Relevant bibliographies by topics / Reference - psychology

Academic literature on the topic 'Reference - psychology'

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Published: 25 July 2024
Last updated: 26 July 2024

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Journal articles on the topic "Reference - psychology"

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Harinarayana, N. S., and J. Manjunatha. "Reference Accuracy in Psychology Theses." Pearl : A Journal of Library and Information Science 10, no. 3 (2016): 176. http://dx.doi.org/10.5958/0975-6922.2016.00024.3.

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Guernina, Zoubida. "Reference library on Counselling Psychology." Counselling Psychology Review 13, no. 3 (August 1998): 22–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.53841/bpscpr.1998.13.3.22.

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Milton, Martin, and Adrian Coyle. "Reference Library on Counselling Psychology." Counselling Psychology Review 13, no. 4 (November 1998): 36–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.53841/bpscpr.1998.13.4.36.

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Guernina, Zoubida. "Reference Library on Counselling Psychology." Counselling Psychology Review 11, no. 2 (May 1996): 23–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.53841/bpscpr.1996.11.2.23.

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Whitehead, George I., Stephanie H. Smith, and Marta Losonczy-Marshall. "Core References in Introductory Social Psychology and Developmental Psychology Textbooks." Psychology Learning & Teaching 16, no. 1 (November 17, 2016): 6–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1475725716672948.

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The purpose of the present study was to identify the core references in introductory textbooks in two sub-disciplines of psychology: social psychology and developmental psychology. One research question was the extent to which the common references in these textbooks present the trends in contemporary research in each sub-discipline. An analysis of the reference sections of 10 introductory social psychology textbooks and 15 developmental psychology textbooks found a small set of common references for each subject area. The results yielded three additional effects. First, there were more common references across social psychology textbooks than across developmental psychology textbooks. Second, authors of social psychology textbooks used journal articles as common references more often than books, whereas authors of developmental psychology textbooks used books as common references more than journal articles. Third, the majority of the core references were published prior to 2000. Implications of these findings for teachers of psychology were discussed.
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Zadorozhniuk, Ivan, and Sergei Malakhov. "Economic Psychology: Reference Points and Possibilities." Problems of Economic Transition 36, no. 5 (September 1, 1993): 37–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.2753/pet1061-1991360537.

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Kimble, Gregory A. "A frame of reference for psychology." American Psychologist 49, no. 6 (1994): 510–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.49.6.510.

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Baxy, Dr Rekha. "Effect of Noise Pollution on Behavior (with Reference to Environmental Psychology)." International Journal of Scientific Research 3, no. 1 (June 1, 2012): 433–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.15373/22778179/jan2014/150.

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Allen, Mary Beth. "Authorship in Sport Psychology: A Reference List." Sport Psychologist 8, no. 1 (March 1994): 94–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/tsp.8.1.94.

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Parker, Ian. "Reference Points for Critical Theoretical Work in Psychology." Theory & Psychology 6, no. 3 (August 1996): 395–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0959354396063003.

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Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Reference - psychology"

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Hiew, Alexandra T. "Towards a Pedagogical Reference Work for Violinists Informed by Current Music Psychology ResearchTowards a Pedagogical Reference Work for Violinists Informed by Current Music Psychology Research." University of Cincinnati / OhioLINK, 2012. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=ucin1380619860.

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Purkhardt, S. Caroline. "Social representations and social psychology : a theoretical critique with reference to the psychology of groups 1960s-1980s." Thesis, London School of Economics and Political Science (University of London), 1991. http://etheses.lse.ac.uk/1155/.

