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Journal articles on the topic 'RDX AND HMX'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 11 September 2023

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1

Zhao, Jian-Shen, Charles W. Greer, Sonia Thiboutot, Guy Ampleman, and Jalal Hawari. "Biodegradation of the nitramine explosives hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine and octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine in cold marine sediment under anaerobic and oligotrophic conditions." Canadian Journal of Microbiology 50, no. 2 (February 1, 2004): 91–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/w03-112.

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The in situ degradation of the two nitramine explosives, hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX) and octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine (HMX), was evaluated using a mixture of RDX and HMX, incubated anaerobically at 10 °C with marine sediment from a previous military dumping site of unexploded ordnance (UXO) in Halifax Harbor, Nova Scotia, Canada. The RDX concentration (14.7 mg·L–1) in the aqueous phase was reduced by half in 4 days, while reduction of HMX concentration (1.2 mg·L–1) by half required 50 days. Supplementation with the carbon sources glucose, acetate, or citrate did not affect the removal rate of RDX but improved removal of HMX. Optimal mineralization of RDX and HMX was obtained in the presence of glucose. Using universally labeled (UL)-[14C]RDX, we obtained a carbon mass balance distributed as follows: CO2, 48%–58%; water soluble products, 27%–31%; acetonitrile extractable products, 2.0%–3.4%; and products covalently bound to the sediments and biomass, 8.9% (in the presence of glucose). The disappearance of RDX was accompanied by the formation of the mononitroso derivative hexahydro-1-nitroso-3,5-dinitro-1,3,5-triazine (MNX) and formaldehyde (HCHO) that subsequently disappeared. In the case of HMX, mineralization reached only 13%–27% after 115 days of incubation in the presence or absence of the carbon sources. The disappearance of HMX was also accompanied by the formation of the mononitroso derivative. The total population of psychrotrophic anaerobes that grew at 10 °C was 2.6 × 103 colony-forming units·(g sediment dry mass)–1, and some psychrotrophic sediment isolates were capable of degrading RDX under conditions similar to those used for sediments. Based on the distribution of products, we suggest that the sediment microorganisms degrade RDX and HMX via an initial reduction to the corresponding mononitroso derivative, followed by denitration and ring cleavage.Key words: biodegradation, nitramine explosives, marine sediment, psychrotrophic bacteria.

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2

Xu, Si-yu, Er-gang Yao, Han-yu Jiang, and Qing Pei. "Reactivity of high active aluminum powder with RDX and HMX mixtures." Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2478, no. 3 (June 1, 2023): 032060. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/2478/3/032060.

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Abstract In order to reveal the interaction law of high active aluminum powder with RDX and HMX mixture, the thermal decomposition behavior of highly active Al powder and its interaction with typical nitramine explosive RDX and HMX were studied by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), thermogravimetry (TG), thermo-mass spectrometry (TG-DTG-DSC-MS) and CO2 laser ignition technology. Results show that when the nanometer aluminum powder and RDX and HMX respectively, two typical nitramine explosive mixing action is of little influence on the mixing action to respond to the thermal decomposition of HMX, depress RDX points liberation degree of temperature, both the thermal decomposition process of mixed system for random nucleation and subsequent growth process, the ignition delay time decreases with the increase of laser ignition power density. The ignition delay time and ignition energy of the mixture of high active aluminum powder and RDX are greater than that of the mixture of high active aluminum powder and HMX and the high active aluminum powder.

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3

Lee, S. J., H. S. Son, H. K. Lee, and K. D. Zoh. "Photocatalytic degradation of explosives contaminated water." Water Science and Technology 46, no. 11-12 (December 1, 2002): 139–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2002.0729.

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This study was undertaken to examine the degradation of TNT, RDX and HMX in a circular photocatalytic reactor with TiO2 as a photocatalyst. We examined the impact of parameters such as the initial concentration, initial pH of solution on rates of photocatalized transformation, and the mineralization. The results showed that photocatalysis is an effective process for the degradation of TNT, RDX and HMX. They could be completely degraded in 150 min with 1.0 g/L TiO2 at pH 7. An increase in the photocatalytic degradation of HMX was noticed with decreasing initial HMX. The rates of RDX and HMX degradation were greater in neutral pH than in acidic and alkaline conditions. In case of TNT degradation, the rate of degradation was the fastest at pH 11. Approximately 82% TOC decrease in the TNT degradation was achieved after 150 min, whereas TOC decrease in RDX and HMX was 24% and 59%, respectively. Nitrate, nitrite, and ammonium ions were detected as the nitrogen byproducts from the photocatalysis, and more than 50% of the total nitrogen was recovered as nitrate ion in every explosives.

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4

Myint, Philip C., and Albert L. Nichols. "Thermodynamics of HMX Polymorphs and HMX/RDX Mixtures." Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research 56, no. 1 (December 21, 2016): 387–403. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.iecr.6b03697.

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5

Hammer Johansen, Øyvind, Jørn Digre Kristiansen, Richard Gjersøe, Alf Berg, Terje Halvorsen, Kjell-Tore Smith, and Gunnar Ove Nevstad. "RDX and HMX with Reduced Sensitivity Towards Shock Initiation–RS-RDX and RS-HMX." Propellants, Explosives, Pyrotechnics 33, no. 1 (February 2008): 20–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/prep.200800203.

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6

Zhang, Haobin, Jinjiang Xu, Shichun Li, Jie Sun, and Xiaolin Wang. "Characterization of Nano-Scale Parallel Lamellar Defects in RDX and HMX Single Crystals by Two-Dimension Small Angle X-ray Scattering." Molecules 27, no. 12 (June 16, 2022): 3871. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules27123871.

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Nano-scale crystal defects extremely affect the security and reliability of explosive charges of weapons. In this work, the nano-scale crystal defects of 1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazacyclohexane (RDX) and octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine (HMX) single crystals were characterized by two-dimension SAXS. Deducing from the changes of SAXS pattern with sample stage rotating, we firstly found the parallel lamellar nano-scale defects in both RDX and HMX single crystals. Further analysis shows that the average diameter and thickness of nano-scale lamellar defects for RDX single crystal are 66.4 nm and 19.3 nm, respectively. The results of X-ray diffraction (XRD) indicate that the lamellar nano-scale defects distribute along the (001) in RDX and the (011) in HMX, which are verified to be the crystal planes with the lowest binding energy by the theoretical calculation.

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7

Mao, Xiaoxiang, Longfei Jiang, Chenguang Zhu, and Xiaoming Wang. "Effects of Aluminum Powder on Ignition Performance of RDX, HMX, and CL-20 Explosives." Advances in Materials Science and Engineering 2018 (2018): 1–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2018/5913216.

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As a kind of high explosives, aluminized explosive cannot release the energy maximumly, which is a key problem. Using DTA-TG equipment, the ignition performance of three kinds of aluminized explosives (RDX, HMX, and CL-20) with different mass percentages of aluminum powder (0%, 10 wt.%, 20 wt.%, and 30 wt.%) was investigated. The results showed that the energy release of the HMX/Al composite explosive with 10 wt.%, 20 wt.%, and 30 wt.% aluminum powder was only equivalent to 80%, 65%, and 36% of pure HMX, respectively. It was similar to RDX/Al and CL-20/Al composite explosives, except the CL-20/Al mixture with 10% aluminum powder. Rather than participating in the ignition and combustion, the aluminum powder does effect the complete reaction of RDX, HMX, and CL-20 in the initial stage of ignition or in the lower temperature area of the boundary.

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8

Jangid, Suresh Kumar, Mrityunjay Kumar Singh, Vasant Jadavji Solanki, Rabindra Kumar Sinha, and Krothapalli Prabhakara Subrahmania Murthy. "Studies on Sheet Explosive Formulation Based on Octahydro-1,3,5,7-Tetranitro-1,3,5,7-Tetrazocine and Hydroxyl Terminated Polybutadiene." Defence Science Journal 67, no. 6 (November 6, 2017): 617. http://dx.doi.org/10.14429/dsj.67.10533.

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<p class="p1">The effect of replacing hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX) by octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine (HMX) in HTPB-binder on the performance, sensitivity, thermal, and mechanical properties of the sheet explosive formulation has been studied. The maximum loading of HMX was achieved up to 78 per cent in HTPB-binder system. The velocity of detonation (VOD) of HMX-based sheet explosive was observed about 7300 m/s which is marginally higher than existing RDX-based sheet explosive formulation (RDX/HTPB-binder, 80/20). The VOD trends were verified by theoretical calculation by BKW code using FORTRAN executable program. The thermal decomposition kinetics of sheet explosive formulations was investigated by differential scanning calorimetry. The activation energy for sheet explosive formulation HMX/HTPB-binder (78/22) was calculated using Kissinger kinetic method and found to be 170.08 kJ/mol, infer that sheet explosive formulation is thermally stable.</p>

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9

Van Aken, Benoit, Jong Moon Yoon, and Jerald L. Schnoor. "Biodegradation of Nitro-Substituted Explosives 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene, Hexahydro-1,3,5-Trinitro-1,3,5-Triazine, and Octahydro-1,3,5,7-Tetranitro-1,3,5-Tetrazocine by a Phytosymbiotic Methylobacterium sp. Associated with Poplar Tissues (Populus deltoides × nigra DN34)." Applied and Environmental Microbiology 70, no. 1 (January 2004): 508–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/aem.70.1.508-517.2004.

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ABSTRACT A pink-pigmented symbiotic bacterium was isolated from hybrid poplar tissues (Populus deltoides × nigra DN34). The bacterium was identified by 16S and 16S-23S intergenic spacer ribosomal DNA analysis as a Methylobacterium sp. (strain BJ001). The isolated bacterium was able to use methanol as the sole source of carbon and energy, which is a specific attribute of the genus Methylobacterium. The bacterium in pure culture was shown to degrade the toxic explosives 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT), hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazene (RDX), and octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5-tetrazocine (HMX). [U-ring-14C]TNT (25 mg liter−1) was fully transformed in less than 10 days. Metabolites included the reduction derivatives amino-dinitrotoluenes and diamino-nitrotoluenes. No significant release of 14CO2 was recorded from [14C]TNT. In addition, the isolated methylotroph was shown to transform [U-14C]RDX (20 mg liter−1) and [U-14C]HMX (2.5 mg liter−1) in less than 40 days. After 55 days of incubation, 58.0% of initial [14C]RDX and 61.4% of initial [14C]HMX were mineralized into 14CO2. The radioactivity remaining in solution accounted for 12.8 and 12.7% of initial [14C]RDX and [14C]HMX, respectively. Metabolites detected from RDX transformation included a mononitroso RDX derivative and a polar compound tentatively identified as methylenedinitramine. Since members of the genus Methylobacterium are distributed in a wide diversity of natural environments and are very often associated with plants, Methylobacterium sp. strain BJ001 may be involved in natural attenuation or in situ biodegradation (including phytoremediation) of explosive-contaminated sites.

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10

Mckenney, Robert, and Thomas Krawietz. "Binary Phase Diagram Series: HMX/RDX." Journal of Energetic Materials 21, no. 3 (July 1, 2003): 141–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/716100385.

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11

Quintana, José R., Juan A. Ciller, and Felipe J. Serna. "Thermal Behaviour of HMX/RDX Mixtures." Propellants, Explosives, Pyrotechnics 17, no. 3 (June 1992): 106–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/prep.19920170303.

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12

Hawari, J., C. F. Shen, S. R. Guiot, C. W. Greer, D. Rho, G. Sunahara, G. Ampleman, and S. Thiboutot. "Bioremediation of highly energetic compounds: a search for remediation technologies." Water Science and Technology 42, no. 5-6 (September 1, 2000): 385–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2000.0539.

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When TNT (N-source) was treated with anaerobic sludge it biotransformed into triaminotoluene (TAT) in high yield (80%). Results of experiments using 13C-labeling indicate that denitrated or deaminated products such as p-cresol and toluene were not formed. Whereas 14C-labeling showed negligible mineralization (<0.1% 14CO2) despite the complete disappearance of TNT. On the other hand, when TNT (175 μM) was treated with the fungus Phanerochaete chrysosporium it disappeared completely in less than two weeks, but mineralization (liberated 14CO2) did not exceed 1%. Several intermediates, marked with the initial formation of the two monohydroxylamino-dinitrotoluene (HADNT) followed by their transformation to monoamino-dinitrotoluenes (ADNT), diamines (DANT), acetylated TNT products, and azo and hydrazo derivatives were detected. In contrast, high concentrations (ca 20,000 ppm) of RDX and HMX were effectively degraded (ca 70%) in soil slurries using municipal anaerobic sludge. RDX and HMX disappearance was accompanied by the elimination of toxicity associated with RDX and HMX as determined by the Microtox test.

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13

Zhang, Hong, Lu Jun Zan, Bo Zhao, and Hui Dong Qiu. "Study on the Thermal Sensitivity of Energetic Materials Characterized by Accelerating Rate Calorimeter (ARC)." Applied Mechanics and Materials 394 (September 2013): 45–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.394.45.

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Liquid energetic materials were not tested through traditional test methods for thermal sensitivity. Accelerating Rate Calorimeter (ARC) was scientific to test thermal sensitivity of energetic materials. The decompositions of Hexogen (RDX), Octogen (HMX), 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene (TNT), Nitromethane (NM), Iso-propyl Nitrate (IPN) were studied by ARC. Kinetic and thermodynamics parameters were calculated and analyzed. Temperature corresponding different time to maximum rate under adiabatic condition (θ) was calculated. The results show that the thermal sensitivity of energetic materials is NM>IPN>RDX>HMX>TNT, which suggests ARC could be used in the test of thermal sensitivity of liquid energetic materials.

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14

Jia, Xinlei, Lixin Wei, Xuewen Liu, Chao Li, Xiaoheng Geng, Mingming Fu, Jingyu Wang, Conghua Hou, and Jing Xu. "Fabrication and Characterization of Submicron Scale Spherical RDX, HMX, and CL-20 without Soft Agglomeration." Journal of Nanomaterials 2019 (November 26, 2019): 1–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2019/7394762.

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In this study, a novel spray drying-assisted self-assembly (SDAS) technology was proposed to prepare submicron elemental explosives with good morphology, uniform dispersion, and low sensitivity and spherical submicron RDX, HMX, and CL-20 particles without soft agglomeration were fabricated via such a method. Structural characterizations and thermal stability of the composites were systematically studied by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and differential scanning calorimeter (DSC). Moreover, safety performance was analyzed by qualitative testing of impact sensitivity and friction sensitivity. The XRD analysis demonstrated that HMX and CL-20 refined by SDAS maintained the crystal structure of β-HMX and ε-CL-20 before and after refinement, whereas the HMX crystal structure after spray recrystallization refinement was transformed from β-HMX to α-HMX. The DSC results indicated that the thermal decomposition peak temperature of the three particles refined by the SDAS technology had a minimum advancement, and the thermal stability of the particles was relatively superior. More importantly, the H50 of the RDX, HMX, and CL-20 refined by this novel method was increased to 48.3 cm, 44.6 cm, and 31.1 cm, and the probability of friction explosion was decreased to 62%, 62%, and 80%, respectively, thus significantly improving the safety performance as compared with the sample refined by spray recrystallization.

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15

Yang, Xiong, Bojun Tan, Bo Wang, Lina Yao, Xin Li, Dongkui Zhao, Wenjie Li, Lei Cao, Yafeng Huang, and Xiaofeng Wang. "3D Electron-Rich ZIF-67 Coordination Compounds Based on 2-Methylimidazole: Synthesis, Characterization and Effect on Thermal Decomposition of RDX, HMX, CL-20, DAP-4 and AP." Molecules 27, no. 23 (November 30, 2022): 8370. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules27238370.

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ZIF-67 is a three-dimensional zeolite imidazole ester framework material with a porous rhombic dodecahedral structure, a large specific surface area and excellent thermal stability. In this paper, the catalytic effect of ZIF-67 on five kinds of energetic materials, including RDX, HMX, CL-20, AP and the new heat-resistant energetic compound DAP-4, was investigated. It was found that when the mass fraction of ZIF-67 was 2%, it showed excellent performance in catalyzing the said compounds. Specifically, ZIF-67 reduced the thermal decomposition peak temperatures of RDX, HMX, CL-20 and DAP-4 by 22.3 °C, 18.8 °C, 4.7 °C and 10.5 °C, respectively. In addition, ZIF-67 lowered the low-temperature and high-temperature thermal decomposition peak temperatures of AP by 27.1 °C and 82.3 °C, respectively. Excitingly, after the addition of ZIF-67, the thermal decomposition temperature of the new heat-resistant high explosive DAP-4 declined by approximately 10.5 °C. In addition, the kinetic parameters of the RDX+ZIF-67, HMX+ZIF-67, CL-20+ZIF-67 and DAP-4+ZIF-67 compounds were analyzed. After the addition of the ZIF-67 catalyst, the activation energy of the four energetic materials decreased, especially HMX+ZIF-67, whose activation energy was approximately 190 kJ·mol−1 lower than that reported previously for HMX. Finally, the catalytic mechanism of ZIF-67 was summarized. ZIF-67 is a potential lead-free, green, insensitive and universal EMOFs-based energetic burning rate catalyst with a bright prospect for application in solid propellants in the future.

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16

Guven, Burcu, Merve Eryilmaz, Ayşem Üzer, Ismail Hakki Boyaci, Uğur Tamer, and Reşat Apak. "Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy combined with gold nanorods for the simultaneous quantification of nitramine energetic materials." RSC Advances 7, no. 59 (2017): 37039–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c7ra05844f.

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17

da Costa Mattos, Elizabeth, Enézio D Moreira, Milton F Diniz, Rita C L. Dutra, Gilson da Silva, Koshun Iha, and Ulrich Teipel. "Characterization of Polymer-Coated RDX and HMX Particles." Propellants, Explosives, Pyrotechnics 33, no. 1 (February 2008): 44–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/prep.200800207.

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18

Wu, Zhuo, Jian Zhang, Shuang Xu, Hongxu Li, Huan Zhou, Jian Zheng, Aimin Pang, and Yulin Yang. "Synthesis of two novel neutral polymeric bonding agents to enhance the mechanical properties of composite solid propellants." RSC Advances 12, no. 31 (2022): 19946–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/d2ra01842j.

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19

Yu, Yuehai, Shusen Chen, Tujuan Li, Shaohua Jin, Guangyuan Zhang, Minglei Chen, and Lijie Li. "Study on a novel high energetic and insensitive munitions formulation: TKX-50 based melt cast high explosive." RSC Advances 7, no. 50 (2017): 31485–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c7ra05182d.

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Dihydroxylammonium 5,5′-bistetrazole-1,1′-diolate (TKX-50) is a promising candidate to replace traditional explosives, HMX and RDX, used in insensitive munitions, which is currently being explored to achieve shock insensitive melt cast formulations.

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20

Song, Siwei, Xiaolan Tian, Yi Wang, Xiujuan Qi, and Qinghua Zhang. "Theoretical insight into density and stability differences of RDX, HMX and CL-20." CrystEngComm 24, no. 8 (2022): 1537–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/d1ce01577j.

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In this work, density and stability differences of RDX, HMX and CL-20 are exploited and addressed through static calculations from views of monomolecular parameters, intermolecular interactions (by the proposed BEC method) and crystal packing.

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21

Hussein, Ahmed K., Ahmed Elbeih, and Svatopluk Zeman. "The effect of glycidyl azide polymer on the stability and explosive properties of different interesting nitramines." RSC Advances 8, no. 31 (2018): 17272–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c8ra02994f.

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The preparation of glycidyl azide polymer (GAP) and its influence on the stability and explosive properties of polymer bonded explosives (PBXs) based on several cyclic nitramines (CL-20, RDX, HMX and BCHMX) are reported and discussed.

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22

Pati, Ranjit, T. P. Das, N. Sahoo, and S. N. Ray. "Nitrogen Nuclear Quadrupole Interactions in RDX, β-HMX and Cocaine Systems." Zeitschrift für Naturforschung A 52, no. 3 (March 1, 1997): 241–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/zna-1997-0303.

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AbstractUsing the Hartree-Fock-Roothaan procedure, the nuclear quadrupole interactions (NQI) of the 14N (I = 1) nucleus in the energetically important molecules RDX, β-HMX and the physiologically important molecule Cocaine, are studied. The coupling constants (e2 q Q) and asymmetry parameters (η) for the three ring nitrogens in RDX are found to be -5.671, -5.808 and -5.838 MHz and 0.542, 0.556 and 0.562, respectively, in good quantitative agreement with the experimental results of 5.735, 5.799 and 5.604 MHz for the magnitudes of e2qQ and 0.6215, 0.6146 and 0.6024 for η obtained in the single crystal. For β-HMX, where two sets of e2 q Q and η are expected from symmetry considerations, our calculated values are -5.936 and -6.069 MHz for e2 q Q and 0.432 and 0.490 for η , compared to experimentally measured magnitudes of 5.791 and 6.025 MHz and η-values of 0.4977 and 0.5180, respectively, obtained in the single crystal. For Cocaine free base which contains only one 14N nucleus, our calculated values of e2 qQ and η are -5.038 MHz and 0.067, in very good agreement with the experimental results of 5.0229 MHz for the magnitude of e2 q Q and 0.0395 for η. Possible reasons for the small remaining differences between theory and experiment in e2 q Q and η for all three systems and the significant differences in trends over the three nitrogens in RDX between theory and experiment are discussed. Also, the calculated quadrupole interaction parameters for the 14N nuclei in the NO2 groups outside the ring for both RDX and β-HMX are presented with the hope that they will be measured in the future to provide a more complete understanding of the electron distributions in these systems.

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23

Vieira, Eny M., and Francis I. Onuska. "Extraction and Determination of RDX and HMX in Water." Water Quality Research Journal 34, no. 3 (August 1, 1999): 533–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wqrj.1999.026.

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Abstract The analysis of energetic materials such as RDX and HMX in water at trace levels was accomplished by using micro-extraction by miscible solvents, such as acetonitrile, 2-propanol and acetone, and salting out the organic phase. This paper compares the results obtained with solid-phase extraction (SPE) to those obtained by demixing techniques for spiked Milli-Q water and an unfiltered lake water. A review of the data indicates that demixing with acetonitrile-sodium chloride and 2-propanol ammonium sulfate gives better extraction recoveries than solid-phase extraction. Salting-out extractions are performed in less time and with less solvent than by SPE techniques.

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24

Ye, Shuji, Kenichi Tonokura, and Mitsuo Koshi. "Vibron dynamics in RDX, β-HMX and Tetryl crystals." Chemical Physics 293, no. 1 (August 2003): 1–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0301-0104(03)00252-0.

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25

van der Heijden, Antoine E. D. M., and Richard H. B. Bouma. "Crystallization and Characterization of RDX, HMX, and CL-20." Crystal Growth & Design 4, no. 5 (September 2004): 999–1007. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/cg049965a.

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26

Fournier, Diane, Sandra Trott, Jalal Hawari, and Jim Spain. "Metabolism of the Aliphatic Nitramine 4-Nitro-2,4-Diazabutanal by Methylobacterium sp. Strain JS178." Applied and Environmental Microbiology 71, no. 8 (August 2005): 4199–202. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/aem.71.8.4199-4202.2005.

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ABSTRACT The aliphatic nitramine 4-nitro-2,4-diazabutanal (NDAB; C2H5N3O3) is a ring cleavage metabolite that accumulates during the aerobic degradation of the energetic compound hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX) by various Rhodococcus spp. NDAB is also produced during the alkaline hydrolysis of either RDX or octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine (HMX) and during the photolysis of RDX. Traces of NDAB were observed in a soil sampled from an ammunition-manufacturing facility contaminated with both HMX and RDX, suggesting natural attenuation. In this study, we report the isolation of a soil bacterium that is able to degrade NDAB under aerobic conditions. The isolate is a pink-pigmented facultative methylotroph affiliated with the genus Methylobacterium. The strain, named Methylobacterium sp. strain JS178, degrades NDAB as a sole nitrogen source, with concomitant growth and formation of 1 molar equivalent of nitrous oxide (N2O). Comparison of the growth yield of strain JS178 grown on NDAB, nitrite (NO2 −), or ammonium (NH4 +) as a nitrogen source revealed that 1 N equivalent is assimilated from each mole of NDAB, which completes the nitrogen mass balance. In radiotracer experiments, strain JS178 mineralized 1 C of the [14C]NDAB produced in situ from [14C]RDX by Rhodococcus sp. strain DN22. Studies on the regulation of NDAB degradation indicated that allantoin, an intermediate in the purine catabolic pathway and a central molecule in the storage and transport of nitrogen in plants, up-regulated the enzyme(s) involved in the degradation of the nitramine. The results reveal the potential for the sequential participation of rhodococci and methylobacteria to effect the complete degradation of RDX.

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27

Ghosh, Mrinal, Shaibal Banerjee, Md Abdul Shafeeuulla Khan, Nirmala Sikder, and Arun Kanti Sikder. "Understanding metastable phase transformation during crystallization of RDX, HMX and CL-20: experimental and DFT studies." Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics 18, no. 34 (2016): 23554–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c6cp02185a.

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The relative stability of metastable phases of RDX, HMX and CL-20 in solution has been revealed by experimental and DFT studies. Molecular conformation during prenucleation clustering and lattice barrier essentially determines the stability of metastable phases during crystallization.

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28

Song, Nai-Meng, Li Yang, Ji-Min Han, Jian-Chao Liu, Guo-Ying Zhang, and Hong-Xu Gao. "Catalytic study on thermal decomposition of Cu-en/(AP, CL-20, RDX and HMX) composite microspheres prepared by spray drying." New Journal of Chemistry 42, no. 23 (2018): 19062–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c8nj04166k.

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This paper mainly describes a spray drying method for the preparation of a variety of composite microspheres of energetic materials, including AP, RDX, β-HMX, and ε-CL-20, which are commonly used in composite modified double base propellants.

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Fournier, Diane, Annamaria Halasz, Jim Spain, Ronald J. Spanggord, Jeffrey C. Bottaro, and Jalal Hawari. "Biodegradation of the Hexahydro-1,3,5-Trinitro-1,3,5-Triazine Ring Cleavage Product 4-Nitro-2,4-Diazabutanal by Phanerochaete chrysosporium." Applied and Environmental Microbiology 70, no. 2 (February 2004): 1123–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/aem.70.2.1123-1128.2004.

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ABSTRACT Initial denitration of hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX) by Rhodococcus sp. strain DN22 produces CO2 and the dead-end product 4-nitro-2,4-diazabutanal (NDAB), OHCNHCH2NHNO2, in high yield. Here we describe experiments to determine the biodegradability of NDAB in liquid culture and soils containing Phanerochaete chrysosporium. A soil sample taken from an ammunition plant contained RDX (342 μmol kg−1), HMX (octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine; 3,057 μmol kg−1), MNX (hexahydro-1-nitroso-3,5-dinitro-1,3,5-triazine; 155 μmol kg−1), and traces of NDAB (3.8 μmol kg−1). The detection of the last in real soil provided the first experimental evidence for the occurrence of natural attenuation that involved ring cleavage of RDX. When we incubated the soil with strain DN22, both RDX and MNX (but not HMX) degraded and produced NDAB (388 ± 22 μmol kg−1) in 5 days. Subsequent incubation of the soil with the fungus led to the removal of NDAB, with the liberation of nitrous oxide (N2O). In cultures with the fungus alone NDAB degraded to give a stoichiometric amount of N2O. To determine C stoichiometry, we first generated [14C]NDAB in situ by incubating [14C]RDX with strain DN22, followed by incubation with the fungus. The production of 14CO2 increased from 30 (DN22 only) to 76% (fungus). Experiments with pure enzymes revealed that manganese-dependent peroxidase rather than lignin peroxidase was responsible for NDAB degradation. The detection of NDAB in contaminated soil and its effective mineralization by the fungus P. chrysosporium may constitute the basis for the development of bioremediation technologies.

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30

Khaneft, Alexander V., Vadim A. Dolgachev, and Svyatoslav A. Rybin. "The Effect of Metal Film Thickness on Ignition of Organic Explosives with a Laser Pulse." Molecules 24, no. 24 (December 16, 2019): 4600. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules24244600.

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The results of numerical ignition simulation of pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN), cyclotrimethylene trinitramine (RDX), cyclotetramethylene tetranitramine (HMX) and 1,3,5-triamino-2,4,6-trinitrobenzene (TATB) by aluminium (Al) and molybdenum (Mo) films heated by nanosecond laser pulses in a three-layer system: glass–metal–explosive material (EM) are presented. Influence of metal film thickness on the time of EM ignition delay was considered. A non-linier dependence of time of delay of ignition of EM from thickness of a metal film is shown. The greatest critical thicknesses of Al and Mo metallic films at which ignition of EM is still possible were determined. It was established that the greater the thickness of the metal film and heat resistance of EM, the greater the heat reserve needed in EM ignition film. It was established that the ignition delay time of EM increases in the sequence of PETN, RDX, HMX and TATB.

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31

Ndibe, Thankgod Ositadinma, Benthai Benjamin, Winnie Chuno Eugene, and Johnson John Usman. "A Review on Biodegradation and Biotransformation of Explosive Chemicals." European Journal of Engineering Research and Science 3, no. 11 (November 29, 2018): 58–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.24018/ejers.2018.3.11.925.

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Military training activities as well as manufacturing and decommissioning operations, lead to the generation of large quantities of explosive chemicals. Detonation and disposal of these explosive chemicals contaminate soil and ground water, thus posing a threat to living organisms and natural resources. The most commonly used explosives in artillery shells, bombs, grenades and other munitions are 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene (TNT), Hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX) and Octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine (HMX). Due to their recalcitrant nature, toxicity and persistence in the environment, the study of their biodegradation and biotransformation is paramount. This paper reviews the chemistry, fate, degradation and transformation of this explosive chemicals in the natural environment. Emphasis is placed on TNT, RDX and HMX. This review will help scientists to adopt strategies and develop optimum biological treatment scheme for the in situ bioremediation of explosives-contaminated soil especially at firing/impact ranges.

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32

Ndibe, Thankgod Ositadinma, Benthai Benjamin, Winnie Chuno Eugene, and Johnson John Usman. "A Review on Biodegradation and Biotransformation of Explosive Chemicals." European Journal of Engineering and Technology Research 3, no. 11 (November 29, 2018): 58–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.24018/ejeng.2018.3.11.925.

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Military training activities as well as manufacturing and decommissioning operations, lead to the generation of large quantities of explosive chemicals. Detonation and disposal of these explosive chemicals contaminate soil and ground water, thus posing a threat to living organisms and natural resources. The most commonly used explosives in artillery shells, bombs, grenades and other munitions are 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene (TNT), Hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX) and Octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine (HMX). Due to their recalcitrant nature, toxicity and persistence in the environment, the study of their biodegradation and biotransformation is paramount. This paper reviews the chemistry, fate, degradation and transformation of this explosive chemicals in the natural environment. Emphasis is placed on TNT, RDX and HMX. This review will help scientists to adopt strategies and develop optimum biological treatment scheme for the in situ bioremediation of explosives-contaminated soil especially at firing/impact ranges.

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33

Jing, Bo, Jianhua Chen, Jia Zhao, Minke Shi, and Ai feng He. "Study on initiation of flyer driven by laser ignition." Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2478, no. 3 (June 1, 2023): 032075. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/2478/3/032075.

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Abstract In order to study the initiation technology of laser ignition driven flyer, the initiation principle of laser ignition driven flyer is analyzed. The velocity simulation design of laser ignition driven flyer and the velocity simulation of different flyers driven by the same charge are carried out with Autodyn, and the initiation verification test of laser ignition driven flyer is carried out. The test results show that RDX can be initiated by impact, and the effect consistency is good, Therefore, using HMX to drive the flyer to impact and detonate RDX has high reliability.

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34

Washburn, Ephraim B., and Merrill W. Beckstead. "Modeling Multiphase Effects in the Combustion of HMX and RDX." Journal of Propulsion and Power 22, no. 5 (September 2006): 938–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.2514/1.12689.

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35

Mukhanov, A. E. "Electronic excitation energies in crystals of PETN, RDX and HMX." Journal of Physics: Conference Series 500, no. 18 (May 7, 2014): 182029. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/500/18/182029.

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36

Choi, J.-K., H.-S. Son, T.-S. Kim, M. K. Stenstrom, and K.-D. Zoh. "Degradation Kinetics and Mechanism of RDX and HMX in TiO2Photocatalysis." Environmental Technology 27, no. 2 (February 2006): 219–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09593332708618636.

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37

Choi, Kyujin, Taeyoon Hong, Kyung Ik Sim, Taewoo Ha, Byung Cheol Park, Jin Hyuk Chung, Soo Gyeong Cho, and Jae Hoon Kim. "Reflection terahertz time-domain spectroscopy of RDX and HMX explosives." Journal of Applied Physics 115, no. 2 (January 14, 2014): 023105. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.4861616.

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38

Anisichkin, V. F. "Isotope studies of detonation mechanisms of TNT, RDX, and HMX." Combustion, Explosion, and Shock Waves 43, no. 5 (September 2007): 580–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10573-007-0078-2.

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39

Zenin, A. A., and S. V. Finjakov. "Studying RDX and HMX combustion mechanisms by various experimental techniques." Combustion, Explosion, and Shock Waves 45, no. 5 (September 2009): 559–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10573-009-0068-7.

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40

Sagi-Ben Moshe, S., Z. Ronen, O. Dahan, N. Weisbrod, L. Groisman, E. Adar, and R. Nativ. "Sequential biodegradation of TNT, RDX and HMX in a mixture." Environmental Pollution 157, no. 8-9 (August 2009): 2231–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2009.04.012.

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41

Nadykto, B. A. "Equations of state of unreacted explosives: PETN, RDX, HMX, TATB." EPJ Web of Conferences 10 (2010): 00007. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/epjconf/20101000007.

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42

Ciller, Juan A., Felipe J. Serna, and José R. Quintana. "Thermal characterization of mixtures of nitrotriazolone with HMX and RDX." Journal of Energetic Materials 10, no. 4-5 (November 1992): 251–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07370659208018925.

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43

Liu, Zongkuan, Lei Zhang, Yonghong Liu, and Yanling He. "Anaerobic biodegradation of RDX and HMX with different co-substrates." Chinese Journal of Chemical Engineering 23, no. 4 (April 2015): 704–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cjche.2015.01.004.

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44

Kostarev, Vitalii A., Gennadii E. Kotkovskii, Alexander A. Chistyakov, and Artem E. Akmalov. "Enhancement of Characteristics of Field Asymmetric Ion Mobility Spectrometer with Laser Ionization for Detection of Explosives in Vapor Phase." Chemosensors 8, no. 4 (September 27, 2020): 91. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/chemosensors8040091.

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Ion mobility spectrometry instrumentation today is widespread in the area of transport security and counterterrorism. This method of detection of explosive substances is highly appreciated for the existence of portable detectors capable of detecting concentrations of 10−13–10−14 g/cm3 at atmospheric pressure using traditional ionization methods including corona discharge and beta radiation. However, low vapor pressure of some explosives imposes requirements on limit of detection (LOD) down to 10–15‒10−16 g/cm3. In this paper we compare a radioactive 63Ni ionization source with a laser ionization source and reveal the parameters of laser ionization of a group of explosives, namely trinitrotoluene (TNT), cyclotrimethylene-trinitramine (RDX), cyclotetramethylene-tetranitramine (HMX) and pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN), which can reduce the limit of detection of portable devices. A laser ionization source can provide a higher signal to noise ratio than radioactive 63Ni at optimal intensity of laser radiation for PETN and HMX of 3 × 107 W/cm2 and 2.5 × 107 W/cm2, respectively. Limits of detection were estimated: 3 × 10−15 g/cm3 for RDX, 8 × 10−15 g/cm3 for PETN and less than 3 × 10−15 g/cm3 for HMX. These results are promising to further improve the capabilities of detectors of low volatility explosives without sacrificing portability, light weight and reasonable cost of the laser source.

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45

Borne, Lionel, and Helmut Ritter. "HMX as an Impurity in RDX Particles: Effect on the Shock Sensitivity of Formulations Based on RDX." Propellants, Explosives, Pyrotechnics 31, no. 6 (December 2006): 482–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/prep.200600066.

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46

Hu, Fei, Lin-Jian Wang, Wei Zhao, Yu-Cun Liu, Su-Ming Jing, Ping Liu, and Jin-Xuan He. "Thermal Decomposition Kinetics and Compatibility of 3,5-difluoro-2,4,6-trinitroanisole (DFTNAN)." Materials 14, no. 15 (July 27, 2021): 4186. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma14154186.

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In this paper, the thermal decomposition behavior of 3,5-difluoro-2,4,6-trinitroanisole (DFTNAN) was studied by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and thermogravimetry (TG) by using different heating rates (2, 5, 10, 15 °C·min−1). Subsequently, the kinetic and thermodynamic parameters of non-isothermal thermal decomposition of DFTNAN were calculated. The critical temperature of thermal explosion (Tb) and self-accelerating decomposition temperature (TASDT) were determined to be 249.03 °C and 226.33 °C, respectively. The compatibility of DFTNAN with a number of high explosives (cyclo-1,3,5-trimethylene-2,4,6-trinitramine (RDX), 1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine (HMX), 2,4,6,8,10,12-hexanitro-2,4,6,8,10,12-hexaaza-tetracyclo-[5.5.0.05,9.03,11]-dodecane (CL-20) and dihydroxylammonium 5,5’-bistetrazole-1,1’-diolate (TKX-50)) was studied at different mass ratios using DSC. The criteria to judge the compatibility between the materials were based on a standardization agreement (STANAG 4147). The thermodynamic study results revealed that DFTNAN possessed superior thermal safety and stability. The experimental of compatibility results indicated that the mass ratios of the high explosives in the DFTNAN/RDX, DFTNAN/HMX and DFTNAN/CL-20 compositions more than 40%, 60% and 70% exhibited good compatibility, whereas DFTNAN/TKX-50 demonstrated poor compatibility.

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47

Zhang, Yuan-ping, Cong-hua Hou, Xin-lei Jia, Ying-xin Tan, and Jing-yu Wang. "Compatibility Study of 1,1-Diamino-2,2-Dinitroethene (FOX-7) with Some Energetic Materials." Journal of Chemistry 2020 (January 20, 2020): 1–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2020/7605140.

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1,1-diamino-2,2-dinitroethene (FOX-7) is a novel explosive with low sensitivity and high performance. The compatibility of FOX-7 with nine common energetic materials including hexanitrohexazaisowurtzitane (CL-20), cyclotetramethylenetetranitramine (HMX), cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine (RDX), 3,4-dinitrofurazanfuroxan (DNTF), 3-nitro-1,2,4-triazol-5-one (NTO), hexanitrostilbene (HNS-II), 2,6-diamino-3,5-dinitropyrazine-1-oxide (LLM-105), 2,4,6-triamino-1,3,5-trinitrobenzene (TATB), and 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) were tested by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and the vacuum stability test (VST) as the thermal technique and X-ray diffractometry (XRD) as a nonthermal technique. DSC measurements showed that the binary systems of FOX-7/CL-20, FOX-7/HMX, FOX-7/NTO, and FOX-7/TNT were compatible in grade of A, the systems of FOX-7 with heat-resistant explosives including HNS-II, LLM-105, and TATB were compatible as well in grade of A-B, and the binary systems of FOX-7/DNTF and FOX-7/RDX had poor compatibility. VST results indicated that FOX-7 was compatible with nine energetic materials. Besides, the compatibility results of the thermal analysis were confirmed by the XRD technique.

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48

Bonin, Pascale M. L., Dorin Bejan, Zorana Radovic-Hrapovic, Annamaria Halasz, Jalal Hawari, and Nigel J. Bunce. "Indirect Oxidation of RDX, HMX, and CL-20 Cyclic Nitramines in Aqueous Solution at Boron-Doped Diamond Electrodes." Environmental Chemistry 2, no. 2 (2005): 125. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/en05006.

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Environmental Context. Nitramine explosives, including RDX, HMX, and the more newly developed CL-20, are the source of groundwater contamination (‘pinkwater’) especially around military installations. These materials all possess an abundance of nitro (NO2) groups, which, like synthetic organohalogens, render them resistant to biodegradation and thereby allows them to persist in the soil and waters. In this study it was shown that these substances can be indirectly oxidized at a boron-doped diamond electrode to small molecules (carboxylic acids and mineralized nitrogen-containing compounds). Abstract. Electrochemical oxidation at boron-doped diamond (BDD) electrodes was examined as a possible technique for the remediation of water contaminated with nitramine explosives. The advantage of BDD is that it promotes indirect oxidation by electrogenerated active intermediates, such as hydroxyl radicals. For the three explosives RDX, HMX, and CL-20, degradation in both acetonitrile/water mixtures and in water alone was suggested to involve an initial denitration, followed by spontaneous decomposition of the molecules, the net result being the complete transformation of the nitramines to small molecules. Although the rate of degradation increased with current density, the current efficiency was highest at low current densities.

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49

Volkov, Evgeny N., Alexander A. Paletsky, and O. P. Korobeinichev. "RDX AND HMX FLAME STRUCTURE AT A PRESSURE OF 0.1 MPa." International Journal of Energetic Materials and Chemical Propulsion 8, no. 3 (2009): 183–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1615/intjenergeticmaterialschemprop.v8.i3.20.

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50

Brannon, James M., Cynthia B. Price, Charolett Hayes, and Sally L. Yost. "Aquifer Soil Cation Substitution and Adsorption of TNT, RDX, and HMX." Soil and Sediment Contamination: An International Journal 11, no. 3 (May 2002): 327–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/20025891106772.

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