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1
Kim, Mikyeong, Gippeum Bak, and Mooyoung Han. "Comparing the microbial characteristics of rainwater in two operating rainwater tanks with different surface-to-volume ratios." Water Science and Technology 64, no. 3 (August 1, 2011): 627–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2011.626.
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In this study, the microbial characteristics of rainwater in two tanks with different surface-to-volume ratios were investigated and compared to determine how the internal design features of storage tanks affect water quality. The particle and nutrient parameters of the rainwater, including turbidity, suspended solids, total organic carbon, and total phosphate, were lower in Tank 2, which had a surface-to-volume ratio 7.5 times greater than that of Tank 1. In addition, although the rainwater was collected from the same catchment area, the water in Tank 1 had greater numbers of bacteria, and the bacterial communities in the water differed between the two storage tanks. It appears that the differences in the inside surface structures of the rainwater tanks affected the microbial ecosystems. Increasing the surface-to-volume ratio in rainwater tanks may affect rainwater quality, because this extends the area for biofilm development. Further study of the role of biofilm in rainwater tank is required precisely, and its function needs to be considered in the design and management of rainwater tanks.
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Moglia, Magnus, Grace Tjandraatmadja, and Ashok K. Sharma. "Exploring the need for rainwater tank maintenance: survey, review and simulations." Water Supply 13, no. 2 (March 1, 2013): 191–201. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2013.021.
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Rainwater tanks are a common feature of the urban landscape in Australia and globally. In Brisbane, Australia, provision of alternative water in new homes is mandatory and to meet this requirement rainwater tanks are considered an important option. The water savings of rainwater tanks can help defer investments in supply infrastructures. An emerging concern is that there is currently no mechanism in place for making sure that the household rainwater collection systems are maintained and in a good condition. In fact, in many locations, there is growing concern about whether the condition of this asset stock is adequate. The paper presents: a synthesis of required basic water tanks maintenance tasks; a short overview of published literature on householder motivations for maintenance; a synthesis of existing information about the condition of tanks, based on literature; simulation model results identifying the relationship between frequency of inspections and the (stationary) proportion of tanks with different types of problems; and the results of a survey to identify judgements about water tank maintenance in the region by professionals and plumbers. The paper concludes that there is a need for collecting more data and that mechanisms need to be in place to ensure the ongoing condition of tanks.
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Ahmed, W., L. Hodgers, J. P. S. Sidhu, and S. Toze. "Fecal Indicators and Zoonotic Pathogens in Household Drinking Water Taps Fed from Rainwater Tanks in Southeast Queensland, Australia." Applied and Environmental Microbiology 78, no. 1 (October 21, 2011): 219–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/aem.06554-11.
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ABSTRACTIn this study, the microbiological quality of household tap water samples fed from rainwater tanks was assessed by monitoring the numbers ofEscherichia colibacteria and enterococci from 24 households in Southeast Queensland (SEQ), Australia. Quantitative PCR (qPCR) was also used for the quantitative detection of zoonotic pathogens in water samples from rainwater tanks and connected household taps. The numbers of zoonotic pathogens were also estimated in fecal samples from possums and various species of birds by using qPCR, as possums and birds are considered to be the potential sources of fecal contamination in roof-harvested rainwater (RHRW). Among the 24 households, 63% of rainwater tank and 58% of connected household tap water (CHTW) samples containedE. coliand exceeded Australian drinking water guidelines of <1 CFUE. coliper 100 ml water. Similarly, 92% of rainwater tanks and 83% of CHTW samples also contained enterococci. In all, 21%, 4%, and 13% of rainwater tank samples containedCampylobacterspp.,Salmonellaspp., andGiardia lamblia, respectively. Similarly, 21% of rainwater tank and 13% of CHTW samples containedCampylobacterspp. andG. lamblia, respectively. The number ofE. coli(P= 0.78),Enterococcus(P= 0.64),Campylobacter(P= 0.44), andG. lamblia(P= 0.50) cells in rainwater tanks did not differ significantly from the numbers observed in the CHTW samples. Among the 40 possum fecal samples tested,Campylobacterspp.,Cryptosporidium parvum, andG. lambliawere detected in 60%, 13%, and 30% of samples, respectively. Among the 38 bird fecal samples tested,Campylobacterspp.,Salmonellaspp.,C. parvum, andG. lambliawere detected in 24%, 11%, 5%, and 13% of the samples, respectively. Household tap water samples fed from rainwater tanks tested in the study appeared to be highly variable. Regular cleaning of roofs and gutters, along with pruning of overhanging tree branches, might also prove effective in reducing animal fecal contamination of rainwater tanks.