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For the past fifty years social psychologists have attempted to understand inherently social phenomena within an individualistic and static conceptual framework afforded by the Cartesian paradigm. In contrast, contemporary traditions of social psychology, especially in Europe, reflect the cultural and evolutionary principles of the Hegelian paradigm. According to this approach, social phenomena are constructed through the coordinated activities of inherently social individuals in relationship both with each other and with their cultural and physical environments. I use this perspective to develop Moscovici's theory of social representations and our understanding of the dynamics and transformation of social knowledge. Drawing on recent developments in both the philosophy of science and the sociology of knowledge I reject Moscovici's distinction between the reified universe of science, which, he claims, is devoid of social representations, and the consensual universe of common-sense, which is impregnated with them. A programme of historical research is reported in which I trace the evolution and diffusion of Tajfel's theory of intergroup relations and the emergence of a social dimension in the social psychology of groups. This study demonstrates the dynamics by which scientific knowledge is transformed. These dynamics involve the social processes of interaction and communication and are characterized both by a delicate balance between tradition and innovation, and by an interdependence among individual scientists, the community of scientists to which they belong and the wider society in which the community is embedded. The thesis as a whole has important implications for understanding the processes of science and for the conduct of research in the social sciences.
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Prasse, Michael John. "A model of anaphoric reference /." The Ohio State University, 1987. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=osu1487325740719477.

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Kitto, J. "Gender reference terms : A psychological perspective." Thesis, University of Reading, 1985. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.356133.

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Sims, Kerry M. "Children's knowledge of indefinite and definite reference." Thesis, Durham University, 1990. http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/6233/.

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After reviewing previous theoretical and empirical investigations, the decision is made that an understanding of both "Familiarity' and 'Specificity' must be necessary for a full appreciation of indefiniteness/definiteness. Moreover, it is argued that knowledge of 'Specificity’ requires an ability to co-ordinate and integrate a number of linguistic and non-linguistic factors appropriately and for this reason, it is suggested that young children’s knowledge of indefinite/definite reference is incomplete.16 experiments are reported, most of which were designed to investigate children's knowledge of 'Familiarity' and 'Specificity' for indefinite/definite reference. Other areas of investigation include children’s ability to use both linguistic and non-linguistic factors in their understanding of definite reference and the way in which older children and adults use these factors for anaphoric reference. The results showed that whilst children from 3 ½ years of age are sensitive to the perceptual information given to listeners and will use their general knowledge to define ‘Familiarity’; they do not appreciate the need to consider the relative status of a referent in their choice of expression. It seems that young children will only consider 'Specificity' when the relative status and/or the identifying features of a referent are salient to them. The failure of the young child to appreciate the necessity of 'Specificity' for indefinite/definite reference may be explained as due to a failure to consider more than one possible interpretation of reference. By contrast, from about 8 years of age, children appear to be integrating contextual information about the number of available referents with their knowledge of linguistic constraints on reference. A model of the processing of definite anaphoric reference in children is proposed based on the 'weak' interactionist view of the effects of informational context on choice of definite construction.
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Stenner, Paul. "Feeling deconstructed? : with particular reference to jealousy." Thesis, University of Reading, 1992. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.357188.

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Du, Toit Barry. "Theory in interpretive psychology - with special reference to Paul Ricoeur's interpretation of Freud." Thesis, Rhodes University, 1988. http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1002071.

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The thesis aims to show that, while an interpretive psychology is not compatible with theory as it occurs in the predictive- causal explanation of the natural sciences, it is both possible and necessary to develop a concept of theory valid within an interpretive methodology. These claims are advanced in the course of an examination of Ricoeur 's interpretation of Freudian psychoanalysis. After examining some traditional ways in which phenomenological psychology has responded to the psychoanalytic challenge, the thesis presents an interpretation of Freudian psychoanalysis as a hermeneutic approach which utilized theoretical constructions in a productive way, although distorted by Freud's natural-scientific self- understanding. Freud's causal-explanatory language and natural- scientific meta theory are shown to be significant inasmuch as they provide a vehicle for theory construction in psychoanalysis. However, since the theory is modeled on that of the natural sciences, it proves incompatible with the interpretive aspects of Freud's approach. We then establish a concept of theory and of causal analysis which is different to that of the natural sciences, and is compatible with, and indeed founded in, an interpretive approach to psychology. These concepts are then illustrated in the context of psychoanalysis. In the final chapter the advantages of the use of theory in interpretive psychology are discussed.
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Regan, Teresa. "An exploration of educational psychology casework practice with reference to the assessment of dyslexia." Thesis, University of Manchester, 2007. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.508984.

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Talboy, Alaina N. "Reference Dependence in Bayesian Reasoning." Scholar Commons, 2019. https://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd/7964.

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The purpose of this dissertation is to examine aspects of the representational and computational influences on Bayesian reasoning as they relate to reference dependence. Across three studies, I explored how dependence on the initial problem structure influences the ability to solve Bayesian reasoning tasks. Congruence between the problem and question of interest, response errors, and individual differences in numerical abilities was assessed. The most consistent and surprising finding in all three experiments was that people were much more likely to utilize the superordinate value as part of their solution rather than the anticipated reference class values. This resulted in a weakened effect of congruence, with relatively low accuracy even in congruent conditions, as well as a different pattern of response errors than what was anticipated. There was consistent and strong evidence of a value selection bias in that incorrect responses almost always conformed to values that were provided in the problem rather than errors related to computation. The one notable exception occurred when no organizing information was available in the problem, other than the instruction to consider a sample of the same size as that in the problem. In that case, participants were most apt to sum all of the subsets of the sample to yield the size of the original sample (N). In all three experiments, higher numerical skills were generally associated with higher accuracy, whether calculations were required or not.
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Shiham, Aishath. "An investigation of alexithymia with particular reference to breast cancer." Thesis, University of Newcastle Upon Tyne, 2001. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.364806.

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Books on the topic "Reference - psychology"

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Bruce, Caplan, ed. Rehabilitation psychology desk reference. Rockville, Md: Aspen Publishers, 1987.

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1907-, Magill Frank Northen, ed. Psychology basics. Pasadena, Calif: Salem Press, 1998.

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P, Koocher Gerald, Norcross John C. 1957-, and Hill Sam S, eds. Psychologists' desk reference. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.

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VandenBos, Gary R. APA dictionary of psychology. Edited by American Psychological Association. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2015.

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Banyard, Philip. Controversies in psychology. London: Routledge, 1999.

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Davis, Stephen, and William Buskist. 21st Century Psychology: A Reference Handbook. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks California 91320 United States: SAGE Publications, Inc., 2008. http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781412956321.

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American Library Association. ALA guide to sociology & psychology reference. Chicago: American Library Association, 2010.

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Ashworth, Peter D. Psychology and 'human nature'. London: Taylor & Francis, 2000.

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R, Hollin Clive, ed. Contemporary psychology: An introduction. London: Taylor & Francis, 1995.

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P, Koocher Gerald, Norcross John C. 1957-, and Hill Sam S, eds. Psychologists' desk reference. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.

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Book chapters on the topic "Reference - psychology"

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Roth, Wolff-Michael. "Symbolic Reference." In Cultural Psychology of Education, 111–32. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04242-4_5.

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Valsiner, Jaan. "Frames of Reference." In SpringerBriefs in Psychology, 31–39. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-61064-1_4.

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Saka, Paul. "Prospective Reference." In Perspectives in Pragmatics, Philosophy & Psychology, 79–94. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-56437-7_7.

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Béguin, Anton A., and Saskia Wools. "Vertical Comparison Using Reference Sets." In Quantitative Psychology Research, 195–211. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-07503-7_12.

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Rawatlal, Kamilla Varsha. "Supervisee’s Interpersonal Frame of Reference." In SpringerBriefs in Psychology, 27–33. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-41929-4_5.

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Smyth, T. R. "The Reference List." In The Principles of Writing in Psychology, 85–90. London: Macmillan Education UK, 2004. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-0-230-20886-5_8.

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Capone, Alessandro. "Reference in Context." In Perspectives in Pragmatics, Philosophy & Psychology, 3–23. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-12543-0_1.

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García-Carpintero, Manuel. "Pretend Reference and Coreference." In Perspectives in Pragmatics, Philosophy & Psychology, 333–58. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-21395-8_16.

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Parker, Ian. "Reference Points for Critical Theoretical Work in Psychology." In Critical Discursive Psychology, 122–25. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9781137505279_11.

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Parker, Ian. "Reference Points for Critical Theoretical Work in Psychology." In Critical Discursive Psychology, 117–20. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2002. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9781403914651_10.

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Conference papers on the topic "Reference - psychology"

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Black, Steve. "Collaboration to Inform Reference and Instruction Librarians' Practice With Research in Educational Psychology." In 2020 AERA Annual Meeting. Washington DC: AERA, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.3102/1568889.

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Le Guen, Olivier. "Geocentric Gestural Deixis among Yucatec Maya (Quintana Roo, México)." In International Association of Cross Cultural Psychology Congress. International Association for Cross-Cultural Psychology, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.4087/azir1034.

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Fieldwork conducted among the Yucatec Maya of Mexico reveals that this group preferentially uses a geocentric frame of reference in both linguistic and non-linguistic tasks. Contrary to other cultural groups (such as the Guugu Yimithir of Australia or Tzeltal of México), this frame does not seem to rely on the use of specific spatial terms (such as cardinal directions for instance). Because linguistic evidence is not sufficient to determine which frame of reference is used, attention to gestural deixis is particularly relevant. Using a comparative French example, we present a method of analysis for gestural deixis and show that Yucatec speakers, both children and adults, rely primarily on a geocentric frame of reference in giving spatial indications of directions.
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Semenov, Alexei L., and Konstantin E. Ziskin. "The concept of an expanded personality as a reference point of the digital path of education." In The Herzen University Conference on Psychology in Education. Herzen State Pedagogical University of Russia, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.33910/herzenpsyconf-2021-4-66.

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Panferov, Vladimir N., Svetlana V. Vasileva, and Artem S. Ivanov. "The content of the reference role image of the teacher for students with different levels of academic motivation." In The Herzen University Conference on Psychology in Education. Herzen State Pedagogical University of Russia, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.33910/herzenpsyconf-2019-2-60.

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Gao, Zikun, and Xinxiong Liu. "Design of Proton Radiotherapy Room Based on Environmental Psychology." In 13th International Conference on Applied Human Factors and Ergonomics (AHFE 2022). AHFE International, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.54941/ahfe1002126.

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Proton radiotherapy is currently a more advanced tumor treatment method in radiotherapy, which can accurately eliminate tumor cells while reducing damage to surrounding healthy cells. However, anxiety and depression often occur in cancer patients during treatment. On the one hand, it will cause the displacement of the lesion and affect the effect of radiotherapy. On the other hand, negative psychology is not conducive to physical rehabilitation. In this paper, the principle of environmental psychology is used to guide the design of indoor environment of radiotherapy from the perspective of visual and auditory senses. Through the influence of environment on psychology, the purpose of calming the mood of patients and improving the therapeutic effect is achieved, and it provides support and reference for the design of humanized radiotherapy room space in the future.
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Mead, Phillip G. "Positive Psychology as a New Lens for Architecture." In 108th Annual Meeting Proceedings. ACSA Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.35483/acsa.am.108.75.

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Since 2006, four books claim architecture’s ability to increase our happiness or well-being: The Architecture of Happiness in 2006, Happy City in 2013, The Blue Zones of Happiness in 2017, and A Place to be Happy in 2018. One is written by a philosopher and one by an architect practitioner, but none by academic architectural theorists or environmental psychologists. None of these books meaningfully reference key concepts of happiness found in the history of philosophy. What is missing from these books, and the architectural profession’s writings about well-being, is a more rigorous academic framework drawn from Positive Psychology’s findings on well-being/happiness. In particular, the conditions laid out by the movement’s founder, Martin Seligman of Penn, who between 2002-2011 laid out five pillars of wellbeing and flourishing: Positive Emotions, Engagement/Flow, Relationships, Meaning/Purpose, and Achievement. These conditions along with other psychological concepts such as Resilience and Strengths appear to resonate well with classic architectural texts. This paper takes stock of architectural texts since the 1800’s that claim that architecture can deliver pleasure, happiness, meaning, etc. The paper also takes stock of the limited evidence that supports their assertions. Here the writings of Ruskin, Le Corbusier, Norberg Schultz, Alexander, and Pallasmaa among others are examined for how well they resonate with Positive Psychology’s findings and principles.
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Li, Guanghui, Yu Gong, Gang Bai, Yunhuan Qu, and Xiaoding Li. "Research on the Public Radiation Cognition Based on Social Psychology." In 2022 29th International Conference on Nuclear Engineering. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/icone29-93796.

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Abstract Radiation has the characteristics of being silent, colorless, odorless, invisible, and intangible. The public is deeply fearful and worried about radiation. Radiation has become “to mention the wolf’s name is to see the name”. Carrying out radiation science popularization is an effective way to crack the public’s fear. Research on public cognition of radiation is the basis of science popularization. Social psychology is a branch of psychology that studies public behavior dominated by psychology. Using social psychology can effectively analyze the psychology of public radiation cognition and improve the pertinence and effectiveness of science popularization. This paper investigates the current situation of public radiation cognition, and analyzes the existing problems of radiation cognition from the perspective of social psychology. It mainly includes that the public’s first impression of radiation is wrong, the public’s cognition of radiation is one-sided, ignoring the public’s needs, underestimating the public’s sense of resistance to radiation, underestimating the influence of wrong information, etc. In view of the above problems, this paper puts forward the methods to strengthen the pertinence and effectiveness of radiation cognition from the aspects of enhancing the effect of persuasion, paying attention to public needs, early public participation in radiation activities and reducing the impact of wrong information, so as to provide reference for radiation science popularization.
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Babu, Nandita. "Theory of Mind Understanding in Narration: A Study among Children from Different Socioeconomic Backgrounds in India." In International Association of Cross Cultural Psychology Congress. International Association for Cross-Cultural Psychology, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.4087/zmfm1057.

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This study investigates the theory of mind understanding as reflected in the narratives of children from families of low as well as high socioeconomic-status (SES). A group of 30 Hindi-speaking children from six to seven years of age and their mothers participated in this study. Children were asked to narrate six stories prompted by pictures and standard verbal probes. In addition, they were also administered false-belief tasks to assess their theory of mind understanding. Later, their mothers were asked to narrate three stories to their children. Content analysis of the stories indicated the frequency of occurrence of words referring to mental states such as emotion, intention, thought, belief, etc. The low and high SES children differ in their reference to the mental state of the protagonist in the stories narrated by them. The result was interpreted concerning the landscape of action and landscape of consciousness discussed by Bruner (1986). Interestingly, even though all the children could refer to mental states in their narratives, approximately 50% of the children from low SES backgrounds failed in the false-belief task, indicating a lack of understanding of theory of mind. The narration by the mothers from high SES families was more elaborate with significant reference to the mental state of the protagonist as compared to the narration of the mothers from low SES families. A significant relationship between mothers’ narration/theory of mind understanding and children’s narration/theory of mind understanding was also observed.
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LIN, TIFFANY, LISA MOLIX, and EMILIE TAYLOR WELTY. "Public Space & Scrutiny: Examining Monuments through Social Psychology." In 2021 AIA/ACSA Intersections Research Conference. ACSA Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.35483/acsa.aia.inter.21.16.

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With fewer than 1 in 5 new architects identifying as a racial or ethnic minority, the field of architecture has some catching up to do in order to reflect the public for whom urban spaces are designed.1 This project proposes a study of existing public spaces, monuments, and memorials through the lens of social psychology, in order to establish a broader frame of reference for future design. We are employing an interdisciplinary approach to investigate community members’ reactions (e.g., stress, positive/negative associations, value judgments, perceptions of bias, inclusion, empowerment) to experiencing public spaces and monuments that memorialize contentious historical figures and events. Using a community-based participatory action approach (e.g., focus groups, survey study), we will identify elements of design (e.g., scale, materiality, abstraction, figuration, symbolism, color) that contribute to the general public’s perceptions of public spaces and monuments. Data gleaned from the first phase of the research will generate the framework for the second phase of applied re- search, conducted through an advanced architecture design/ build studio. Using a data-driven, community-informed strategy, the design/build studio will collaborate with the research team and community partners to explore proposals that work to bridge the gap between the architects and the general public when creating urban spaces marked by racial injustice.
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Dasen, Pierre, Nilima Changkakoti, Milena Abbiati, Shanta Niraula, Ramesh Mishra, and Harold Foy. "Geocentric Gestures as a Research Tool." In International Association of Cross Cultural Psychology Congress. International Association for Cross-Cultural Psychology, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.4087/zwws8663.

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This study1 is part of a large-scale cross-cultural research project on the development of spatial language and cognition, in India, Indonesia and Nepal, that focuses on a culturally particular way of organizing small-scale, table space, using a large-scale geocentric spatial orientation system (Dasen & Mishra, in preparation). One of the main questions is at what age this geocentric frame of reference starts to be effective. The study of language development does not provide a clear answer, because young children (ages 4 to 7) use ambiguous “deictic” descriptions, i.e., they just say “this way” accompanied by a gesture. Can these gestures be used to clarify the meaning of language? To answer this question, 234 video recordings of Nepalese children performing the “Perspectives” task (in which they have to describe the location of three objects placed on a table in front of them, under three different conditions) were analyzed separately for both language and gestures. The results show a good correspondence between language and gestures in 9 to 12 year olds. This allows us to interpret further the frame of reference used by the younger children. Out of 367 items on which young children (4 to 9 years) give an ambiguous deictic answer, only 17% are accompanied with an egocentric gesture, and 83% with a geocentric one (combining 48% large gestures linked to the use of cardinal directions, and 35% medium-large gestures linked to the use of situational local landmarks). This shows that a geocentric frame is at play as early as age 4, even when the child cannot express it clearly in the language.
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Reports on the topic "Reference - psychology"

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Drury, J., S. Arias, T. Au-Yeung, D. Barr, L. Bell, T. Butler, H. Carter, et al. Public behaviour in response to perceived hostile threats: an evidence base and guide for practitioners and policymakers. University of Sussex, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.20919/vjvt7448.

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Background: Public behaviour and the new hostile threats • Civil contingencies planning and preparedness for hostile threats requires accurate and up to date knowledge about how the public might behave in relation to such incidents. Inaccurate understandings of public behaviour can lead to dangerous and counterproductive practices and policies. • There is consistent evidence across both hostile threats and other kinds of emergencies and disasters that significant numbers of those affected give each other support, cooperate, and otherwise interact socially within the incident itself. • In emergency incidents, competition among those affected occurs in only limited situations, and loss of behavioural control is rare. • Spontaneous cooperation among the public in emergency incidents, based on either social capital or emergent social identity, is a crucial part of civil contingencies planning. • There has been relatively little research on public behaviour in response to the new hostile threats of the past ten years, however. • The programme of work summarized in this briefing document came about in response to a wave of false alarm flight incidents in the 2010s, linked to the new hostile threats (i.e., marauding terrorist attacks). • By using a combination of archive data for incidents in Great Britain 2010-2019, interviews, video data analysis, and controlled experiments using virtual reality technology, we were able to examine experiences, measure behaviour, and test hypotheses about underlying psychological mechanisms in both false alarms and public interventions against a hostile threat. Re-visiting the relationship between false alarms and crowd disasters • The Bethnal Green tube disaster of 1943, in which 173 people died, has historically been used to suggest that (mis)perceived hostile threats can lead to uncontrolled ‘stampedes’. • Re-analysis of witness statements suggests that public fears of Germany bombs were realistic rather than unreasonable, and that flight behaviour was socially structured rather than uncontrolled. • Evidence for a causal link between the flight of the crowd and the fatal crowd collapse is weak at best. • Altogether, the analysis suggests the importance of examining people’s beliefs about context to understand when they might interpret ambiguous signals as a hostile threat, and that. Tthe concepts of norms and relationships offer better ways to explain such incidents than ‘mass panic’. Why false alarms occur • The wider context of terrorist threat provides a framing for the public’s perception of signals as evidence of hostile threats. In particular, the magnitude of recent psychologically relevant terrorist attacks predicts likelihood of false alarm flight incidents. • False alarms in Great Britain are more likely to occur in those towns and cities that have seen genuine terrorist incidents. • False alarms in Great Britain are more likely to occur in the types of location where terrorist attacks happen, such as shopping areass, transport hubs, and other crowded places. • The urgent or flight behaviour of other people (including the emergency services) influences public perceptions that there is a hostile threat, particularly in situations of greater ambiguity, and particularly when these other people are ingroup. • High profile tweets suggesting a hostile threat, including from the police, have been associated with the size and scale of false alarm responses. • In most cases, it is a combination of factors – context, others’ behaviour, communications – that leads people to flee. A false alarm tends not to be sudden or impulsive, and often follows an initial phase of discounting threat – as with many genuine emergencies. 2.4 How the public behave in false alarm flight incidents • Even in those false alarm incidents where there is urgent flight, there are also other behaviours than running, including ignoring the ‘threat’, and walking away. • Injuries occur but recorded injuries are relatively uncommon. • Hiding is a common behaviour. In our evidence, this was facilitated by orders from police and offers from people staff in shops and other premises. • Supportive behaviours are common, including informational and emotional support. • Members of the public often cooperate with the emergency services and comply with their orders but also question instructions when the rationale is unclear. • Pushing, trampling and other competitive behaviour can occur,s but only in restricted situations and briefly. • At the Oxford Street Black Friday 2017 false alarm, rather than an overall sense of unity across the crowd, camaraderie existed only in pockets. This was likely due to the lack of a sense of common fate or reference point across the incident; the fragmented experience would have hindered the development of a shared social identity across the crowd. • Large and high profile false alarm incidents may be associated with significant levels of distress and even humiliation among those members of the public affected, both at the time and in the aftermath, as the rest of society reflects and comments on the incident. Public behaviour in response to visible marauding attackers • Spontaneous, coordinated public responses to marauding bladed attacks have been observed on a number of occasions. • Close examination of marauding bladed attacks suggests that members of the public engage in a wide variety of behaviours, not just flight. • Members of the public responding to marauding bladed attacks adopt a variety of complementary roles. These, that may include defending, communicating, first aid, recruiting others, marshalling, negotiating, risk assessment, and evidence gathering. Recommendations for practitioners and policymakers • Embed the psychology of public behaviour in emergencies in your training and guidance. • Continue to inform the public and promote public awareness where there is an increased threat. • Build long-term relations with the public to achieve trust and influence in emergency preparedness. • Use a unifying language and supportive forms of communication to enhance unity both within the crowd and between the crowd and the authorities. • Authorities and responders should take a reflexive approach to their responses to possible hostile threats, by reflecting upon how their actions might be perceived by the public and impact (positively and negatively) upon public behaviour. • To give emotional support, prioritize informative and actionable risk and crisis communication over emotional reassurances. • Provide first aid kits in transport infrastructures to enable some members of the public more effectively to act as zero responders.
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