Academic literature on the topic 'Reading (Primary) Victoria'
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Journal articles on the topic "Reading (Primary) Victoria"
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Enslen, Joshua. "Green, James N., Victoria Langland, and Lilia Moritz Schwarz, editors. The Brazil Reader: History, Culture, Politics. Duke UP, 2019." Journal of Lusophone Studies 4, no. 2 (January 1, 2020): 296–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.21471/jls.v4i2.348.
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The editors have produced a significantly revised compendium that introduces Brazil and its major themes and events through primary source documents in translation. The new edition boasts welcome advancements, especially in its heavily revamped selections for reading, its expanded expert commentary, and its updated organization.
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Hardini, Tri Indri, Sri Setyarini, and Sri Harto. "REMOTE LEARNING IMPLEMENTED BY BIPA TEACHERS DURING COVID-19 PANDEMIC." Jurnal Kependidikan: Penelitian Inovasi Pembelajaran 5, no. 1 (May 10, 2021): 122–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.21831/jk.v5i1.35050.
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This research aimed to describe how BIPA teachers implemented remote learning process, identify the problems encountered during COVID-19 pandemic, and explore how Indonesian cultural elements were introduced to students of primary and secondary schools. This research applied a case study design involving eight BIPA teachers in Victoria, Australia as participants. The data were collected through survey questionnaire, virtual interviews, and document analysis. The research data were analysed by making data categories regarding the implementation of remote learning, identification of its problems, and the introduction of Indonesian cultures to students. Interpretation of research findings was done by using relevant theoretical framework. The research findings indicated that the BIPA teachers implemented the remote learning through providing a learning model, listening to students’ individual reading practices, doing a discussion with the students, and implementing simple practices on the selected materials. One of the problems encountered was about students’ motivation. The elements of Indonesian cultures were introduced through identifying its types, describing the identified types of cultures, and writing short essays on the selected cultural topics.
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Regaignon, Dara Rossman. "INSTRUCTIVE SUFFICIENCY: RE-READING THE GOVERNESS THROUGH AGNES GREY." Victorian Literature and Culture 29, no. 1 (March 2001): 85–108. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1060150301291062.
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IN NINETEENTH-CENTURY ENGLAND, a governess was the primary educator of male and female children in a middle-class household; particularly by virtue of her work educating girls through their mid-teens, the governess simultaneously effected and disrupted the transparent transmission of class and gender identity between generations of middle-class women. Recent scholarship has de-emphasized this pedagogical function in its readings of the figure.1 Discussion has centered, instead, on the ways in which the governess represented a crisis for early Victorian definitions of bourgeois femininity (which centered on middle-class women’s financial dependence and apparent leisure) because she was a middle-class woman who earned her own living. But to read the figure of the Victorian governess through Anne Brontë’s Agnes Grey (1847) is to see that she troubled bourgeois hegemony because of her job. I contend that the governess disturbed the early Victorians not only because she blurred the boundary between the separate spheres, but also because she dramatized the potentially illimitable effects of education. When you hire someone to teach your children, how do you ensure that she is teaching what you wish and as you wish?
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Anae, Nicole. "“Among the Boer Children”." History of Education Review 45, no. 1 (June 6, 2016): 28–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/her-12-2014-0049.
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Purpose – There exists no detailed account of the 40 Australian women teachers employed within the “concentration camps” established by British forces in the Orange River and Transvaal colonies during the Boer War. The purpose of this paper is to critically respond to this dearth in historiography. Design/methodology/approach – A large corpus of newspaper accounts represents the richest, most accessible and relatively idiosyncratic source of data concerning this contingent of women. The research paper therefore interprets concomitant print-based media reports of the period as a resource for educational and historiographical data. Findings – Towards the end of the Boer War in South Africa (1899-1902) a total of 40 Australian female teachers – four from Queensland, six from South Australia, 14 from Victoria and 16 from New South Wales – successfully answered the imperial call conscripting educators for schools within “concentration camps” established by British forces in the Orange River and Transvaal colonies. Women’s exclusive participation in this initiative, while ostensibly to teach the Boer children detained within these camps, also exerted an influential effect on the popular consciousness in reimagining cultural ideals about female teachers’ professionalism in ideological terms. Research limitations/implications – One limitation of the study relates to the dearth in official records about Australian women teachers in concentration camps given that; not only are Boer War-related records generally difficult to source; but also that even the existent data is incomplete with many chapters missing completely from record. Therefore, while the data about these women is far from complete, the account in terms of newspaper reports relies on the existent accounts of them typically in cases where their school and community observe their contributions to this military campaign and thus credit them with media publicity. Originality/value – The paper’s originality lies in recovering the involvement of a previously underrepresented contingent of Australian women teachers while simultaneously offering a primary reading of the ideological work this involvement played in influencing the political narrative of Australia’s educational involvement in the Boer War.
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Thompson, Sandra C., and Maureen Norris. "Hepatitis B Vaccination of Personnel Employed in Victorian Hospitals: Are Those at Risk Adequately Protected?" Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology 20, no. 01 (January 1999): 51–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/501552.
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AbstractObjective:To examine the policies and practices in hospitals within the state of Victoria, Australia, with respect to vaccination of staff against hepatitis B infection.Design:A written self-administered questionnaire to be completed by the infection control officer (or designated officer for hepatitis B vaccination) within each hospital.Setting:Public (teaching and nonteaching) and private hospitals, including metropolitan and rural institutions in Victoria.Participants:A random sample of 30% of Victorian hospitals were asked to participate in the survey. Of 78 eligible institutions, 69 (88%) completed and returned questionnaires.Results:There was no consistent hepatitis B prevention policy in place across Victoria. Of the 69 responding hospitals, 63 (91%) offered hepatitis B vaccination to staff, and 58 (84%) of these also paid all costs of vaccination. Of the 63 hospitals offering vaccination to staff, 39 offered vaccination to all staff, 23 offered vaccination based on job title, and one offered vaccination based on anticipated exposure. In many institutions, postexposure protocols were recalled more readily than preexposure vaccination guidelines. Numerous respondents indicated a need for clear guidelines on policy and clarification on practical matters of management, such as acceptable immune levels, management of nonresponders to the primary series, and the need for, and timing of, booster doses of vaccine. Eleven (18%) of the 63 hospitals offering hepatitis B vaccination to staff undertook routine prevaccination screening, a practice not generally regarded as cost-effective in Australia. Fifty-five of these hospitals (91%) also undertook postvaccination screening.Conclusions:It is evident from this study that a considerable number of potentially susceptible healthcare personnel in Victorian hospitals remain unprotected against hepatitis B infection. A more reliable and consistent approach to preexposure hepatitis B vaccination is recommended
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Mossman, Mark. "REPRESENTATIONS OF THE ABNORMAL BODY INTHE MOONSTONE." Victorian Literature and Culture 37, no. 2 (September 2009): 483–500. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1060150309090305.
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Wilkie Collins'sThe Moonstoneis anovel constructed through the repeated representation of the abnormal body. ReadingThe Moonstonein critical terms has traditionally required a primary engagement with form. The work has been defined as a foundational narrative in the genre of crime and detection and at the same time read as a narrative located within the context of the immensely popular group of sensation novels that dominate the Victorian literary marketplace through the middle and the second half of the nineteenth century. T. S. Eliot is one of the first readers to define one end of this paradigm, reading the novel as an original text in the genre of detective fiction, and famously saying thatThe Moonstoneis “the first, the longest and the best of modern English detective novels” (xii). On the other end of the paradigm, the novel's formal workings are again often cited as a larger example, and even triumph, of Victorian sensation fiction – melodramatic narratives built, according to Winifred Hughes and the more recent Derridean readings by Patrick Brantlinger and others, around a discursive cross-fertilization of romanticism, gothicism, and realism.
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Reeder, Jessie. "Toward a Multilingual Victorian Transatlanticism." Victorian Literature and Culture 49, no. 1 (2021): 171–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1060150319000585.
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This essay argues that scholarship being done under the sign of transatlantic studies, and Victorian transatlantic studies in particular, is problematically focused on the anglophone northern Atlantic region. Challenging both the essentialness and the disciplinary primacy of the “special relationship” between Britain and the United States, I argue instead that the entire nineteenth-century Atlantic world was a geographically and linguistically permeable space. Paying attention to crossings from north to south and vice versa is both methodologically and ethically necessary. From a methodological perspective, it can help us produce much more thorough answers to the questions transatlantic studies purports to ask about identity and community. But reading beyond anglophone British and U.S. American texts can also help us decolonize our reading and thinking. Of course, work like this requires scholars to read in second and third languages; as such, this essay discusses and denaturalizes the institutional barriers to multilingual English studies. It also offers a case study—a brief reading of a novel by Argentine writer Vicente Fidel López—demonstrating the insights that can be gained by expanding both our geographic perspective and our methodological toolbox.
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Clark, Lauren. "Gendering the Victorian Irish child reader as buyer." Journal of Historical Research in Marketing 6, no. 1 (February 11, 2014): 8–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/jhrm-07-2013-0036.
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Purpose – The aim of this paper is to examine the role of children in an emergent Irish consumer culture and advertising from 1848-1921. In particular, the significance of children's gender and reading materials in the process of consumption will be evaluated. Design/methodology/approach – An analysis of primary sources, literature and secondary sources substantiates this research. Findings – By evaluating advertisements, magazines, school textbooks and children's literature from the 1848-1921 period, this article argues that Irish children were encouraged to engage with an emergent consumer culture through reading. This article also evaluates the importance of gender in considering children as consumers and it focuses upon a number of critically neglected Victorian, Irish, female authors who discussed the interface between advertising, consumption and the Irish child. Originality/value – This article is an original contribution to new areas of research about Irish consumerism and advertising history. Substantial archival research has been carried out which appraises the historical significance of advertisements, ephemera and critically neglected children's fiction.
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Kennedy, Amber L., Beverley J. Vollenhoven, Richard J. Hiscock, Catharyn J. Stern, Susan P. Walker, Jeanie L. Y. Cheong, Jon L. Quach, et al. "School-age outcomes among IVF-conceived children: A population-wide cohort study." PLOS Medicine 20, no. 1 (January 24, 2023): e1004148. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1004148.
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Background In vitro fertilisation (IVF) is a common mode of conception. Understanding the long-term implications for these children is important. The aim of this study was to determine the causal effect of IVF conception on primary school-age childhood developmental and educational outcomes, compared with outcomes following spontaneous conception. Methods and findings Causal inference methods were used to analyse observational data in a way that emulates a target randomised clinical trial. The study cohort comprised statewide linked maternal and childhood administrative data. Participants included singleton infants conceived spontaneously or via IVF, born in Victoria, Australia between 2005 and 2014 and who had school-age developmental and educational outcomes assessed. The exposure examined was conception via IVF, with spontaneous conception the control condition. Two outcome measures were assessed. The first, childhood developmental vulnerability at school entry (age 4 to 6), was assessed using the Australian Early Developmental Census (AEDC) (n = 173,200) and defined as scoring <10th percentile in ≥2/5 developmental domains (physical health and wellbeing, social competence, emotional maturity, language and cognitive skills, communication skills, and general knowledge). The second, educational outcome at age 7 to 9, was assessed using National Assessment Program–Literacy and Numeracy (NAPLAN) data (n = 342,311) and defined by overall z-score across 5 domains (grammar and punctuation, reading, writing, spelling, and numeracy). Inverse probability weighting with regression adjustment was used to estimate population average causal effects. The study included 412,713 children across the 2 outcome cohorts. Linked records were available for 4,697 IVF-conceived cases and 168,503 controls for AEDC, and 8,976 cases and 333,335 controls for NAPLAN. There was no causal effect of IVF-conception on the risk of developmental vulnerability at school-entry compared with spontaneously conceived children (AEDC metrics), with an adjusted risk difference of −0.3% (95% CI −3.7% to 3.1%) and an adjusted risk ratio of 0.97 (95% CI 0.77 to 1.25). At age 7 to 9 years, there was no causal effect of IVF-conception on the NAPLAN overall z-score, with an adjusted mean difference of 0.030 (95% CI −0.018 to 0.077) between IVF- and spontaneously conceived children. The models were adjusted for sex at birth, age at assessment, language background other than English, socioeconomic status, maternal age, parity, and education. Study limitations included the use of observational data, the potential for unmeasured confounding, the presence of missing data, and the necessary restriction of the cohort to children attending school. Conclusions In this analysis, under the given causal assumptions, the school-age developmental and educational outcomes for children conceived by IVF are equivalent to those of spontaneously conceived children. These findings provide important reassurance for current and prospective parents and for clinicians.
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Paz, D. G. "Anti-Catholicism, Anti-Irish Stereotyping, and Anti-Celtic Racism in Mid-Victorian Working-Class Periodicals." Albion 18, no. 4 (1986): 601–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/4050132.
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The rapid increase in Irish immigration, it is often argued, was the chief cause for the growth of anti-Catholicism in mid-nineteenth century England. Patrick Joyce and Neville Kirk both believe that ethnic tension and violence in southeast Lancashire and northeast Cheshire increased during and after the late 1840s, that that increase “followed the pattern of the arrival and dispersal” of Irish immigrants, and that the controversy over the creation of the Roman Catholic hierarchy in 1850 intensified the conflict.L.P. Curtis, Jr., agrees that the mid-century is important, for it was then, he argues, that the stereotype, based on scientific racism, of the Irish as inferior, was “finally assembled and reproduced for a mass reading public which was by then ready to believe almost anything of a derogatory nature about the Irish people.” The English image of the Irish was bound up with the idea of race or with that amalgam of ostensibly scientific doctrines, subjective data, and ethnocentric prejudices which was steadily gaining respectability among educated men in Western Europe during the first half of the century. In England the idea of race as the determinant of human history and human behavior held an unassailable position in the minds of most Anglo-Saxonists. …Curtis admits that the Victorians used the word “race” very loosely, and that working-class anti-Irish “prejudice” had class and religious, as well as racist, bases. But he fails to explore these non-racist elements; his argument rests on the evidence of Victorian anthropological writings; he clearly believes that racism bears explanatory primacy.
Books on the topic "Reading (Primary) Victoria"
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Beverly, Allie, ed. The American schoolhouse reader: A colorized children's reading collection from post-Victorian America, 1890-1925. [Houlton, Me.]: 45th Parallel Concepts, 2004.
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Camlot, Jason. Phonopoetics. Stanford University Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.11126/stanford/9781503605213.001.0001.
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Phonopoetics tells the neglected story of early “talking records” and their significance for literature from the 1877 invention of the phonograph to some of the first recorded performances of modernist works. The book challenges assumptions of much contemporary criticism by taking the recorded, oral performance as its primary object of analysis and by exploring the historically specific convergences between audio recording technologies, media formats, generic forms, and the institutions and practices surrounding the literary. Opening with an argument that the earliest spoken recordings were a mediated extension of Victorian reading and elocutionary culture, Jason Camlot explains the literary significance of these pre-tape era voice artifacts by analyzing early promotional fantasies about the phonograph as a new kind of speaker, and detailing initiatives to deploy it as a pedagogical tool to heighten literary experience. Through historically-grounded interpretations of Dickens impersonators to recitations of Tennyson to T.S. Eliot’s experimental readings of “The Wasteland” and of a great variety of voices and media in between, this first critical history of the earliest literary sound recordings offers an unusual perspective on the transition from the Victorian to Modern periods and sheds new light on our own digitally mediated relationship to the past.
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Holtzman, Livnat. The of Ibn ʿAqīl (d. 513/1119) and the Ibn al-Qushayrī (d. 514/1120). Edited by Sabine Schmidtke. Oxford University Press, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199696703.013.026.
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Themiḥnaof Ibn ʿAqīl (d. 513/1119) and thefitnatIbn al-Qushayrī (d. 514/1120)—two major events that took place in eleventh-century Baghdad—mark the victory of traditionalist Islam over rationalist Islam, and as such are considered as part of ‘the Sunni Revival’. The chapter unfolds the political, social, and doctrinal factors that led to these events, while focusing on the role of the leader of the Baghdadian Ḥanbalīs, thesharīfAbū Jaʿfar al-Hāshimī (d. 470/1077–8) in orchestrating the events. The first section of the chapter summarizes Ibn ʿAqīl’smiḥnabased on George Makdisi’s scholarly work, and also provides a limited-scale reading in the primary sources. The second section offers new insights on thefitnatIbn al-Qushayrī based on a close reading of the primary sources, and a survey of recently published researches.