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Tapsuwan, Sorada, Stephen Cook, and Magnus Moglia. "Willingness to Pay for Rainwater Tank Features: A Post-Drought Analysis of Sydney Water Users." Water 10, no. 9 (September 6, 2018): 1199. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w10091199.
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The Millennium Drought across Australia during the 2000s placed cities under pressure in providing urban water security. In Sydney, Australia’s largest city, a comprehensive water demand programme triggered a significant reduction in per capita water consumption. The water demand programme included incentives for the installation of rainwater tanks. This paper explores the willingness to pay (WTP) for rainwater tank features in the post-drought context. Rainwater tanks have been demonstrated as an effective measure to reduce mains water demand, but they also provide broader environmental and economic benefits, such as the reduction of urban runoff to waterways and deferred capital investment in augmenting capacity of water supply system. Therefore, there is the need to better understand WTP for rainwater tank features across the community. An online survey was administered to a sample of Sydney households, with 127 respondents completing a rainwater tank choice experiment that explored their WTP for different rainwater tank features and the socio-psychological constructs that might influence their tendency to adopt rainwater tanks. The results demonstrated that householders surveyed valued slimline rainwater tanks, as they are likely to be less obstructive, particularly given the trend for smaller lot sizes and increased building size. Householders also placed greater value on connecting the rainwater tank to outdoor demands, which may be influenced by perceived vulnerability of outdoor uses to water restrictions relative to indoor uses. The survey analysis also identified that the householders most receptive to installing a rainwater tank are likely to be conformists, who compare themselves to peers, and spend significant effort when making decisions, and are already taking actions to conserve water. The findings are of significance when targeting future education programmes and designing financial incentives to encourage rainwater tank adoption.
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Sharma, Ashok, and Ted Gardner. "Comprehensive Assessment Methodology for Urban Residential Rainwater Tank Implementation." Water 12, no. 2 (January 21, 2020): 315. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w12020315.
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Rainwater tanks are increasingly being implemented as part of the integrated urban water management paradigm where all sources of water, including potable, stormwater and recycled, are considered eligible to contribute to the urban water supply. Over the last decade or so, there has been a rapid uptake of rainwater tank systems in urban areas, especially in Australian cities, encouraged through financial incentives, but more importantly, from change in residential building codes effectively mandating the installation of rainwater tanks. Homes with rainwater tanks in Australian cities have increased from 15% to 28% over six years to 2013. These building codes specify certain rainwater tank specifications to achieve a stated rainwater use, and hence potable water savings. These specifications include minimum rainwater tank size, minimum connected roof area, plumbing for internal supply for toilets and washing machines, and external supply for garden watering. These expected potable water savings from households are often factored into regional strategic water planning objectives. Hence if rainwater tanks do not deliver the expected saving due to sub-standard installation and/or poor maintenance, it will have an adverse impact on the regional water plan in the longer term. In this paper, a methodology to assess the effectiveness of a government rainwater tank policy in achieving predicted potable water savings is described and illustrated with a case study from South East Queensland, Australia. It is anticipated that water professionals across the globe should be able to use the same methodology to assess the effectiveness of similar rainwater policies, or indeed any other distributed water saving policy, in their local planning communities.
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Coombes, P. J., and M. E. Barry. "The effect of selection of time steps and average assumptions on the continuous simulation of rainwater harvesting strategies." Water Science and Technology 55, no. 4 (February 1, 2007): 125–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2007.102.
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The use of domestic rainwater tanks with back up from mains water supplies in urban areas can produce considerable reductions in mains water demands and stormwater runoff. It is commonplace to analyse the performance of rainwater tanks using continuous simulation with daily time steps and average water use assumptions. This paper compares this simplistic analysis to more detailed analysis that employs 6 minute time steps and climate dependent water demand. The use of daily time steps produced considerable under-estimation of annual rainwater yields that were dependent on tank size, rain depth, seasonal distribution of rainfall, water demand and tank configuration. It is shown that analysis of the performance of rainwater tanks is critically dependent on detailed inputs.
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Bos, Darren G. "Private assets for public benefit: the challenge of long-term management of domestic rainwater tanks." Blue-Green Systems 3, no. 1 (January 1, 2021): 1–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/bgs.2021.003.
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Abstract This study explored the relationship private landowners have with their domestic rainwater tank and how that relationship influences the reliability of privately operated rainwater tanks for long-term performance and delivery of service. It found that tank owners generally placed a high value on their tank, desired to have them fully operational and made a reasonable effort to keep them functioning. However, the frequency and extent of maintenance action and effort was variable, and in the context of a private residence, rainwater tanks were typically afforded a low relative priority for repair when compared with other residential assets. This low relative priority could be a primary driver for the reported delay between when a fault occurs with the tank and when it is repaired. This ‘repair lag’ means that a portion of domestic rainwater tanks are likely to be non-operational at any one time. When planning a decentralised system for the management of stormwater, redundancies should be included to cover these gaps in service delivery. It is also recommended that programmes that support private landowners to maintain their rainwater tanks are implemented to minimise repair lag.
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van der Sterren, M., A. Rahman, and G. R. Dennis. "Implications to stormwater management as a result of lot scale rainwater tank systems: a case study in Western Sydney, Australia." Water Science and Technology 65, no. 8 (April 1, 2012): 1475–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2012.033.
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Rainwater tanks are increasingly adopted in Australia to reduce potable water demand and are perceived to reduce the volume of stormwater discharge from developments. This paper investigates the water balance of rainwater tanks, in particular the possible impacts these tanks could have in controlling the stormwater discharge volume. The study collected water quantity data from two sites in the Hawkesbury City Council area, New South Wales, Australia and utilised the collected data in a simple water balance model to assess the effectiveness of rainwater tanks in reducing the stormwater discharge volume. The results indicate that a significant reduction in discharge volume from a lot scale development can be achieved if the rainwater tank is connected to multiple end-uses, but is minimal when using irrigation alone. In addition, the commonly used volumetric runoff coefficient of 0.9 was found to over-estimate the runoff from the roof areas and to thereby under-estimate the available volume within the rainwater tanks for retention or detention. Also, sole reliance on the water in the rainwater tanks can make the users aware of their water use pattern and water availability, resulting in significant reductions in water use as the supply dwindles, through self-imposed water restrictions.
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Magyar, M. I., V. G. Mitchell, A. R. Ladson, and C. Diaper. "An investigation of rainwater tanks quality and sediment dynamics." Water Science and Technology 56, no. 9 (November 1, 2007): 21–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2007.738.
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Rainwater tanks are being introduced into urban areas in Australia to supplement centralised potable supply systems. A pilot scale tank study and a full-scale field tank study found that heavy metal concentrations in water samples taken from the tank's supply point can, in some cases, exceed levels recommended by guidelines. Both studies also found very high concentrations of heavy metals in the sediments accumulated at the base of rainwater tanks. Laboratory experiments are underway to investigate sediment transport processes within a full-scale tank. Preliminary results demonstrate the effect of sediment resuspension on the quality of water released from the tank outlet. Improved tank designs that reduce sediment resuspension and mitigate impacts on water quality are the focus of future work.
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Crawford, R. H., V. Paton-Cole, R. Turnbull, E. Fitzgerald, A. Michalewicz, and J. Garber. "Trends in residential sustainability measures in the state of Victoria." IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1101, no. 2 (November 1, 2022): 022018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1101/2/022018.
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Abstract Buildings require a significant quantity of energy and water during their operation. Solar water heaters and rainwater tanks have become increasingly common to reduce the demand for fossil-fuel based energy and mains water within buildings. Since 2006, the Victorian Building Authority has required either a rainwater tank or solar water heater to be installed in any new house built in Victoria, Australia. This research analyses the trend in adoption of these two systems using data from building permits issued from 2006 to 2019. This shows that despite an initial preference for rainwater tanks, solar water heaters have been the preferred choice. This preference was found to be greatest for projects costing from $200k-$600k and for allotment areas smaller than 500 m2. Preference for rainwater tanks tended to increase in line with an increase in project cost and allotment area, and this preference was found to be most common in metropolitan areas. This study provides insight into the opportunities for further adoption of solar water heaters and rainwater tanks, including using information at the LGA level to develop specific business opportunities or to inform policy, such as alternative water efficiency solutions for households where allotment area may limit rainwater tank adoption.
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Raimondi, A., and G. Becciu. "Probabilistic Modeling of Rainwater Tanks." Procedia Engineering 89 (2014): 1493–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2014.11.437.
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Khastagir, Anirban, and Niranjali Jayasuriya. "Investment Evaluation of Rainwater Tanks." Water Resources Management 25, no. 14 (July 20, 2011): 3769–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11269-011-9883-1.
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Han, M. Y., and J. S. Mun. "Particle behaviour consideration to maximize the settling capacity of rainwater storage tanks." Water Science and Technology 56, no. 11 (December 1, 2007): 73–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2007.778.
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Design of a rainwater storage tank is mostly based on the mass balance of rainwater with respect to the tank, considering aspects such as rainfall runoff, water usage and overflow. So far, however, little information is available on the quality aspects of the stored rainwater, such as the behavior of particles, the effect of retention time of the water in the tank and possible influences of system configuration on water quality in the storage tank. In this study, we showed that the performance of rainwater storage tanks could be maximized by recognizing the importance of water quality improvement by sedimentation and the importance of the system configuration within the tank, as well as the efficient collection of runoff. The efficiency of removal of the particles was increased by there being a considerable distance between the inlet and the outlet in the rainwater storage tank. Furthermore, it is recommended that the effective water depth in a rainwater tank be designed to be more than 3 m and that the rainwater be drawn from as close to the water surface as possible by using a floating suction device. An operation method that increases the retention time by stopping rainwater supply when the turbidity of rainwater runoff is high will ensure low turbidity in the rainwater collected from the tank.
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Tjandraatmadja, G., C. Pollard, A. Sharma, and T. Gardner. "How supply system design can reduce the energy footprint of rainwater supply in urban areas in Australia." Water Supply 13, no. 3 (May 1, 2013): 753–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2013.057.
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In Australia rainwater tanks are used in cities to reduce demand of mains water and increase the resilience of cities to drought. Rainwater is collected in a tank and supplied to a dwelling through a small pump. Typically the energy footprint for rainwater supply (in kWh/kL) is higher than for centralised water supply, but it can also vary markedly from dwelling to dwelling (0.4–11 kWh/kL). This study aimed to understand how the design of the rainwater supply system from the collection tank to the household can reduce the energy consumption of pumping. We examined the operation of a range of system components for rainwater supply, such as pumps, switches and pressure vessels, in a controlled residential environment (a model house) to understand their impact on the energy required for rainwater supply in urban dwellings. Results show that urban rainwater applications have flow and volume requirements which cause pumps to operate at high energy for rainwater delivery. Matching pump sizes to end use requirements and adoption of ancillary devices (pressure vessels and header tanks) have the potential to lower the energy footprint for rainwater supply. However, the energy savings can be constrained by dwelling characteristics, appliances and system design.
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Khastagir, A., and L. N. N. Jayasuriya. "Impacts of using rainwater tanks on stormwater harvesting and runoff quality." Water Science and Technology 62, no. 2 (July 1, 2010): 324–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2010.283.
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The popularity of rainwater use in Australia depends completely on the individual householder's preference. The quality of reticulated water supplies in major cities of Australia is far superior to water stored in rainwater tanks. However, due to persistent drought and the implementation of stringent water restrictions, cities such as Melbourne have encouraged the use of rainwater harvesting within the property. The benefits of trapping stormwater within a property and using it effectively also reduce polluted runoff excess reaching receiving water. The study reported herein focuses on the effectiveness of rainwater tanks as a potential water sensitive urban design element used to manage stormwater using the MUSIC model. The study shows that the installation of a 3 kL tank reduces hydraulic loading by 75%, Total Suspended Solids by 97%, Total Phosphorous by 90% and Total Nitrogen by 81% if the rainwater stored in the tank is used to meet the indoor demand (toilet flushing and laundry use) as well as the outdoor demand (garden watering).
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Ahmed, W., L. Hodgers, N. Masters, J. P. S. Sidhu, M. Katouli, and S. Toze. "Occurrence of Intestinal and Extraintestinal Virulence Genes in Escherichia coli Isolates from Rainwater Tanks in Southeast Queensland, Australia." Applied and Environmental Microbiology 77, no. 20 (August 26, 2011): 7394–400. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/aem.06047-11.
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ABSTRACTIn this study, 200Escherichia coliisolates from 22 rainwater tank samples in Southeast Queensland, Australia, were tested for the presence of 20 virulence genes (VGs) associated with intestinal and extraintestinal pathotypes. In addition,E. coliisolates were also classified into phylogenetic groups based on the detection of thechuA,yjaA, and TSPE4.C2 genes. Of the 22 rainwater tanks, 8 (36%) and 5 (23%) were positive for theeaeA(belonging to enteropathogenicE. coli[EPEC] and Shiga-toxigenicE. coli[STEC]) and ST1 (belonging to enterotoxigenicE. coli[ETEC]) genes, respectively. VGs (cdtB,cvaC,ibeA,kpsMTallele III, PAI,papAH, andtraT) belonging to extraintestinal pathogenicE. coli(ExPEC) were detected in 15 (68%) of the 22 rainwater tanks. Of the 22 samples, 17 (77%) and 11 (50%) containedE. colibelonging to phylogenetic groups A and B1, respectively. Similarly, 10 (45%) and 16 (72%) containedE. colibelonging to phylogenetic groups B2 and D, respectively. Of the 96 of the 200 strains from 22 tanks that were VG positive, 40 (42%) were carrying a single VG, 36 (37.5%) were carrying two VGs, 17 (18%) were carrying three VGs, and 3 (3%) had four or more VGs. This study reports the presence of multiple VGs inE. colistrains belonging to the STEC, EPEC, ETEC, and ExPEC pathotypes in rainwater tanks. The public health risks associated with potentially clinically significantE. coliin rainwater tanks should be assessed, as the water is used for drinking and other, nonpotable purposes. It is recommended that rainwater be disinfected using effective treatment procedures such as filtration, UV disinfection, or simply boiling prior to drinking.
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Baguma, David, Willibald Loiskandl, Ika Darnhofer, Helmut Jung, and Michael Hauser. "Knowledge of measures to safeguard harvested rainwater quality in rural domestic households." Journal of Water and Health 8, no. 2 (November 9, 2009): 334–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2009.030.
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Given the possibility of waterborne diseases caused by inappropriate rainwater harvesting systems, a survey was conducted in Uganda to assess existing knowledge of both physical and non-physical measures that safeguard harvested rainwater. Households who had received rainwater tanks were assessed on issues related to harvested rainwater quality. The study shows that 84% of respondents were aware of various sources of rainwater contamination, but only 5% were aware that they needed to adjust use of rainwater, depending on whether they cleaned the tank or not. Most of the respondents were not aware that gutter cleaning was necessary to improve water quality. Indeed, as the water from the collection surface is channelled through gutters, a number of measures need to be taken to control the entry of contaminations and subsequent growth of pathogens in the tank, e.g. first flush diverts, installation of filters, chemical use and mesh cleaning. The majority, however, did not take adequate care of the gutters and this impacts on health and social livelihood. Overall, the findings emphasize the need to provide more information to households when installing water harvesting tanks to ensure that the harvested rainwater is of high quality.
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Rodrigo, S., M. Sinclair, and K. Leder. "A survey of the characteristics and maintenance of rainwater tanks in urban areas of South Australia." Water Science and Technology 61, no. 6 (March 1, 2010): 1569–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2010.055.
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Households resident in metropolitan Adelaide and surrounding areas in South Australia were recruited into a randomised controlled trial. A total of 630 rainwater tanks with a total tank capacity of 14.5 ML were installed at the 325 households surveyed. The majority of the tanks were plumbed into the kitchen (64.6%), over 10 years in age (45.5%), over 15,000 L in capacity (42.5%) and composed of galvanised steel (36.9%). Over 90% of the households undertook one or more prevention and maintenance strategies for reducing contamination of collected rainwater. The use of first flush diverters was reported by 30.8% households, the presence of leaf control devices on the tank by 57.2%, and the presence of leaf control screens on gutters by 25.5% households. Most households reported that the rainwater tank was cleaned at some time, with 50.4% of these households stating that tank cleaning occurred 1 to 5 years previously, and 31.9% more than 5 years prior to enrolment Rainwater from the main drinking tank was sampled from a subset of households for turbidity and metals (Al, Ca, Cu, Fe, Mg, Pb, Zn). This information regarding tank characteristics and degree of adherence to recommended maintenance procedures may assist understanding of variability in rainwater quality data and may help determine whether untreated rainwater can be considered a safe water supply for household purposes including drinking.
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Mukheibir, P., T. Boyle, C. Moy, and S. White. "Estimating the reliable residential water substitution from household rainwater tanks." Water Practice and Technology 9, no. 3 (September 1, 2014): 377–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wpt.2014.040.
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In Australia, household rainwater tanks have come to be considered as one of the broad potential supply options for meeting household water demands. It has been viewed as an effective way of reducing the supply requirements by water businesses and can potentially defer future capital supply investments. With likely variability of future supplies and demands due to climate change impacts, rainwater tanks also have an important role in building future resilience to shifts in historical trends, and also can potentially play a role in mitigating stormwater damage. The substitution of mains supplied water by rainwater can vary significantly, with the major factors influencing yields being the roof size to capture the rain, water usage regime (having some level of internal water use) and tank size. Tank performance, with respect to reduced substitution as a result of functionality failure, is seldom included in yield calculations however. A review of a number of studies in Australia has illustrated that the vast majority of field studies have produced qualitative responses on the perceptions of the use of rainwater, the structural integrity of their rainwater capture infrastructure and the end-uses connected to the system. It was found that the data required to inform the impact of functionality on substitution is currently largely limited to qualitative responses on the perceptions of the use of rainwater tanks, the structural integrity of their rainwater capture infrastructure and the end-uses connected to the system. There is very little in the way of quantitative assessments. This paper offers an interim approach for overcoming this quantitative information gap on the role and extent of functionality failure.
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Raya, Raghavendra Kumar, and Rajiv Gupta. "Rural community water management through directional tunnelling: visual modelling of rainwater harvesting system." Water Practice and Technology 15, no. 3 (July 2, 2020): 734–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wpt.2020.060.
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Abstract Rainwater, a prominent source of water, needs to be properly harvested for better utilisation during water unavailable circumstances. Creating rainwater storage structures is an important aspect in the planning of water resources as it serves for future water usage and consumption. Advancements in rainwater storage structures are not happening on a large scale. Most of the structures are limited to individual household rainwater collection. Innovations and advanced technology applications must address rainwater storage functioning for a community. This research work proposes an innovative method called directional tunnelling for the activity of rainwater harvesting and its management for a small community in a rural area. Initially, rainwater is harvested in multiple individual household tanks, and later the excess of water from the corresponding tanks is subsequently collected in a community tank named as directional tunnel. All the details related to rural community water management have been discussed as well as highlighted by visual modelling using Building Information Modelling (BIM) tools. The current research work is intended on the rural aspect; therefore, the directional tunnel's practical execution and results are portrayed in a better manner through a case study at a village in Rajasthan, India.
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Qin, Yinghong, Zhengce Huang, Zebin Yu, Zhikui Liu, and Lei Wang. "A Novel Buffer Tank to Attenuate the Peak Flow of Runoff." Civil Engineering Journal 5, no. 12 (December 3, 2019): 2525–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.28991/cej-2019-03091430.
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Impermeable pavements and roofs in urban areas convert most rainfall to runoff, which is commonly discharged to local sewers pipes and finally to the nearby streams and rivers. In case of heavy rain, the peak flow of runoff usually exceeds the carrying capacity of the local sewer pipes, leading to urban flooding. Traditional facilities, such as green roofs, permeable pavements, soakaways, rainwater tanks, rain barrels, and others reduce the runoff volume in case of a small rain but fail in case of a heavy rain. Here we propose a novel rainwater buffer tank to detain runoff from the nearby sealed surfaces in case of heavy rain and then to discharge rainwater from an orifice at the tank’s bottom. We found that considering a 100m2 rooftop with 0.80 runoff coefficient and a 10cm rainfall depth for an hour, a cubic tank with internal edge side of a square of 2 m attenuates the peak flow about 45%. To reduce a desirable peak flow, the outlet orifice of the buffer tank must be optimized according to site-specific conditions. The orifice can be set at an elevation from the tank’s bottom to create a dead storage for harvesting rainwater.
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Teston, Andréa, Celimar Teixeira, Enedir Ghisi, and Ernani Cardoso. "Impact of Rainwater Harvesting on the Drainage System: Case Study of a Condominium of Houses in Curitiba, Southern Brazil." