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Journal articles on the topic 'Reciprocity'

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Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 29 July 2024

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1

Schweinfurth, Manon K., and Josep Call. "Reciprocity: Different behavioural strategies, cognitive mechanisms and psychological processes." Learning & Behavior 47, no. 4 (November 1, 2019): 284–301. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/s13420-019-00394-5.

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Abstract Reciprocity is probably one of the most debated theories in evolutionary research. After more than 40 years of research, some scientists conclude that reciprocity is an almost uniquely human trait mainly because it is cognitively demanding. Others, however, conclude that reciprocity is widespread and of great importance to many species. Yet, it is unclear how these species reciprocate, given its apparent cognitive complexity. Therefore, our aim was to unravel the psychological processes underlying reciprocity. By bringing together findings from studies investigating different aspects of reciprocity, we show that reciprocity is a rich concept with different behavioural strategies and cognitive mechanisms that require very different psychological processes. We reviewed evidence from three textbook examples, i.e. the Norway rat, common vampire bat and brown capuchin monkey, and show that the species use different strategies and mechanisms to reciprocate. We continue by examining the psychological processes of reciprocity. We show that the cognitive load varies between different forms of reciprocity. Several factors can lower the memory demands of reciprocity such as distinctiveness of encounters, memory of details and network size. Furthermore, there are different information operation systems in place, which also vary in their cognitive load due to assessing the number of encounters and the quality and quantity of help. We conclude that many species possess the psychological processes to show some form of reciprocity. Hence, reciprocity might be a widespread phenomenon that varies in terms of strategies and mechanisms.

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Deng, Yingli, Cynthia S. Wang, Federico Aime, Long Wang, Niro Sivanathan, and Yun Chung (Karina) Kim. "Culture and Patterns of Reciprocity: The Role of Exchange Type, Regulatory Focus, and Emotions." Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 47, no. 1 (April 23, 2020): 20–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146167220913694.

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Reciprocity is a fundamental mechanism for sustained social relationships. Escalation-based theories suggest that reciprocity intensifies over time. In contrast, equity-based theories propose that people reciprocate behaviors in kind. We reconcile these conflicting perspectives by examining social exchanges across different cultural contexts. Using three complementary experiments, we investigate when, how, and why individuals in East Asian settings and those in North American settings differentially reciprocate positive versus negative behaviors over time. Study 1 demonstrated that in positively framed exchanges (i.e., giving) Americans escalated their reciprocity, but Singaporeans reciprocated in kind. However, in negatively framed exchanges (i.e., taking), Singaporeans escalated their reciprocity, but Americans reciprocated in kind. Study 2 replicated the results using Hong Kongers and showed that cultural differences in regulatory focus were associated with specific emotions (i.e., anxiety and happiness), which then escalated reciprocity. To establish causality, Study 3 manipulated regulatory focus within one culture and replicated the pattern of results.

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Umetani, Ryohei, Hitoshi Yamamoto, Akira Goto, Isamu Okada, and Eizo Akiyama. "Individuals reciprocate negative actions revealing negative upstream reciprocity." PLOS ONE 18, no. 7 (July 5, 2023): e0288019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288019.

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Indirect reciprocity is widely recognized as a mechanism for explaining cooperation and can be divided into two sub-concepts: downstream and upstream reciprocity. Downstream reciprocity is supported by reputation; if someone sees you helping someone else, the person who sees this will think higher of you, and you will be more likely to be helped. Upstream reciprocity is helping someone because you are being helped by somebody else, which often happens in everyday life and experimental games. This paper focuses on the behavior of “take” and examines negative upstream reciprocity using an upstream reciprocity framework. The term “take” is defined as “to steal rather than give resources to others.” “If something is taken from you, do you take from others?” is an important extension for indirect reciprocity research; subsequently, this paper discusses experiments conducted on whether negative upstream reciprocity is chained and what causes it. The results demonstrated differences between positive and negative upstream reciprocity. In analyzing the data of nearly 600 participants to determine the extent to which negative upstream reciprocity is observed and the causes of negative upstream reciprocity, the study found that If individual A takes resources from individual B, then B is more likely to take resources from a third-party, individual C. Notably, some causes of positive upstream reciprocity were found to have no effect or the opposite effect on negative upstream reciprocity. The results also demonstrate that the first person to take can cause a chain reaction. This paper demonstrates the importance of the first person not taking from someone else and suggests the need to consider various behavioral options for future research on cooperation.

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Fujisawa, Keiko K., Nobuyuki Kutsukake, and Toshikazu Hasegawa. "Reciprocity of prosocial behavior in Japanese preschool children." International Journal of Behavioral Development 32, no. 2 (March 2008): 89–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0165025407084055.

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This study investigated the reciprocity of prosocial behavior among 3- and 4-year-old Japanese preschool children during free-play time. Matrix correlation tests revealed positive correlations between the frequencies of object offering given and received within dyads and between the frequencies of helping given and received within dyads. These results suggest that young children reciprocate prosocial behavior spontaneously. Positive correlations were also found between the frequencies of object offering and helping behavior exchanged within dyads, suggesting that children exchanged the two types of prosocial behaviors (i.e., “interchanged”). The interchange was independent of both reciprocity within object offering and reciprocity within helping behavior in 4-year-olds. Friends reciprocated object offerings more frequently than non-friends, suggesting that friendship affects the quantitative aspect of reciprocity. These data provide refined evidence of reciprocity among children and also suggest that reciprocity becomes more complicated as children grow older.

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5

Reuben, Ernesto, and Sigrid Suetens. "Instrumental Reciprocity as an Error." Games 9, no. 3 (September 6, 2018): 66. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/g9030066.

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We study the strategies used by experimental subjects in repeated sequential prisoners’ dilemma games to identify the underlying motivations behind instrumental reciprocity, that is, reciprocation of cooperation only if there is future interaction. Importantly, we designed the games so that instrumental reciprocity is a mistake for payoff-maximizing individuals irrespective of their beliefs. We find that, despite the fact that instrumental reciprocity is suboptimal, it is one of the most frequently used cooperative strategies. Moreover, although the use of instrumental reciprocity is sensitive to the costs of deviating from the payoff-maximizing strategy, these costs alone cannot explain the high frequency with which subjects choose to reciprocate instrumentally.

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Arai, Sakura, Motoki Watabe, Kei Kanari, Qiulu Shou, Frank Krueger, and Haruto Takagishi. "Salivary Oxytocin Has Nonlinear Relationships with Trust and Reciprocity." Games 14, no. 1 (February 20, 2023): 17. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/g14010017.

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Oxytocin has been proposed to regulate human trust. Previous experiments supported this claim by demonstrating that exogenous and endogenous oxytocin is associated with trust (how much trust people place in strangers) and reciprocity (how much people reciprocate when trusted). However, recent replication attempts have been unsuccessful in demonstrating the trust-enhancing effect of oxytocin, and there is limited evidence on whether oxytocin is associated with reciprocity. This study aimed to replicate the previously found nonlinear relationships between the endogenous oxytocin concentration and both trust and reciprocity by utilizing a monetarily incentivized trust game. In a college sample, we found that salivary oxytocin levels showed (i) an inverted U-shaped relationship with trust in men and (ii) a U-shaped relationship with reciprocity in women. The current results confirm the previous finding that endogenous oxytocin levels have nonlinear relationships with trust and reciprocity. Further research on the role of oxytocin secretion in trust and reciprocity is warranted.

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Schmitt, Caroline. "'I Want to Give Something Back': Social Support and Reciprocity in the Lives of Young Refugees." Refuge: Canada's Journal on Refugees 37, no. 1 (April 18, 2021): 3–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.25071/1920-7336.40690.

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This article analyzes the support relationships of 10 asylum-seeking young people who fled to Germany between 2010 and 2015. It highlights their wish for reciprocity as a need in their country of destination and expands upon Sahlin’s typology of reciprocal relationships (generalized, balanced, and negative reciprocity) by the type of “refused reciprocity.” “Refused reciprocity” occurs when people are keen to reciprocate for support they have received, but they live in environments that restrict their agency. The article argues that participation means not only provision of support, but creation of opportunities for people to experience themselves as self-effective actors. They become self-effective when they can cope successfully with new and difficult situations on their own.

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Gove, Dianne, Neil Small, Murna Downs, and Myrra Vernooij-Dassen. "General practitioners’ perceptions of the stigma of dementia and the role of reciprocity." Dementia 16, no. 7 (January 11, 2016): 948–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1471301215625657.

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A qualitative exploration of the stigma of dementia reported that general practitioners described lack of reciprocity as one way in which people with dementia are perceived within society. This was closely linked to their perception of dementia as a stigma. In this article, we explore whether general practitioners perceive people with dementia as lacking reciprocity and, if so, if this is linked with societal opinions about dementia as a stigma. The implications of both perceptions of people with dementia failing to reciprocate and of stigma for timely diagnosis are explored. Our approach is to follow the thread of reciprocity in the data from our initial study. In this follow-up study, general practitioners’ perceptions of societal views of people with dementia included a perception of a lack of reciprocity specifically linked with; failing to respond to human contact, the absence of an appropriate return on social investment and failing to contribute to, or being a burden on, society. General practitioners reported a link between societal perceptions of lack of reciprocity and stereotypes about advanced dementia, difficulties communicating with people with dementia, and lack of opportunities for people with dementia to reciprocate. General practitioners occupy a key position, they can challenge stereotypes and, with support and targeted training about communicating with people living with dementia, can emphasize the ways in which people with dementia can communicate, thereby enhancing their potential to reciprocate. Such changes have implications for improved care and quality of life through the continued maintenance of social inclusion and perceptions of personhood.

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Gilliam, David A., and Steven W. Rayburn. "Propensity for reciprocity among frontline employees." Journal of Services Marketing 30, no. 3 (May 9, 2016): 290–301. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/jsm-05-2015-0194.

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Purpose This paper aims to examine how other-regarding personality traits relate to reciprocity among frontline employees (FLEs). Design/methodology/approach Other-regarding personality variables were used to model the propensity for reciprocity and actual reciprocal behaviors with coworkers. Surveys of 276 FLEs were examined via structural equations modeling. Findings Other-regarding personality traits proved to be antecedents of reciprocity. Cynicism was particularly interesting in that it was positively related to reciprocity contrary to findings in other research. Research limitations/implications Among the interesting findings relating personality to reciprocity are a more affective type of reciprocity based on empathy and altruism, and a more calculative type based on cynicism related to Machiavellianism. Practical implications Managers can use the effects of personality traits on reciprocity and cooperation to hire and place FLEs in ways that provide superior service and increased profits. Social implications This paper indicates that certain individuals who might not typically be thought of as cooperative can in fact reciprocate. Specific ideas about cynicism and Machiavellian reciprocity in FLEs are discussed. Originality/value The findings will aid researchers and managers in understanding personality and FLEs cooperation. The findings on cynicism are particularly valuable in that they contradict some earlier research and commonly held managerial ideas.

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10

Romano, Angelo, and Daniel Balliet. "Reciprocity Outperforms Conformity to Promote Cooperation." Psychological Science 28, no. 10 (September 6, 2017): 1490–502. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956797617714828.

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Evolutionary psychologists have proposed two processes that could give rise to the pervasiveness of human cooperation observed among individuals who are not genetically related: reciprocity and conformity. We tested whether reciprocity outperformed conformity in promoting cooperation, especially when these psychological processes would promote a different cooperative or noncooperative response. To do so, across three studies, we observed participants’ cooperation with a partner after learning (a) that their partner had behaved cooperatively (or not) on several previous trials and (b) that their group members had behaved cooperatively (or not) on several previous trials with that same partner. Although we found that people both reciprocate and conform, reciprocity has a stronger influence on cooperation. Moreover, we found that conformity can be partly explained by a concern about one’s reputation—a finding that supports a reciprocity framework.

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11

Lister, Andrew. "Reconsidering the reciprocity objection to unconditional basic income." Politics, Philosophy & Economics 19, no. 3 (May 28, 2020): 209–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1470594x20927901.

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This article reconsiders the reciprocity objection to unconditional basic income based on the idea that reciprocity is not only a duty but a limiting condition on other duties. If the objection were that unconditionality invites people to neglect contributory obligations arising from a duty of reciprocity, people could ask to opt out of eligibility for the benefit so as to avoid liability to contribution. While market failure provides a reason for mandatory participation in social insurance, it will not justify the generous (if conditional) income support egalitarians favour. To sustain the objection, we need to think of reciprocity a limit on duties of assistance and fair-sharing. In this form, the objection resists the inherited assets response, which holds that we can’t have a duty reciprocate benefits we receive from nature or from previous generations.

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12

Zhao, Jinhua, John M. Kerr, Maria Knight Lapinski, and Robert Shupp. "Reciprocity and Social Norms: Short- and Long-Run Crowding Out Effects of Financial Incentives." Frontiers of Economics in China 16, no. 2 (December 15, 2021): 177–213. http://dx.doi.org/10.54605/fec20210202.

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We link the reciprocity model of Falk and Fischbacher (2006) with the theory of normative social behavior to study how financial incentives crowd out intrinsic motivation in both the short and long runs. Using data from a lab-based repeated public goods game, we find strong evidence in support of the reciprocity model and crowding out effects both when the payment is in place and after it stops. When the payment program is in place, subjects become less sensitive to reciprocity, perceive less kindness in others’ contributions, and care less about others’ welfare. The overall decrease in motivation to reciprocate reduces the effectiveness of the payment program by almost 50%. About 20% of the crowding out effect persists after the payment stops, and the reciprocity mechanism explains over three quarters of the long-run crowding out effect.

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13

Della Rossa, Fabio, Fabio Dercole, and Anna Di Meglio. "Direct Reciprocity and Model-Predictive Strategy Update Explain the Network Reciprocity Observed in Socioeconomic Networks." Games 11, no. 1 (March 16, 2020): 16. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/g11010016.

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Network reciprocity has been successfully put forward (since M. A. Nowak and R. May’s, 1992, influential paper) as the simplest mechanism—requiring no strategical complexity—supporting the evolution of cooperation in biological and socioeconomic systems. The mechanism is actually the network, which makes agents’ interactions localized, while network reciprocity is the property of the underlying evolutionary process to favor cooperation in sparse rather than dense networks. In theoretical models, the property holds under imitative evolutionary processes, whereas cooperation disappears in any network if imitation is replaced by the more rational best-response rule of strategy update. In social experiments, network reciprocity has been observed, although the imitative behavior did not emerge. What did emerge is a form of conditional cooperation based on direct reciprocity—the propensity to cooperate with neighbors who previously cooperated. To resolve this inconsistency, network reciprocity has been recently shown in a model that rationally confronts the two main behaviors emerging in experiments—reciprocal cooperation and unconditional defection—with rationality introduced by extending the best-response rule to a multi-step predictive horizon. However, direct reciprocity was implemented in a non-standard way, by allowing cooperative agents to temporarily cut the interaction with defecting neighbors. Here, we make this result robust to the way cooperators reciprocate, by implementing direct reciprocity with the standard tit-for-tat strategy and deriving similar results.

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Goknar, I. C. "Reciprocity and Anti-Reciprocity Revisited." IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine 52, no. 2 (April 2010): 211–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/map.2010.5525636.

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15

Barrios, Juan José, and Nestor Gandelman. "Religious Participation, Trust and Reciprocity: Evidence from Six Latin American Cities." B.E. Journal of Economic Analysis & Policy 15, no. 1 (January 1, 2015): 353–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/bejeap-2013-0068.

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Abstract Using data on a trust game played in six Latin American cities, we estimate the relationship between religious participation with trust and reciprocity. We find no association with trust but we do find a statistically significant relation with reciprocity. Individuals more active in religious organizations tend to reciprocate more than individuals who participate less, even though their trustiness on others is about the same as that of less religiously active people.

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16

Campennì, Marco, and Gabriele Schino. "Symmetry-based reciprocity: evolutionary constraints on a proximate mechanism." PeerJ 4 (March 15, 2016): e1812. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.1812.

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Background.While the evolution of reciprocal cooperation has attracted an enormous attention, the proximate mechanisms underlying the ability of animals to cooperate reciprocally are comparatively neglected. Symmetry-based reciprocity is a hypothetical proximate mechanism that has been suggested to be widespread among cognitively unsophisticated animals.Methods.We developed two agent-based models of symmetry-based reciprocity (one relying on an arbitrary tag and the other on interindividual proximity) and tested their ability both to reproduce significant emergent features of cooperation in group living animals and to promote the evolution of cooperation.Results.Populations formed by agents adopting symmetry-based reciprocity showed differentiated “social relationships” and a positive correlation between cooperation given and received: two common aspects of animal cooperation. However, when reproduction and selection across multiple generations were added to the models, agents adopting symmetry-based reciprocity were outcompeted by selfish agents that never cooperated.Discussion.In order to evolve, hypothetical proximate mechanisms must be able to stand competition from alternative strategies. While the results of our simulations require confirmation using analytical methods, we provisionally suggest symmetry-based reciprocity is to be abandoned as a possible proximate mechanism underlying the ability of animals to reciprocate cooperative interactions.

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Kawai, Nobuyuki, Miyuki Yasue, Taku Banno, and Noritaka Ichinohe. "Marmoset monkeys evaluate third-party reciprocity." Biology Letters 10, no. 5 (May 2014): 20140058. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2014.0058.

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Many non-human primates have been observed to reciprocate and to understand reciprocity in one-to-one social exchanges. A recent study demonstrated that capuchin monkeys are sensitive to both third-party reciprocity and violation of reciprocity; however, whether this sensitivity is a function of general intelligence, evidenced by their larger brain size relative to other primates, remains unclear. We hypothesized that highly pro-social primates, even with a relatively smaller brain, would be sensitive to others' reciprocity. Here, we show that common marmosets discriminated between human actors who reciprocated in social exchanges with others and those who did not. Monkeys accepted rewards less frequently from non-reciprocators than they did from reciprocators when the non-reciprocators had retained all food items, but they accepted rewards from both actors equally when they had observed reciprocal exchange between the actors. These results suggest that mechanisms to detect unfair reciprocity in third-party social exchanges do not require domain-general higher cognitive ability based on proportionally larger brains, but rather emerge from the cooperative and pro-social tendencies of species, and thereby suggest this ability evolved in multiple primate lineages.

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Lansley, John. "Reciprocity." Modern Churchman 32, no. 3 (January 1990): 41–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.3828/mc.32.3.41.

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Davis, Michael, and Lawrence C. Becker. "Reciprocity." Philosophical Review 97, no. 3 (July 1988): 432. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2185455.

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Mohan, William J. "Reciprocity." International Studies in Philosophy 21, no. 3 (1989): 97–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.5840/intstudphil19892138.

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O’Shea, Jesse. "Reciprocity." American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 101, no. 4 (October 2, 2019): 732–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.19-0274.

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Wierzbicka, Anna. "“Reciprocity”." Studies in Language 33, no. 1 (January 9, 2009): 103–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/sl.33.1.05wie.

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This paper develops a semantic approach to the study of “reciprocity” — an area increasingly seen as central to linguistic typology. “Reciprocal” and “reflexive-reciprocal” constructions from five languages — English, Russian, Polish, French and Japanese — are analyzed in considerable detail. The different, though interrelated, meanings of these constructions are explicated, and the proposed explications are supported with linguistic evidence. The paper challenges current approaches which tend to lump formally and semantically distinct constructions under one arbitrary label such as “RECIP”, and it seeks to show how linguistic typology can be transformed by joining forces with rigorous cross-linguistic semantics. It also challenges the Nijmegen School approach, which privileges extensionalist “video-clipping” over conceptual analysis. The analysis presented in the paper demonstrates the descriptive and explanatory power of the NSM methodology. The results achieved through semantic analysis are shown to be convergent with hypotheses about “shared intentionality” put forward by Michael Tomasello and colleagues in the context of evolutionary psychology, and to throw new light on social universals (“human sociality”).

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CUMBERLAND, J. K. "Reciprocity." Australasian Journal of Optometry 4, no. 10 (March 25, 2010): 203–4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1444-0938.1922.tb00353.x.

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Maiter, Sarah, Laura Simich, Nora Jacobson, and Julie Wise. "Reciprocity." Action Research 6, no. 3 (September 2008): 305–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1476750307083720.

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Miller, Angela. "Reciprocity." American Art 23, no. 1 (March 2009): 11–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/599052.

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Carr, Christopher L. "Reciprocity." Communications of the ACM 49, no. 6 (June 2006): 77–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/1132469.1132471.

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Kubák, Matúš, Vladimír Gazda, Zuzana Lejková, and Jozef Nemec. "Kvantitatívny pohľad na vplyv asymetrickej informácie na teóriu dôvery a teóriu reciprocity." Sociální studia / Social Studies 12, no. 4 (September 5, 2016): 31–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.5817/soc2015-4-31.

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Důvěra a reciprocita vstupují do většiny osobních, sociálních a ekonomických interakcí. Zatímco kooperativní chování se může realizovat k užitku partnerů interakce, sobeckost a nereciproční jednání mohou škodit. V článku prezentujeme investiční hru s plnou (symetrickou) informací a parciální (asymetrickou) informací. V experimentu též zavádíme očekávání subjektů ohledně chování protistrany interakce. To nám umožňuje pozorovat vedlejší motivy chování účastníků experimentu. Experiment opakujeme v pěti kolech a pozorujeme vliv symetrické a asymetrické informace na vývoj důvěry a reciprocity. Pozorujeme odklon ekonomických agentů od neohraničeně racionálního a sobeckého chování. Subjekty se odchylují od nashovských ekvilibrií. Dokumentujeme důkaz toho, že důvěra indikuje reciprocitu. Účastníci experimentu jsou averzní vůči nespravedlnosti, ale pozorujeme nepatrně oportunistické chování v experimentu s asymetrickou informací, kde subjekty využívají informační disparitu. Efekt reputace nebyl potvrzený a teda důvěra a reciprocita se v průběhu interakce podstatně nevyvíjejí. Step out efekt nebyl taktéž potvrzený, a teda subjekty nemají tendenci ke zběhnutí z kooperace. Subjekty si v prezentovaném experimentu zasílají sumy podobné sumám, jaké si zasílali subjekty v referenčních experimentech. Avšak Sendeři na Slovensku zasílají sumy, které jsou menší než sumy zasílané v jiných zemích. Sendeři nejsou averzní vůči nespravedlnosti a teda nevěří, že jim Receiveři zašlou férové rozdělení zisku z investice. Receiveři v symetrické verzi experimentu jsou více averzní vůči nespravedlnosti než Receiveři v asymetrické verzi experimentu. Důvěra subjektů narůstá s jejich očekáváními. Pozorujeme též nepatrný vliv jednání v předešlých kolech experimentu na jednání v aktuálním kole. Tento vliv však není statisticky významný.

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Cook, William L., Joan R. Asarnow, Michael J. Goldstein, Valerie G. Marshall, and Edith Weber. "Mother-child dynamics in early-onset depression and childhood schizophrenia spectrum disorders." Development and Psychopathology 2, no. 1 (January 1990): 71–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0954579400000602.

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AbstractFamily interaction patterns were compared for children with depressive disorders and children with schizophrenia spectrum disorders (SSD). Results indicated that compared to SSD children, depressed children were less positive and more negative when interacting with their mothers. Additionally, depressed children did not significantly reciprocate positive or negative statements initiated by their mothers, whereas reciprocity of both positiveness and negativeness was a significant characteristic of the SSD children. While no between group differences were found in the base rates of mothers' positive and negative responses, mothers of SSD children were more likely than mothers of depressed children to reciprocate child negativeness. Maternal reciprocity of positive statements, while not discriminating diagnostic groups, was a significant characteristic only of mothers of depressed children. The implications of these results for theories of developmental psychopathology are discussed.

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Ali, Haris. "Reciprocity or negotiation in the psychological contract: a power perspective." Employee Relations: The International Journal 43, no. 5 (April 9, 2021): 1250–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/er-09-2019-0367.

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PurposeThe psychological contract literature is generally based on the assumption of reciprocity between employee and employer. The emphasis on reciprocity, however, largely downplays the implications of power dynamics in the employment relationship. In order to bridge this gap, the current research investigates psychological contract from the lens of power particularly focusing on reciprocity.Design/methodology/approachIn total, 43 semi-structured interviews are carried out with 37 employees and six managers of three call center companies in Pakistan. The technique of template analysis is used for data analysis.FindingsIn contrast to the assumption of reciprocity, the research findings highlight employees' perceived inability to reciprocate the employer's inducements on parity basis, because of their view of power asymmetry in the employment relationship. The results further suggest the high tendency among employees to attribute employer reciprocity largely to their managers. The findings also point toward divergence in the reciprocity perceptions of employees and managers in relation with the employers.Research limitations/implicationsThe emphasis on call centers bounds the generality of results. Future research is needed to further explore the impact of power asymmetry on reciprocity in organizations of other industries. With significant implications for the employment relations, negotiated contracts consider the exchange between employee and employer as an obligation rather than a voluntary act of kindness, as emphasized in reciprocity.Originality/valueThis research contributes to knowledge by emphasizing the significance of negotiation rather than reciprocation in the psychological contract. The negotiation approach efficiently recognizes the implications of power asymmetry that remain generally under-researched in the psychological contract literature.

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Kube, Sebastian, Michel André Maréchal, and Clemens Puppe. "The Currency of Reciprocity: Gift Exchange in the Workplace." American Economic Review 102, no. 4 (June 1, 2012): 1644–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/aer.102.4.1644.

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What determines reciprocity in employment relations? We conducted a controlled field experiment to measure the extent to which monetary and nonmonetary gifts affect workers' performance. We find that nonmonetary gifts have a much stronger impact than monetary gifts of equivalent value. We also observe that when workers are offered the choice, they prefer receiving money, but reciprocate as if they received a nonmonetary gift. This result is consistent with the common saying, “it's the thought that counts.” We underline this point by showing that monetary gifts can effectively trigger reciprocity if the employer invests more time and effort into the gift's presentation.

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Kim, Chae-Han. "Reciprocity in Asymmetry: When Does Reciprocity Work?" International Interactions 31, no. 1 (January 2005): 1–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03050620590919371.

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Engelmann, Jan M., Esther Herrmann, and Michael Tomasello. "Chimpanzees trust conspecifics to engage in low-cost reciprocity." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 282, no. 1801 (February 22, 2015): 20142803. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2014.2803.

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Many of humans' most important social interactions rely on trust, including most notably among strangers. But little is known about the evolutionary roots of human trust. We presented chimpanzees ( Pan troglodytes ) with a modified version of the human trust game—trust in reciprocity—in which subjects could opt either to obtain a small but safe reward on their own or else to send a larger reward to a partner and trust her to reciprocate a part of the reward that she could not access herself. In a series of three studies, we found strong evidence that in interacting with a conspecific, chimpanzees show spontaneous trust in a novel context; flexibly adjust their level of trust to the trustworthiness of their partner and develop patterns of trusting reciprocity over time. At least in some contexts then, trust in reciprocity is not unique to humans, but rather has its evolutionary roots in the social interactions of humans' closest primate relatives.

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Miyaji, Kohei, Jun Tanimoto, Zhen Wang, Aya Hagishima, and Naoki Ikegaya. "Direct Reciprocity in Spatial Populations Enhances R-Reciprocity As Well As ST-Reciprocity." PLoS ONE 8, no. 8 (August 7, 2013): e71961. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0071961.

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34

Arai, Sakura, John Tooby, and Leda Cosmides. "Motivations to reciprocate cooperation and punish defection are calibrated by estimates of how easily others can switch partners." PLOS ONE 17, no. 4 (April 19, 2022): e0267153. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0267153.

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Evolutionary models of dyadic cooperation demonstrate that selection favors different strategies for reciprocity depending on opportunities to choose alternative partners. We propose that selection has favored mechanisms that estimate the extent to which others can switch partners and calibrate motivations to reciprocate and punish accordingly. These estimates should reflect default assumptions about relational mobility: the probability that individuals in one’s social world will have the opportunity to form relationships with new partners. This prior probability can be updated by cues present in the immediate situation one is facing. The resulting estimate of a partner’s outside options should serve as input to motivational systems regulating reciprocity: Higher estimates should down-regulate the use of sanctions to prevent defection by a current partner, and up-regulate efforts to attract better cooperative partners by curating one’s own reputation and monitoring that of others. We tested this hypothesis using a Trust Game with Punishment (TGP), which provides continuous measures of reciprocity, defection, and punishment in response to defection. We measured each participant’s perception of relational mobility in their real-world social ecology and experimentally varied a cue to partner switching. Moreover, the study was conducted in the US (n = 519) and Japan (n = 520): societies that are high versus low in relational mobility. Across conditions and societies, higher perceptions of relational mobility were associated with increased reciprocity and decreased punishment: i.e., those who thought that others have many opportunities to find new partners reciprocated more and punished less. The situational cue to partner switching was detected, but relational mobility in one’s real social world regulated motivations to reciprocate and punish, even in the experimental setting. The current research provides evidence that motivational systems are designed to estimate varying degrees of partner choice in one’s social ecology and regulate reciprocal behaviors accordingly.

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Iredale, Mathew. "Indirect reciprocity." Philosophers' Magazine, no. 50 (2010): 68–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.5840/tpm20105061.

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36

Herrmann, Steffen. "Asymmetrical reciprocity." Metodo. International Studies in Phenomenology and Philosophy 5, no. 1 (2017): 73–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.19079/metodo.5.1.73.

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37

Helou, Charles. "Quintic reciprocity." Proceedings of the American Mathematical Society 117, no. 4 (April 1, 1993): 877. http://dx.doi.org/10.1090/s0002-9939-1993-1155597-x.

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38

Jenkins, David. "Denying reciprocity." European Journal of Political Theory 15, no. 3 (February 18, 2015): 312–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1474885115569513.

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39

Saunders, A. E. "Reciprocity Failure." Journal of Photographic Science 39, no. 2 (March 1991): 85–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00223638.1991.11737125.

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40

Wolf, Gerrit. "Reciprocity Wins." Contemporary Psychology: A Journal of Reviews 30, no. 2 (February 1985): 120–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/023548.

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41

Marck, Patricia. "Therapeutic reciprocity." Advances in Nursing Science 13, no. 1 (September 1990): 49–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00012272-199009000-00007.

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Kahn, Bruno, Shuji Saito, Takao Yamazaki, and Kay Rülling. "Reciprocity sheaves." Compositio Mathematica 152, no. 9 (July 14, 2016): 1851–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1112/s0010437x16007466.

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We start developing a notion of reciprocity sheaves, generalizing Voevodsky’s homotopy invariant presheaves with transfers which were used in the construction of his triangulated categories of motives. We hope that reciprocity sheaves will eventually lead to the definition of larger triangulated categories of motivic nature, encompassing non-homotopy invariant phenomena.

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Ashwin, Sarah, Irina Tartakovskaya, Marina Ilyina, and Tatyana Lytkina. "Gendering Reciprocity." Gender & Society 27, no. 3 (March 19, 2013): 396–421. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0891243213479444.

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Vivaldelli, Joan. "Therapeutic Reciprocity." AJN, American Journal of Nursing 107, no. 7 (July 2007): 74–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.naj.0000279281.40464.59.

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Howland, Wendie. "THERAPEUTIC RECIPROCITY." AJN, American Journal of Nursing 107, no. 11 (November 2007): 15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.naj.0000298040.56951.6a.

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&NA;. "THERAPEUTIC RECIPROCITY." AJN, American Journal of Nursing 107, no. 11 (November 2007): 15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.naj.0000298041.34080.39.

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Sethi, Rajiv, and E. Somanathan. "Understanding reciprocity." Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization 50, no. 1 (January 2003): 1–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0167-2681(02)00032-x.

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Malmendier, Ulrike, Vera L. te Velde, and Roberto A. Weber. "Rethinking Reciprocity." Annual Review of Economics 6, no. 1 (August 2014): 849–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-economics-080213-041312.

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Wiersma, Diederik S. "Breaking reciprocity." Nature Photonics 6, no. 8 (July 31, 2012): 506–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nphoton.2012.187.

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Deloup, Florian, and Vladimir Turaev. "On reciprocity." Journal of Pure and Applied Algebra 208, no. 1 (January 2007): 153–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpaa.2005.12.008.

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