Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Real property – european union countries'

La réalisation du marché intérieur européen par une meilleure intégration des marchés financiers est aujourd’hui devenue une réalité. L'objectif est toutefois loin d'être atteint en matière de crédit hypothécaire, nonobstant de nombreuses initiatives européennes. Compte tenu de ces difficultés et du postulat selon lequel il serait impossible d'harmoniser le droit des suretés immobilières en raison de leur ancrage culturel et national, une proposition alternative consistant dans la création d'une sûreté immobilière commune (euro-hypothèque), venant se superposer aux systèmes nationaux, a été formulée depuis un certain nombre d'années. La recherche analyse dans un premier temps la réalité du postulat précité à la lumière du droit comparé et conclut qu'en réalité, les différents systèmes trouvent non seulement leur origine dans un modèle identique, fondé sur le caractère accessoire de la sûreté, mais ont en outre connu une évolution similaire au cours de ces dernières années. Il apparaît que ce modèle constitue la meilleure base pour toute harmonisation européenne. Après avoir examiné l'interaction avec le droit international privé, sous l'angle de la protection du consommateur, et le droit européen, sous l'angle de la question de la compétence communautaire et du principe de subsidiarité, des pistes sont proposés pour opérer un rapprochement des législations nationales relatives au crédit hypothécaire. La proposition consiste à intégrer dans un seul instrument juridique contraignant (une directive européenne) les différentes propositions permettant d'opérer un rapprochement des législations nationales à trois niveaux :celui de la sûreté immobilière et de la publicité foncier, celui du contrat de prêt et enfin, celui relatif à la procédure de réalisation de l'immeuble.
Doctorat en droit
info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

Cette thèse s’intéresse au défi que représente le rattrapage des niveaux de prix pour la stabilité macroéconomique des pays en transition d’Europe centrale et orientale, dans la perspective de leur future participation à la zone euro. A cet égard, une modélisation du taux de change réel d’équilibre suggère que l’appréciation réelle liée au rattrapage économique recouvre des évolutions de prix relatifs différentes suivant les régimes de change, dont témoignent des trajectoires d’endettement extérieur contrastées. Dans les économies en changes flexibles, la hausse du taux de change nominal favorise une appréciation endogène des termes de l’échange à moyen terme, en orientant les investissements directs étrangers et la réalisation des gains de productivité vers le secteur exposé de l’économie, ce qui se traduit par une appréciation du taux de change réel d’équilibre et une amélioration des comptes extérieurs. Dans les économies en changes fixes, les effets de valorisation liés à la hausse des prix relatifs domestiques tendent à orienter les investissements vers le secteur abrité de l’économie, entraînant une érosion de la compétitivité extérieure, dont témoigne le gonflement de la dette externe. Par ailleurs, l’intégration monétaire comporte des risques spécifiques pour la stabilité macroéconomique des économies en rattrapage, dans la mesure où elle s’accompagne d’un processus marqué de convergence des conditions de financement entre Etats membres, dès lors que la perspective de l’adhésion à l’espace monétaire commun devient crédible. Un modèle dynamique à anticipations rationnelles permet de montrer que face au choc de demande lié à une telle convergence financière, l’appréciation du taux de change nominal se révèle cruciale pour limiter la surchauffe de l’économie. A l’inverse, dans les économies en régime de change fixe, l’abaissement des primes de risque pays est susceptible de provoquer une montée de l’endettement extérieur, suivi d’enchaînements déflationnistes une fois dans l’union monétaire
This research investigates the challenges of price level catching-up for macroeconomic stability in Central and Eastern European transition countries seeking to enter the Euro area. In this respect, an equilibrium real exchange rate model suggests that the process of real appreciation observed along economic catching-up in these countries can be ascribed to different relative price developments, depending on the exchange rate regime, as exemplified by contrasted external debt trajectories. In flexible exchange rate economies, the increase in the nominal exchange rate fosters an endogenous appreciation of the terms of trade in the medium run, by channelling foreign direct investment and associated productivity gains to the exposed sector of the economy, thus appreciating the equilibrium real exchange rate and strengthening the current account over time. In fixed exchange rate economies, positive valuation effects associated with the increase in domestic relative prices tend to divert investment to the sheltered sector, thus undermining external competitiveness and bringing about higher external debt. Furthermore, monetary integration entails specific risks for macroeconomic stability in catching-up economies, because it implies a process of rapid convergence in the financing conditions across member States, which takes place as soon as the perspective of accession to the common monetary area appears credible. A dynamic, rational expectations model shows that the appreciation of the nominal exchange rate becomes crucial to curtail the economic overheating triggered by the demand shock associated with financial convergence. By contrast, diminishing country risk premia under fixed exchange rate regimes are likely to cause ‘boom bust’ cycles, with an increase in external indebtedness followed by deflationary developments once in the monetary union

Thesis (MA)--University of Stellenbosch, 2002.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: In October 1999 South Africa and the European Union (EU) signed a free trade agreement, the Trade Development and Co-operation Agreement (TDCA), which came into effect on 1 January 2000. The TDCA was developed to enhance bilateral trade, economic-, political- and social cooperation and consists of three components - the creation of a Free Trade Area between South-Africa and the EU, EU financial aid to South Africa through the European Programme for Reconstruction and Development (EPRD), and project aid. However, the EU, in an effort to secure the best possible deal for itself, often behave in its own interests (through the manipulation of the Wine and Spirits Agreement) during the negotiations for the TDCA. The goal of this study was to establish what exactly trademarks are, and what implications the EU's protection of intellectual property rights on wine and spirits trademarks will have on i) the South African wine industry, ii) whether South Africa could have exercised another option, iii) whether this action has created a precedent with which the EU can, in future, again force South Africa or any of its other developing trade partners to make concessions, and iv) who gains the most from the TDCA. The concludes that the EU, through the manipulation of the Wine and Spirits Agreement, left South Africa with no choice by to concede the use of the contested trademarks - something that has already taken its toll on the South African wine industry - in order to save the TDCA. This action created a precedent that the EU will, in future, again be in a position to threaten developing countries with the termination of an agreement should they fail to comply with its demands. Finally, the conclusion is made that even though the TDCA was created to assist South Africa with its reintegration into the world market, it will ultimately be the EU that benefits most from the agreement.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Suid-Afrika en die Europese Unie (EU) het in Oktober 1999 In vryehandelsooreenkoms, die Trade Development and Co-operation Agreement (TDCA) onderteken, wat op 1 Januarie 2000 in werking getree het. Die TDCA is ontwerp om bilaterale handel-, ekonomiese-, politieke- en sosiale samewerking te bevorder en bestaan uit drie komponente, naamlik die skep van 'n vryehandelgebied tussen die EU en Suid-Afrika; finansiele steun deur die EU aan Suid-Afrika onder die European Programme for Reconstruction and Development (EPRD) en projekhulp. Die EU het egter dikwels in eiebelang opgetree (deur middel van die manipulasie van die Wyn- en Spiritus Ooreenkoms) tydens die onderhandelingsproses in 'n poging om die beste moontlike ooreenkoms vir homself te beding. Die doel van hierdie studie was om te bepaal wat presies handelsmerke is, en watter implikasies die EU se beskerming van intellektuele eiendomsregte aangaande wyn- en spiritushandelsmerke op i) die Suid-Afrikaanse wynbedryf sal he, ii) of Suid-Afrika 'n ander opsie kon uitoefen, iii) of hierdie aksie In presedent geskep het waarmee die EU Suid-Afrika of enige van sy ander ontwikkelende handelsvennote in die toekoms weer sal kan dwing om toegewings te maak, en iv) wie die meeste baat vind by die TDCA. Die studie het tot die gevolgtrekking gekom dat die EU deur die manipulasie van die Wyn- en Spiritus Ooreenkoms aan Suid-Afrika geen keuse gegee het nie as om die gebruik van die betwiste handelsmerke op te se - iets wat reeds die Suid-Afrikaanse wynbedryf geknou het - in 'n poging om die TDCA te behou. Hierdie optrede skep 'n presedent dat die EU voortaan in onderhandelings met ander ontwikkelende state weer kan dreig om die hele ooreenkoms te verongeluk indien daar nie aan sy eise voldoen word nie. In die laaste instansie is daar tot die gevolgtrekking gekom dat, alhoewel die TDCA daarop gemik was om Suid-Afrika te help met sy herintegrasie tot die wereldmark, dit uiteindelik die EU is wat die meeste daarby gaan baat.

In literature it has been stated that in times of low capital barriers policies can impact real exchange rates (RERs) and, it has been shown that RERs influence foreign direct investment (FDI). As inward FDI is a growth stimulating factor for the German economy and as more than a third of inward FDI stems from countries in the European Union (EU), this study investigates the RER-FDI link between Germany and seven EU countries. The impact of bilateral RERs between Germany and seven EU countries on German net FDI inflows is examined for the period 1974-2018. Further, it is investigated how the euro introduction in 1999 affected the RER-FDI links. Using Ordinary Least Squares models it is found that in the pre-euro period a real German currency appreciation led to decreases in net FDI from most economies in scope. This negative RER-FDI link endures for the non-euro countries Sweden, Denmark, and the United Kingdom after the euro introduction. France, Italy, and Spain, euro countries, are subject to the euro-effect: the negative RER-FDI link changes to a positive link with the euro introduction. This phenomenon indicates an altering investment behavior. The results are strengthened by a panel estimation as robustness check. As the euro-effect was not discovered in previous studies nor is a theory established explaining the altering investment behavior of euro firms, this thesis suggests an alternative explanation.

Thesis (LLM)--University of Stellenbosch, 1999.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This thesis deals with the Trade, Development and Cooperation Agreement (TDCA) between the European Union and the Republic of South Africa, which was concluded in October 1999. In particular, the agreement is analysed in the light of the negotiating process between the parties, the contents of the agreement, the applicability of WTO law and the compatibility of the agreement with it and the Port and Sherry Agreement. Since the EU emphasised its aim to commence economic and development cooperation with other African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) countries on a reciprocal basis during the negotiations for a successor of the Lomé Convention, the TDCA between the EU and South Africa had to be seen as a "pilot project" for future cooperation agreements between countries at different levels of development. The TDCA between the EU and South Africa is therefore not only very important for the two concerned parties, but could serve as an example for further negotiations between the EU and other ACP countries. Thus the purpose of this thesis is to examine the TDCA between the EU and South Africa from a wider global perspective. The thesis is divided into six Chapters: The first Chapter provides an introduction to the circumstances under which the negotiations between the EU and South Africa commenced. It deals briefly with the economic situation in South Africa during the apartheid era and presents reasons why the parties wanted to enter into bilateral negotiations. The introductory part furthermore presents an overview of the contents of the thesis. The second chapter contains a detailed description of the negotiating process that took place between the parties and shows why it took 43 months and 21 rounds of negotiations to reach a deal. South Africa's partial accession to the Lomé Convention and the conclusion of separate agreements such as the Wine and Spirits Agreement, are also analysed. Chapter three presents the various components of the TOCA and illustrates what the negotiators achieved. This chapter on the TOCA concludes with an evaluation of the Agreement and shows the potential benefits to South Africa and the EU. Since the Agreement had to satisfy international rules, the provisions of the General Agreement on Tariffs and TradelWorld Trade Organisation (GATTIWTO) were of major importance. The EC Treaty, however, does not contain any provision that indicates whether, or how, an international agreement like the GATTIWTO penetrates the Community legal order. In Chapter four, accordingly, questions are raised regarding the extent to which the bilateral agreement between South Africa and the EU was influenced by the GATTIWTO provisions and how these rules were incorporated into the agreement. Furthermore, since the parties agreed on the establishment of a free trade area, this chapter deals with the question of in how far the TOCA is in line with Article XXIV GATT. In addition to the GATT provisions, the TOCA is also affected by the Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs). Therefore Chapter five deals with TRIPs in connection with the TOCA. The use of the terms "Port" and "Sherry" as the major stumbling block to the conclusion of the TOCA is analysed more closely. The final part, namely Chapter six, provides a summary of the results of the investigation. Furthermore, a conclusion is provided with regard to the question of whether the TOeA can be seen as an example for further trade relations between the EU and other ACP countries.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie tesis is gerig op die Handels-, Ontwikkelings- en Samewerkingsooreenkoms (TDGA) tussen die Europese Unie (EU) en die Republiek van Suid Afrika wat in Oktober 1999 gesluit is. Die ooreenkoms word veral in die lig van die onderhandelingsproses tussen die partye, die inhoud van die ooreenkoms, die toepaslikheid van Wêreldhandelsorganisasiereg en die versoenbaarheid daarvan met die ooreenkoms en die Port en Sjerrie-ooreenkoms ontleed. Aangesien die EU sy oogmerk van wederkerige ekonomiese en ontwikkelings-gerigte samewerking met ander lande in Afrika en die Karibiese en Stille Oseaan-Eilande gedurende die onderhandelings vir 'n opvolger van die Lomé Konvensie beklemtoon het, moes die ooreenkoms tussen die EU en Suid-Afrika as 'n "loodsprojek" vir toekomstige samewerkingsooreenkomste tussen lande wat op verskillende vlakke van onwikkeling is, gesien word. Die Handels-, Ontwikkelings- en Samewerkingsooreenkoms tussen die EU en Suid-Afrika is dus nie net baie belangrik vir die betrokke partye nie, maar dit kan ook as 'n voorbeeld vir verdere onderhandelings tussen die EU en lande van Afrika en die Karibiese- en Stille Oseaan-Eilande dien. Die doel van dié tesis is om die Handels-, Ontwikkelings- en Samewekingsooreenkoms tussen die EU en Suid-Afrika vanuit 'n meer globale perspektief te beskou. Die tesis is in ses Hoofstukke ingedeel: Die eerste hoofstuk bied 'n inleiding tot die omstandighede waaronder die onderhandelings tussen die EU en Suid-Afrika begin het. Dit behandel die Suid- Afrikaanse ekonomiese situasie onder apartheid kortliks en toon hoekom die partye tweesydige onderhandelings wou aanknoop. Verder bied die inleidende deel 'n oorsig oor die inhoud van die tesis. Die tweede hoofstuk bevat 'n gedetailleerde beskrywing van die onderhandelingsproses wat tussen die partye plaasgevind het en toon aan waarom dit drie-en-veertig maande geduur het en een-en-twintig onderhandelingsrondtes gekos het om die saak te beklink. Suid-Afrika se gedeeltelike toetrede tot die Lomé Konvensie en die sluit van aparte ooreenkomste soos die Port- en Sjerrieooreenkoms word ook ontleed. Die daaropvolgende hoofstuk bespreek die verskillende komponente van die Handels-, Ontwikkelings- en Samewerkingsooreenkoms en toon wat die onderhandelaars bereik het. Hierdie hoofstuk oor die Ooreenkoms sluit af met 'n evaluering daarvan en dui die potensiële voordele van die Ooreenkoms vir Suid- Afrika en die EU aan. Aangesien die Ooreenkoms internasionale reëls moes tevrede stel, was die voorskrifte van die Algemene Ooreenkoms oor Tariewe en Handel (GATT) van uiterste belang. Die EG-verdrag bevat egter geen voorskrif wat aandui óf, of hoé, 'n internasionale ooreenkoms soos GATTNVTO die regsorde van die Europese Gemeenskap binnedring nie. Die vraag oor in hoeverre die tweesydige ooreenkoms tussen Suid-Afrika en die EU deur die GATTIWTO voorskrifte beïnvloed is, en oor hoe hierdie reëls in die ooreenkoms opgeneem is, word dus in Hoofstuk vier aangeraak. Aangesien die partye ooreengekom het om 'n vrye handeisarea tot stand te bring, behandel hierdie hoofstuk ook die vraag oor in hoeverre die TOGA met Artikel XXIV GATT strook. Tesame met die GATT-voorskrifte word die TOGA ook deur die Ooreenkoms ten opsigte van Handelsverwante Aspekte van Intellektuele Eiendomsreg (TRIPs) geraak. Hoofstuk vyf behandel daarom hierdie aspek ten opsigte van die TOGA. Die gebruik van die terme "Port" en "Sjerrie" as die vernaamste struikelblok tot die sluiting van die TOG-ooreenkoms word ook deegliker ontleed. Die laaste gedeelte, naamlik Hoofstuk ses, bied 'n opsomming van die resultate van die ondersoek. Verder word 'n gevolgtrekking voorsien ten opsigte van vraag of die TOGA as 'n voorbeeld vir verdere handelsverwantskappe tussen die EU en ander lande in Afrika en die Karibiese en Stille Oseaan-eilande beskou kan word.

Diploma thesis concerns about legal regulations of real estate by new civil codex with reflection to the previous and international legal regulation.The aim of the thesis is to assess the functionality of new civil code and its benefits in the real estate investment transactions in Czech Republic. This analysis is supported with overview of transfrontier real estate acquisitions made by foreign investors in Czech Republic and additionally also real estate investments of Czech investors abroad. This thesis therefore tries to provide answers to multiple questions ranging from analysis of new civil codex regulation, its impacts, risks and functionality then secondly its similarities in comparison to foreign law regulation (of Germany, Austria, Great Britain, Italy and France). From the perspective of transfrontier real estate acquisitions this thesis concerns about law acknowledgement for foreigner parties in real estate transactions in Czech Republic and counterbalance of the similar rights on the side of Czech residents in reciprocal acquisition process. The analysis is supported by the debate of accuracy of either liberal or protectionist attitude to foreign real estate investors' regulation with a reflection to current international political, sociological and economical course of events.

Defence date: 21 May 2018
Examining Board: Prof. Giorgio Monti, EUI (EUI Supervisor) ; Prof. Urska Šadl, EUI ; Prof. Inge Govaere, College of Europe, Bruges ; Prof. Alison Jones, King's College, London
This PhD thesis deals with IP-competition conflicts and how the EU Courts have addressed them over time. It seeks to answer the question of how the reasoning of EU Courts in these cases has been affected by three crucial evolutionary moments in EU law: (1) the Europeanization of IP law (2) the modernization of EU competition law and (3) the elevation of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union to a primary source of EU law. The first two chapters provide the theoretical framework of the thesis. The first chapter provides a detailed overview of the three crucial evolutionary moments in EU law mentioned above. The second chapter provides an overview of theories about the legal reasoning of EU Courts and about the different approaches that the courts have adopted when deciding IP-competition conflicts. Five such approaches, or judicial lenses, are identified: an economics, a conflict of laws, a conflict of competences, a constitutional and a private law approach. It is shown that these five different approaches can be linked to the three evolutionary moments at the IP-competition interface in EU law. Chapters three to five trace the theoretical insights from the first two chapters in three case studies on specific business methods having given rise to IP-competition conflicts before EU Courts: (i) selective distribution systems, (ii) digital platforms and restrictions of access, and (iii) lock-in strategies on aftermarkets, in particular in the online environment. The case studies analyse how these comparable factual situations of IP-competition conflicts have been treated on the one hand under EU competition law and on the other under EU IP law. In each case study, the legal reasoning is identified and compared between EU competition and IP law. The main finding in the case studies is that EU Courts treat the spheres of EU competition law and IP law as wholly separate. This has led to quite diverging approaches in comparable cases of IP-competition conflicts depending on whether the cases are brought under EU competition law or IP law, jeopardizing the systemic coherence of EU law and disturbing the CJEU’s dialogue with national ii courts. This situation is not sustainable. In an economic environment where the EU’s economies are increasingly depending on e-commerce and digital assets often protected by IP, IP-competition conflicts are bound to increase. To ensure a legal environment that provides legal certainty and equal conditions for firms to thrive across EU Member States without hurting consumers, a more coherent and improved methodological guidance on how to address IP-competition conflicts is needed. The aim of this thesis is to provide a first step in this direction.

Examining Board: Professor Lionel Bently, University of Cambridge; Professor Hans W Micklitz, European University Institute; Professor Jeremy Phillips, Queen Mary University of London; Professor Giovanni Sartor, European University Institute (Supervisor).
First made available online on 26 May 2017
Defence date: 22 October 2012
PDF of thesis uploaded from the Library digital archive of EUI PhD theses
Over the last few years, political and academic attention has focused on the future of copyright at the EU level. Following two decades of piecemeal legislative interventions, which have resulted in a limited harmonisation of the copyright laws of EU Member States, a debate has ensued as to the feasibility and desirability of achieving full copyright harmonisation at the EU level. This might be obtained either through a EU copyright code, encompassing a codification of the present body of EU copyright directives, or by way of a regulation (to be enacted pursuant to new Article 118(1) TFEU), aimed at creating an optional unitary copyright title. Thus far, however, no such legislative initiatives have been undertaken. Despite this impasse, the CJEU has notably been acting in a proactive way, inching towards full harmonisation. With its 2009 decision in Case C-5/08 Infopaq, the Court provided a EU-wide understanding of an important principle of copyright: the originality requirement. The CJEU further elaborated upon this in subsequent case law (notably, Case C-393/09 Bezpečnostní Softwarová Asociace, Joined Cases C-403/08 and C-429/08 Murphy, Case C-145/10 Painer, Case C-604/10 Football Dataco and Case C-406/10 SAS). The meaning of originality adopted by the CJEU as a EU-wide standard is akin to that envisaged in continental Member States’ copyright laws, thus differing from the loose notion of originality under UK law. As such, an examination as to the implications of CJEU harmonising jurisprudence in this Member State shall be undertaken, with regard to the scope of copyright protection and subject-matter categorisation. Overall, this contribution wishes to assess how, and to what extent, CJEU case law has resulted in de facto EU copyright harmonisation. In addition, it will attempt to foresee the fate of EU copyright in light of copyright reform projects which are currently being discussed in political and academic circles both in the US and Europe.

Defense Date: 16 April 2010
Examining Board: Prof. Christian Joerges (supervisor), University of Bremen Prof. Miguel Poiares Maduro, EUI Prof. Peter Sparkes, University of Southampton Prof. Jules Stuyck, Catholic University, Leuven
The aim of this thesis is, first, to reconsider property as a legal concept and as a social institution, by taking into consideration several insights provided by social sciences. Secondly, several regulatory measures are proposed in order to enhance an adequate protection of property. The author stars by analysing the protection of property as a fundamental right under EU law. She claims that the ECJ’s challenge is to strike the right balance between property rights and market build-up. Such a balance is to be found in the communicative network of discourses of the case-law of the ECtHR, and common traditions of Member States. Accordingly, the author suggests that the ECJ should be open to inputs from the ECtHR, namely through the ‘excessive burden’ criterion. The second regulatory analysis takes into consideration that property is intrinsically linked to consumption, and that owner is often necessarily a consumer. The function of EC consumer [protection] law, the function of European consumer policy, and the definition of the European consumer are the three interrelated questions that have guided the inquiry in Chapter III. Consumer policies, it is claimed, should be asymmetrical: they shall create benefits for those who are boundedly rational while imposing little or no harm on those who are to be considered fully rational. This distinction will provide the basis for a new standard in the assessment of the costs and benefits of regulatory options. Finally, the author inquires about situations where a conflict of properties might exist between a corporeal thing and an intellectual property right. It is claimed that lawmaking bodies must autonomously consider the interest(s) of the owner of the corporeal thing in the overall assessment of granting an intellectual property right. Before formulation of property rights, an appropriate weighing and balancing of all relevant interests is thus in need, in order to avoid normative inconsistencies.

Defence Date: 11 October 2010
Examining Board: Prof. Dr. Hanns Ullrich, EUI/Max Planch Munich; Prof. David Llewelyn, Kings College London; Prof. Antonina Bakardjieva Engelbrekt, Stockholms Universitet; Prof. Dr. Hans-W. Micklitz, EUI
PDF of thesis uploaded from the Library digital archive of EUI PhD theses
The development of a uniform European trade mark law regime has taken so many different paths over the past decades that the state of the law is now more or less incomprehensible to everyone. The regime is primarily shaped by judicial creativity, and the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU, earlier the European Court of Justice, ECJ), has not even hesitated to set aside the letter of supranational statutes of central importance. The CJEU has explained this shift in power to make law, from the legislature to the court, simply by the need to interpret the legislation not solely on the basis of its wording, but also in light of the overall scheme and objectives of the system of which it is part. Besides the question of a democratic deficit, permeating the overall European unification process, the inconsistent application of trade mark statutes is disquieting. On one day, rights can be invoked to prevent registration of a trade mark only if use of that mark is likely to cause a change in the economic behaviour of purchasers. On another day, free riding on the reputation represented by the trade mark is an actionable infringement of the rights per se, in spite of the need for correlation between the rights to prevent registration and to prevent use of signs or expression in the course of trade. The position of the CJEU, that the application of the legislation depends on the circumstances in each case, is highly agreed upon. But it brings the question to the fore of what the yardstick is for deciding one way or another based on the circumstances in the case? More to the point, what is the normative basis for the uniform trade mark law regime, justifying that even statutory law is set aside? This study investigates the rationale for trade mark based rights to limit the freedom of others to use whatever signs or expressions they like in the course of trade. The investigation starts from a positive analysis of the reasons for trade mark rights, but also aims at providing a basis for what ought to be the guiding star when shaping the uniform regime. Even if fairly consistent assumptions often transpire from the case law handed down by the CJEU, the rulings remain difficult to reconcile at best and are unconvincing at worst, as long as the Court refrains from rendering any implicit logics for the decisions explicit. The absence of a clear theoretical basis for the trade mark rights has very practical implications. Not only does the (maybe apparent) conflict with the rule of law result in high social costs in terms of legal uncertainty. It may also affect the will to transpose i.e. the rulings of the CJEU into the trade mark laws applicable in the States participating in the European unification process.

Defence date: 18 June 2007
Examining Board: Prof. Hanns Ullrich, EUI (supervisor) ; Prof. Thomas Hoeren, University of Münster ; Prof. Bernt Hugenholtz, University of Amsterdam ; Prof. Giovanni Sartor, EUI.
Made available online on 5 November 2013.
The aim of this dissertation is to analyse whether and how EU harmonisation of national copyright law in the digital environment accommodates copyright exceptions by permitting end-users to engage in both transformative and non-transformative use of copyrighted content. The dissertation uses an open notion of “end-user”. Due to the new expressive opportunities and enhanced usage expectations created by the digital environment, the single user is alternatively viewed as a potential consumer of copyrighted digital works, as a user of these works on the Internet, and as a possible follow-on creator, who wishes to build upon pre-existing materials in order to make new copyrightable creations. The thesis argues that the interface resulting from EU digital copyright law, electronic licences and technological protection, as currently envisaged by Directive 2001/29, leads to an implicit transfer - from public to private hands - of copyright regulation as formerly provided by statutory law. The encouragement of this kind of private legislation may considerably diminish the freedom of end-users to interact with copyrighted work released in digital formats, despite the enhanced possibilities that these formats present for creative expression. The dissertation is divided in four parts. Part One explains how the increasing implementation of digital right management (DRM) technologies, despite having the potential to make the access and use of digital works subject to the contractual terms which accompany the protected good, does not weaken the social desirability of exceptions which pursue public policy objectives. Part Two examines the legal framework created by the Directive 2001/29: this analysis seeks to demonstrate that the harmonisation process undertaken in the EU, while, as a matter of industrial policy, affording stronger and immediate protection to copyright holders, does, in fact, ignore the constitutional objectives laid down in the EC Treaty with regard to culture, consumer protection and Internal Market integration. Part Three examines the new condition of the end-user through two case studies which shed light on still-unsettled issues. The first case specifically relates to the Internet as a digitally networked environment where end-users are increasingly able to engage in “peer-topeer” transfer of creative works. The second scenario deals with digital settings where the use of DRM technologies may preclude the effective enforcement of statutory copyright exceptions. Finally, Part Four analyses possible reforms of the EU copyright system, in order to encourage specific solutions to the erosion of end-user opportunities for the legitimate use of copyright material, as a result of digital copyright enforcement efforts. The dissertation concludes that current EU copyright law is unfit to accommodate the legitimate interests of end-users in digital settings. Copyright exceptions should be made mandatory, and, possibly, should be given the status of subjective rights.

Defence Date: 10 May 2010
Examining Board: Professor Hanns Ullrich, EUI (Supervisor); Professor Steven Anderman, University of Essex; Professor Gustavo Ghidini, Luiss Guido Carli University; Professor Hans-W. Micklitz, EUI
PDF of thesis uploaded from the Library digital archive of EUI PhD theses
Great prosperity is derived from innovation, which in turn prospers in an environment with a large public domain of free knowledge, property rights and unfettered competition. Generally, this was the basic theory for prosperity under the antitrust laws with reference to joint R&D, technology transfer and technology standardization in the US and Europe for many years. This perspective was slowly abandoned in the 1980s and 1990s, replaced by a belief that the greatest wealth was derived from innovators having large resources to perform R&D, the ability to cooperate with competitors and the possibility of jointly protect and exploit newly discovered knowledge through intellectual property rights, technology standardization agreements and joint licensing schemes. The antitrust policies on both sides of the Atlantic have closely and swiftly been adapted to mirror this change of theory. The thesis illustrates this transformation by analyzing the modifications and amendments made to legal acts and guidelines, and the slow shift in the scant case-law detected both under the antitrust laws of the USA and the Competition Rules of the EU. The thesis shows that the prevailing antitrust policies towards R&D collaborations, technology standardization agreements and patent pools are very similar in the US and EU and they both mirror a lenient or even supportive attitude towards collaboration between competitors in reference to creating innovation.

Digitisation had a profound impact on the creation, reproduction, and dissemination of works protected by copyright. Works in digital format are vulnerable to infringement, and technological protection measures are accordingly applied as protection. Technological protection measures can, however, easily be circumvented, and additional legal protection against circumvention was needed. Article 11 of the WIPO Copyright Treaty (the WCT) obliges Member States to provide adequate legal protection against the circumvention of technological measures applied to works protected by copyright. Contracting parties must refine the provisions of Article 11 and provide for exceptions on the prohibition. Article 11 does not specify whether it pertains to only certain types of technological measures, nor does it prohibit the trafficking in circumvention devices. The United States implemented the provisions of Article 11 of the WCT through the Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998 (the DMCA). Section 1201 of the DMCA prohibits the circumvention of technological measures. It is detailed and relates to two categories of technological measures - access control and copy control. It prohibits not only the act of circumvention, but also the trafficking in circumvention devices. Article 6 of the EC Directive on the Harmonisation of Certain Aspects of Copyright and Related Rights in the Information Society of 2001 implements Article 11 of the WCT. Article 6 seeks to protect Aeffective technological measures@. It prohibits both the act of circumvention and circumvention devices. Although Article 11 of the WCT is silent on the issue of access control, it seems as if the international trend is to provide legal protection to access controls, thus indirectly creating a right to control access. South Africa has not yet implemented Article 11 of the WCT. The South African Copyright Act of 1979 does not protect technological protection measures. The Electronic Communications and Transactions Act of 2002 (the ECT Act) provides protection against the circumvention of technological protection measures applied to digital data. The definition of Adata@ is such that it could include protected works. If applied to protected works, the anti-circumvention provisions of the ECT Act would be detrimental to user privileges. As developing country, it seems to be in South Africa's best interest to the implement the provisions of Article 11 in such a manner that it still allows users access to and legitimate use of works protected by copyright.
Jurisprudence
LL.D.

The thesis deals with changes in prices of property after accession to the European Union. Its main aim is to provide a practical review of relevant legislation and describe current situation in land valuation in the CR .Next aim is to compare price of real estates in the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Switzerland. In the section devoted to land valuation in the CR the thesis gives a historic review of valuation legislation since the year 1918 up to present and compares the effective executive regulation No. 364/2010 Coll. with the previous regulation to apply Act no.151/1997 Coll., on Evaluation of Property and on the Amendment of Certain Law, as amended. In the next chapters are presented basic general principles and methods of valuation, as well as the purpose of valuation. In some chapters there are examples of bid prices and market prices. Below there are given charts and tables for real insight. One chapter is devoted to the situation in the Slovak Republic and one is paid to the situation in Switzerland. In conclusion, the results are compared among the selected countries. The thesis is complemented by annexes, which relate to the topic, for example expert opinion on the valuation of property, executed by a judicial expert.