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Ingleheart, Jennifer. Masculine Plural. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198819677.001.0001.
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The Classics were core to the curriculum and ethos of the intensely homosocial Victorian and Edwardian public schools. Yet ancient homosexuality and erotic pedagogy were problematic to the educational establishment, which expurgated classical texts with sexual content. This volume analyses the intimate nexus between the Classics, sex, and education primarily through the figure of the schoolmaster Philip Gillespie Bainbrigge (1890–1918), whose clandestine writings explore homoerotic desires and comment on classical education. It reprints Bainbrigge’s surviving works: Achilles in Scyros (a verse drama featuring a cross-dressing Achilles and a Chorus of lesbian schoolgirls) and a Latin dialogue between schoolboys (with a translation by Jennifer Ingleheart). Like other similarly educated men of his era, Bainbrigge used Latin as an intimate homoerotic language; after reading Bainbrigge’s dialogue, A. E. Housman went on to write a scholarly article in Latin about ancient sexuality, Praefanda. This volume, therefore, also examines the parallel of Housman’s Praefanda, its knowing Latin, and bold challenge to mainstream morality. Bainbrigge’s works show the queer potential of Classics. His underground writings owe more to a sexualized Rome than an idealized Greece, offering a provocation to the study of Classical Reception and the history of sexuality. Bainbrigge refuses to apologize for homoerotic desire, celebrates the pleasures of sex, and disrupts mainstream ideas about the Classics and the relationship between ancient and modern. As this volume demonstrates, Rome is central to Queer Classics: it provided a male elite with a liberating erotic language, and offers a variety of models for same-sex desire.
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Weems, Robert E. The Merchant Prince of Black Chicago. University of Illinois Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.5622/illinois/9780252043062.001.0001.
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Anthony Overton is widely regarded as one of the twentieth century’s most significant African American entrepreneurs. Overton, at his peak, presided over a Chicago-based financial empire that included a personal care products company (Overton Hygienic Manufacturing Company) a bank (Douglass National Bank), an insurance company (Victory Life Insurance Company) a popular periodical (the Half-Century Magazine), and a newspaper (Chicago Bee). This impressive business portfolio contributed to Overton being the first businessman to win the NAACP’s Spingarn Medal in 1927, as well as him currently being acknowledged in the Harvard University Business School’s database of “American Business Leaders of the Twentieth Century” as the first African American to head a major business conglomerate. Nevertheless, despite Overton’s noteworthy entrepreneurial accomplishments, he remains a mysterious figure. The most readily apparent reason for this is the unavailability of his business records and personal papers. Still, because of Anthony Overton’s prominence, a large body of scattered alternative primary and secondary sources were available to construct this biography. Along with examining Anthony Overton and his accomplishments, this book places his activities in the context of larger societal occurrences in late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century America. Moreover, by recounting Overton’s life story, this biography seeks to more fully illuminate the role of business and entrepreneurship in the African American experience.
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Das, Chaity. In the Land of Buried Tongues. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199474721.001.0001.
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This work treats the events of 1971 in East Pakistan as a liberation war in order to contend with its memories, inheritances, and silences. Delving primarily into literature from Bangladesh, it also considers the tripartite site of history by bringing in responses in fiction from India and Pakistan. In addition to history and testimonial writing, fictional narratives are critical to understand the complex traces of those intense nine months in the history of the subcontinent. To facilitate this, the book takes stock of memoirs and testimonies of women and men in separate sections in order to underline the gendered nature of war. It then moves to fiction from Bangladesh and in the final chapter from Pakistan and India as well. Since the memories and representation of war is inseparable from its aftermath, these works clearly hint towards the unfinished task of memorialization, which is a process that cannot be reduced to monuments commemorating victory or rationalizing of defeat/loss. It is true that 1971 has been a casualty to nationalist historiography in all three countries. But as this reading of memoirs, testimonies, and fiction will demonstrate, it is possible to listen to the buried voices of 1971 as much in nationalist accounts as in less compliant ones. If we are to appreciate the violent, traumatic legacies of 1971 and its continued relevance to our lives, a multi-genre study involving victims of wartime rape, memoirs by combatant and non- combatant men, military accounts, and fiction from transnational sites might add to our current understanding of 1971.
Book chapters on the topic "Reading (Primary) Victoria"
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Everest, Kelvin. "Keats’s Formal Legacy and the Victorians." In Keats and Shelley, 58–71. Oxford University Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780192849502.003.0005.
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This chapter surveys the earliest period of Keats’s posthumous reputation, with discussion of the importance of the ‘Cambridge Apostles’ and their enthusiasm for Shelley as a bridge to early appreciation of Keats. This Victorian image of Shelley and Keats is considered through a reading of Browning’s ‘Memorabilia’ and ‘Popularity’. The development of the stanza form of Keats’s odes, of particular appeal in the mid-nineteenth century, is analysed in a detailed reading of the ‘Ode to Psyche’, and its surviving manuscript forms. The stanza-form of the odes is then compared with Matthew Arnold’s adaptation in ‘The Scholar Gypsy’. Arnold’s presentation of the figure of the scholar gypsy exposes a duality in the image of Keats for subsequent generations: a poet valued for his intellectual toughness and resilience, but also primarily influential through the rich sensuousness of his versification.
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Taber, Douglass F. "Functional Group Protection: The Kraus Synthesis of Bauhinoxepin J." In Organic Synthesis. Oxford University Press, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199965724.003.0013.
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Amos B. Smith III of the University of Pennsylvania found (Synlett 2009, 3131) that the advanced SAMP intermediate 1 could be deprotected to 2 without racemization under mild oxidative conditions. Akihiko Ouchi of the National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, Tsukuba, showed (Organic Lett. 2009, 11, 4870) that the C-Te of 3 was easily oxidized to the aldehyde 4. Secondary C-Te bonds were converted to ketones. Asit K. Chakraborti of NIPER prepared (J. Org. Chem. 2009, 74, 5967) esters by warming an acid 5 with an alcohol 6 in the presence of acidic silica gel. Gilles Quéléver of Aix-Marseille Université established (Tetrahedron Lett. 2009, 50, 4346) that a cyanomethyl ester 8, readily prepared from the acid, efficiently exchanged with an alcohol 9 to give the ester 10. Martin J. Lear of the National University of Singapore protected (Tetrahedron Lett. 2009, 50, 5267) an alcohol 11 as the p -methoxybenzyl ether 13 under mild conditions (AgOTf/DTBMP) with the new reagent 12 . Isao Kadota of Okayama University selectively removed (Tetrahedron Lett. 2009, 50, 4552) the primary PMB ether from 14 to give 15. Hiromishi Fujioka of Osaka University, starting (Organic Lett. 2009, 11, 5138) from 16, was able to selectively prepare either the primary protected 18 or the secondary protected 19. In other developments (not pictured), Mattie S. M. Timmer and Brendan A. Burkett of Victoria University of Wellington devised (Tetrahedron Lett. 2009, 50, 7199) a convenient preparation for azulene-containing α-keto esters. The distinctively colored protecting group was conveniently removed in the presence of other esters by treatment with o-phenylenediamine. Scott D. Taylor of the University of Waterloo established (J. Org. Chem. 2009, 74, 9406) a robust protocol for converting alcohols to the corresponding protected sulfates. P. Shanthan Rao of the Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, showed (Tetrahedron Lett. 2009, 50, 7099) that an amine 20 was formylated by warming with formic acid in the presence of ZnCl2. The easily hydrolyzed formamide 21 is readily converted to the corresponding isonitrile. Shiyue Fang of Michigan Technological University selectively monoacylated (Tetrahedron Lett. 2009, 50, 5741) the symmetrical diamine 22 using phenyl esters.
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Oksanish, John. "Bodies as behavior." In Vitruvian Man, 144–84. Oxford University Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190696986.003.0006.
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The Dinocrates-Alexander episode of book 2 supplies the reader with a complex heuristic for differentiating good architects from bad. Vitruvius claims to rely on his knowledge and writing in anticipation of his own success, whereas he attributes Dinocrates’ renown to an attractive bodily appearance. A close intertextual reading of the passage threaded through Livy 1 suggests that Alexander and Dinocrates violate the ideal architect–autocrat relationship. The manner in which one interprets the episode indicates whether one can distinguish altruism from ambitio and the like. Alexander’s appetitious reaction to Dinocrates and his body is further problematized by the latter’s nudity and evocation of Hercules and athletic victors. Discussions in the rhetorical handbooks indicate that arguments concerning a plaintiff’s or defendant’s bodily state can support arguments about his character. The handbooks seem to presume a widespread valorization of what the Greeks would call καλοκἀγαθία, but there is an implicit acknowledgment that beauty dissimulates vice. The athletic and/or gladiatorial body is therefore a particular locus of contestation and controversy, as Cicero’s (and Sallust’s) depictions of Catiline show. On the Greek side, writers as early as Tyrtaeus and Xenophanes had suggested that wisdom is better than strength. Isocrates frames the issue politically, and Vitruvius takes it one step further. Following the Roman handbooks that viewed the cultivation of bodily attributes (vs. the fortuitous possession of those attributes) as the primary signifier of character, Vitruvius suggests that athletes are ethically and politically bankrupt, while writers deserve triumphs and apotheosis. Archimedes, Socrates, and even Vitruvius himself provide counterexamples.
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Sharpe, Michael, and Simon Wessely. "Chronic fatigue syndrome." In New Oxford Textbook of Psychiatry, 1035–43. Oxford University Press, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199696758.003.0133.
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Chronic fatigue syndrome is a controversial condition, conflicts about which have frequently burst out of the medical literature into the popular media. Whilst these controversies may initially seem to be of limited interest to those who do not routinely treat such patients, they also exemplify important current issues in medicine. These issues include the nature of symptom-defined illness; patient power versus medical authority; and the uncomfortable but important issues of psychological iatrogenesis. The subject is therefore of relevance to all doctors. Fatigue is a subjective feeling of weariness, lack of energy, and exhaustion. Approximately 20 per cent of the general population report significant and persistent fatigue, although relatively few of these people regard themselves as ill and only a small minority seek a medical opinion. Even so, fatigue is a common clinical presentation in primary care. When fatigue becomes chronic and associated with disability it is regarded as an illness. Such a syndrome has been recognized at least since the latter half of the last century. Whilst during the Victorian era patients who went to see doctors with this illness often received a diagnosis of neurasthenia, a condition ascribed to the effect of the stresses of modern life on the human nervous system the popularity of this diagnosis waned and by the mid-twentieth century it was rarely diagnosed (although the diagnosis subsequently became popular in the Far East—see Chapter 5.2.1). Although it is possible that the prevalence of chronic fatigue had waned in the population, it is more likely that patients who presented in this way were being given alternative diagnoses. These were mainly the new psychiatric syndromes of depression and anxiety, but also other labels indicating more direct physical explanations, such as chronic brucellosis, spontaneous hypoglycaemia, and latterly chronic Epstein–Barr virus infection. As well as these sporadic cases of fatiguing illness, epidemics of similar illnesses have been occasionally reported. One which occurred among staff at the Royal Free Hospital, London in 1955 gave rise to the term myalgic encephalomyelitis (ME), although it should be emphasized that the nature and symptoms of that outbreak are dissimilar to the majority of those now presenting to general practitioners under the same label. A group of virologists and immunologists proposed the term chronic fatigue syndrome in the late 1980s. This new and aetiologically neutral term was chosen because it was increasingly recognized that many cases of fatigue were often not readily explained either by medical conditions such as Epstein–Barr virus infection or by obvious depression and anxiety disorders. Chronic fatigue syndrome has remained the most commonly used term by researchers. The issue of the name is still not completely resolved however: Neurasthenia remains in the ICD-10 psychiatric classification as a fatigue syndrome unexplained by depressive or anxiety disorder, whilst the equivalent in DSM-IV is undifferentiated somatoform disorder. Myalgic encephalomyelitis or (encephalopathy) is in the neurological section of ICD-10 and is used by some to imply that the illness is neurological as opposed to a psychiatric one. Unfortunately the case descriptions under these different labels make it clear that they all reflect similar symptomatic presentations, adding to confusion. Official UK documents have increasingly adopted the uneasy and probably ultimately unsatisfactory compromise term CFS/ME. In this chapter, we will use the simple term chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS).