mayowa. "Relativiser Alternation and Relative Clause Complexity: Insights from Nigerian and American Varieties." Anglica. An International Journal of English Studies, no. 29/2 (2020): 91–113. http://dx.doi.org/10.7311/0860-5734.29.2.05.

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Idiosyncrasies and peculiarities distinguishing new Englishes from the established ones are often identified and measured by examining the extent to which structural choices and patterns vary across the board. The competition between relativisers wh- and that in the construction of relative clause, which itself is a structurally complex-versus-simple construction site, allows for showing the extent to which choice of a relativiser relates to the construction of a complex or simple relative clause, given different factors. On the other hand, such investigation can also shed some light on the extent to which structural com- plexity characterises new varieties of English. Relying on 628 relative clauses drawn from written academic corpus, the study shows that WH-relativiser is preferred to THAT-relativiser by the Nigerian speakers, and vice versa by the American speakers. It is also found that WH-relative clause is more likely to be complex-structured while THAT-relative clause is more likely to be simple-structured. Among eight factors tested for independent effects, the factors representing relativiser posterior syntactic form, syntactic function, and syntactic positioning of the relative clause appeared to be strong predictors of where we might (not) find a certain relativiser and whether a complex or simple relative clause will emerge.

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Suárez, Cristina. "The consolidation of þat as an invariable relativizer in the history of English¹." Nordic Journal of English Studies 11, no. 1 (January 1, 2012): 79. http://dx.doi.org/10.35360/njes.256.

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Olofsson, Arne. "The Gift of the Gap: A Study of Dutch and Swedish Learners' Use of the English Zero Relativizer." English Studies 90, no. 3 (June 2009): 333–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00138380902796722.

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Checa-Garcia, Irene. "Resumptive elements in Spanish relative clauses and processing difficulties: A multifactorial analysis." Folia Linguistica 53, no. 2 (November 26, 2019): 479–517. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/flin-2019-2018.

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Abstract Spanish relative clauses, as in other languages, can contain a resumptive pronoun or other resumptive element. This study attempts to explain what factors favor the presence of such resumptive elements in the production of Spanish relative clauses. In order to do so, 1237 relatives clauses were extracted from an oral corpus of Peninsular Spanish conversations. A total of 18 factors, some new and some known from previous studies, pertaining to semantic and syntactic processing difficulties, were coded as potentially influencing the choice of a resumptive pronoun. Multivariate analysis (conditional tree and random forest) was then used to determine the significant factors and the most explicative minimal model. The results suggest that the conditions with the most impact are related to difficulties in determining the function of the relativizer. A discussion follows about how these difficulties relate to the different factors studied and how they could be due to a looser relationship between the clauses involved.

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LEE-GOLDMAN, RUSSELL. "Supplemental relative clauses: Internal and external syntax." Journal of Linguistics 48, no. 3 (March 15, 2012): 573–608. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022226712000047.

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The internal syntactic structures of restrictive and non-restrictive relative clauses are largely identical. This paper argues that despite a uniform internal structure, the external distributions – specifically, linearization with respect to the head – of non-restrictive relative clauses are subject to several conditions. In particular, sentential non-restrictive relative clauses with which and what can appear to the left of their heads in limited (and distinct) syntactic contexts. These lexical and syntactic constraints are represented within the framework of Sign-based Construction Grammar. In light of these observations, the paper revisits claims about the internal structure of parenthetical as-clauses. Prior claims that as cannot be a relativizer are shown to be unfounded, and new data are presented in favor of treating them as relative clauses with the external distribution of sentential adverbials. This is possible given the ability to state separately specifications of construction-internal syntactic structure and construction-external linear-order constraints.

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Lee, Wei-Wei, and Mathias Jenny. "Syntactic change in Palaungic." Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 45, no. 1 (June 2, 2022): 22–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/ltba.21004.lee.

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Abstract The relative constructions in several Palaungic languages (Htanaw, Wa, Lawa, Rumai Palaung, Samlong Palaung, and Rucing Palaung), here shown to be participant nominalizations, display striking mutual similarities, while conspicuously diverging from the dominant relativization strategy within the Austroasiatic family. Instead of the common n [rel (s) v (o)] pattern, the Palaungic constructions examined exhibit the following structural features: (a) rel invariably precedes the verb complex directly; (b) internal constituent order is vs(o), with the exception of Htanaw. An unusual functional trait is additionally found in the three Palaung varieties: the construction only performs object relativization. By placing the findings in a diachronic perspective, we propose two new pathways of branch-internal syntactic change that may explain this unusual synchronic status. Among these, the lexical-to-clausal-nominalization pathway in particular offers a plausible alternative scenario to the earlier hypothesis that such verb-initial structures are inherited from Proto-Austroasiatic (Jenny 2020). Furthermore, a tentatively suggested etymological origin of the relativizer, pAA *pa ‘place’, provides an account of the narrow semantics in Palaung.

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Man, Lu, Jeroen van de Weijer, and Zhengguang Liu. "Nominalization and relativization in Tujia." Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 42, no. 1 (June 14, 2019): 82–109. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/ltba.16021.man.

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Abstract This paper presents a preliminary investigation of nominalization and relativization in Tujia from a typological perspective. We show that there are several nominalizers in Tujia, only two of which are multifunctional: ɕi and ɲie. ɕi can function as a nominalizer, a relativizer, a complementizer, a converbal clause marker or a stance marker. ɲie can function as a genitive marker, a nominalizer, a relative clause marker, a non-relative attributive marker or a stance marker. Relative clauses in Tujia can be head internal and pre-nominal. The head internal relative clauses are marked by ɕi, while the pre-nominal relative clauses are marked by ɲie.1 We point out that ɲie manifests typical genitive-relative-nominalization syncretism, whereas ɕi manifests extended nominalization functions, both of which are widely attested in other Tibeto-Burman languages. We argue that ɕi originates from a general noun, of unknown etymology. The nominalizer ɲie originates from a genitive marker. These findings should prove useful to future typological or comparative research with respect to nominalization in Tibeto-Burman languages.

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Katsika, Kalliopi, Maria Lialiou, and Shanley E. M. Allen. "The Influence of Case and Word Order in Child and Adult Processing of Relative Clauses in Greek." Languages 7, no. 3 (August 3, 2022): 206. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/languages7030206.

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Previous cross-linguistic studies have shown that object relative clauses (ORCs) are typically harder to parse than subject relative clauses (SRCs). The cause of difficulty, however, is still under debate, both in the adult and in the developmental literature. The present study investigates the on-line processing of SRCs and ORCs in Greek-speaking 11- to 12-year-old children and adults, and provides evidence on relative clause processing in Greek—a free word order language. We conducted a self-paced listening task in which we manipulated the type of relative clause (SRC vs. ORC), the RC internal word order (canonical vs. scrambled), and the type of relativizer (relative pronoun vs. complementizer). The results showed that SRCs were overall processed faster than ORCs, providing evidence that children follow similar processing strategies to adults. In addition, accusative case marking facilitated the processing of non-canonical structures in adults but less so in children. Children showed heavy reliance on word order, as they processed nominative and accusative pre-verbal NPs in exactly the same way, while they were strongly garden-pathed in ORCs with post-verbal nominative NPs. We argue that these results are compatible with the Competition Model.

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Levey, Stephen. "Visiting London relatives." English World-Wide 27, no. 1 (March 23, 2006): 45–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/eww.27.1.04lev.

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This small-scale study focuses on variation in the relative marker paradigm in the vernacular of a group of preadolescents recorded in the Greater London area. The distributional and multivariate analyses of variation in relative marker usage in restrictive relative clauses reveal that the wh-forms who and what are well-established in the relative marker paradigm of the preadolescents. Who and what are shown to be sensitive to the animacy of their antecedent heads: Who is strongly favoured by human antecedents, whereas what is preferred with non-human antecedents. The numerically dominant relativizer that is shown to be strongly conditioned by the grammatical function of the relative marker as well as being favoured by indefinite and inanimate antecedent heads. The zero variant is similarly sensitive to syntactic function, and is preferentially selected in non-subject position. Furthermore, the selection of zero relatives is found to be highly constrained by clause length. Cross-variety comparison of the results with previous research on other English dialects suggests that not only are there nuanced differences in the choice of relative marker, but that there are possibly construction-specific differences constraining the choice of specific variants.

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Sudarsono, Sudarsono. "RELATIVE CLAUSE TRANSFER STRATEGY AND THE IMPLICATION ON CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS HYPOTHESIS." Journal of Languages and Language Teaching 9, no. 4 (October 25, 2021): 452. http://dx.doi.org/10.33394/jollt.v9i4.4055.

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Foreign language learners may transfer their previous language properties into that of the target language either positively or negatively. The present study was designed to investigate the transfer strategy from the Indonesian relative clauses to the English ones. It was a descriptive study. The data were collected from the theses submitted by the Master's Program students of English Language Education to the university. The study found out that most students relativized subjects successfully but frequently failed to relativize the object of which Indonesian could not do it. The students were not found relativizing indirect objects, oblique, and comparison of which Indonesian did not permit. In conclusion, the study supported the strong contrastive analysis hypothesis.

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Shahriari, Hesamoddin, Farzaneh Shadloo, and Ahmad Ansarifar. "An Examination of Relative Clauses in Argumentative Essays Written by EFL Learners." Journal of Language and Education 4, no. 4 (December 31, 2018): 77–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.17323/2411-7390-2018-4-4-77-87.

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Syntactic complexity has received a great deal of attention in the literature on second language writing. Relative clauses, which function as a kind of noun phrase post-modifier, are among those structures that are believed to contribute to the complexity of academic prose. These grammatical structures can pose difficulties for EFL writers even at higher levels of proficiency, and it is therefore important to determine the frequency and accuracy with which relative clauses are used by L2 learners since understanding learners’ strengths and weaknesses in using these structures can inform teachers on ways to improve the process of their instruction in the writing classroom. This paper reports on a corpus-based comparison of relative clauses in a number of argumentative essays written by native and non-native speakers of English. To this end, 30 argumentative essays were randomly selected from the Persian sub-corpus of the ICLE and the essays were analyzed with respect to the relative clauses found in them. The results were then compared to a comparable corpus of essays by native speakers. Different dimensions regarding the structure of relative clauses were investigated. The type of relative clause (restrictive/non-restrictive), the relativizer (adverbial/pronoun), the gap (subject/non-subject), and head nouns (both animate and non-animate) in our two sets of data were manually identified and coded. The findings revealed that the non-native writers tended to use a greater number of relative clauses compared to their native-speaker counterparts.

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Shahriari, Hesamoddin, Farzaneh Shadloo, and Ahmad Ansarifar. "An Examination of Relative Clauses in Argumentative Essays Written by EFL Learners." Journal of Language and Education 4, no. 4 (December 31, 2018): 87–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.17323/2411-7390-2018-4-4-87-97.

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Syntactic complexity has received a great deal of attention in the literature on second language writing. Relative clauses, which function as a kind of noun phrase post-modifier, are among those structures that are believed to increase the complexity of academic prose. This grammatical structure can pose difficulties for EFL writers even at higher levels of proficiency, and it is therefore important to determine the frequency and accuracy with which relative clauses are used by L2 learners; understanding learners’ strengths and weaknesses in using these structures can inform the process of their instruction in the writing classroom. This paper reports on a corpus-based comparison of relative clauses in a number of argumentative essays written by native and nonnative speakers of English. To this end, 30 argumentative essays were randomly selected from the Persian sub-corpus of the ICLE and the essays were analyzed with respect to the relative clauses found in them. The results were then compared to a comparable corpus of essays by native speakers. Different dimensions regarding the structure of relative clauses were investigated. The type of relative clause (restrictive/non-restrictive), the relativizer (adverbial/pronoun), the gap (subject/non-subject), and head nouns (both animate and non-animate) in our two sets of data were manually identified and coded. The Findings revealed that Iranian EFL writers tend to use a greater number of relative clauses compared to their native-speaker counterparts.

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KOBAYASHI, AKIKO. "RELATIVIZED AGREE." ENGLISH LINGUISTICS 31, no. 2 (2014): 439–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.9793/elsj.31.2_439.

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Daley, Mark, Helmut Jürgensen, Lila Kari, and Kalpana Mahalingam. "Relativized codes." Theoretical Computer Science 429 (April 2012): 54–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tcs.2011.12.024.

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Manzini, Maria Rita. "Relativized minimality." Lingua 85, no. 1 (September 1991): 68–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0024-3841(91)90047-9.

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Veljovic-Popovic, Bojana, and Radivoje Mladenovic. "The pronoun sto and its semantic and syntactic derivatives in the vernacular of the Sirinic county." Juznoslovenski filolog 77, no. 2 (2021): 9–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/jfi2102009v.

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This paper analyzes the pronoun sto and its semantic and syntactic derivatives in the Prizren - South Morava dialect in the Sirinic county (Sirinicka Zupa), in the northern part of the Sar Mountains. The paper focuses primarily on the syntactic use of sto, while its semantic derivatives are outlined mainly in terms of references to the previous research on the subject. The dialect corpus shows that this lexeme has a wide range of syntactic realizations - it can be used as a relativizer in defining and non-defining relative clauses, as a conjunction in the clauses of reason and declarative clauses, and it can also be used as a pronoun and adverb. Moreover, the research includes the cases in which sto was found to be a part of multi-word conjunctions in hypotactic or paratactic structures. This paper primarily aims to determine and examine the syntactic positions in which sto is realized and the environment in which it is used. In the majority of the observed cases, there were also other corresponding syntactic devices, so that the focus was also placed on determining the frequency of the lexeme sto in these positions in relation to its synonymous syntactic counterparts. The fact that the form sto is widely used in the Sirinic vernacular as a conjunction in relative clauses points to its provenance in a wider Serbian-Macedonian area as well as to its not being included in the standard Serbian language, in lieu of which the form koji is predominantly used. In the vernacular of Sirinic county, the lexeme sto is used as a conjunction in declarative object clauses, and it is also the principal conjunction in the clauses of reason.

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Čadek, Miroslav, and Ivan Antunović. "Božanska solidarnost (communio) kao nadahnuće ljudskoj solidarnosti u prevladavanju relativizma modernog doba." Obnovljeni život 72., no. 4. (January 22, 2018): 481–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.31337/oz.72.4.5.

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Članak se bavi problematikom krize duha i vremena uzrokovanom relativizmom te njegovim posljedicama koje se odražavaju na pojedinca i društvo. Osim toga članak se bavi solidarnošću kao mogućem odgovoru na relativizam i njegove posljedice. Crkva je oduvijek smatrala da primjer i uzor solidarnosti svakako treba tražiti u Božjoj otkupiteljskoj solidarnosti, koja se očitovala u utjelovljenju Sina Božjega i njegovoj žrtvi na križu. U članku se govori o tome da se u središtu solidarnosti nalazi samo Presveto Trojstvo, koje je uzor i nadahnuće za ljudsku solidarnost i zajednički život. Problematika relativizma i solidarnosti prikazuje se prema nauku pape Ivana Pavla II. Nastoji se iznijeti njegovo mišljenje o solidarnosti kao odgovor na krizu vremena i kao putokaz za rješavanje međuljudskih odnosa. Na kraju se ističe službeno stajalište Crkve, prema kojemu zagovara i promiče solidarnost kao jedno od svojih glavnih načela.

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Cain, James. "The Doctrine of the Trinity and the Logic of Relative Identity." Religious Studies 25, no. 2 (June 1989): 141–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0034412500001761.

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The doctrine of the Trinity says that there is just one God and three distinct divine persons, each of whom is God. This would seem to imply that there are three divine persons, each a different person the other persons but the same God as the other persons. If we accept what I believe is the most popular account of identity current among logicians then we must hold that this apparent consequence is contradictory. We see this as follows (it will suffice to consider just the relation of Father and Son): logicians generally treat relativized identity expressions of the form ‘is the same A as’ (here ‘A’ stands in for a term which relativizes the identity) as being analysable in terms of absolute (or unrelativized) identity according to the following equivalence schema, (E):(E) a is the same A as b if and only if a is identical to b and a is an A and b is an A.The view under consideration affirms the following three sentences:(1) The Father and the Son are persons.(2) The Father is not the same person as the Son.(3) The Father is the same God as the Son.

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Soskova, A. A. "Relativized Degree Spectra." Journal of Logic and Computation 17, no. 6 (August 8, 2007): 1215–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/logcom/exm043.

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Hanna, Joseph F. "Objective Homogeneity Relativized." PSA: Proceedings of the Biennial Meeting of the Philosophy of Science Association 1986, no. 1 (January 1986): 422–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/psaprocbienmeetp.1986.1.193142.

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Wilson, Christopher B. "Relativized circuit complexity." Journal of Computer and System Sciences 31, no. 2 (October 1985): 169–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0022-0000(85)90040-6.

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Marx, M. "Relativized relation algebras." Algebra Universalis 41, no. 1 (April 1, 1999): 23–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s000120050099.

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Immerman, Neil, and Stephen R. Mahaney. "Relativizing relativized computations." Theoretical Computer Science 68, no. 3 (November 1989): 267–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0304-3975(89)90164-3.

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Ackerman, Nathanael Leedom. "Relativized Grothendieck topoi." Annals of Pure and Applied Logic 161, no. 10 (July 2010): 1299–312. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apal.2010.04.003.

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Journal articles on the topic 'Relativizer That'

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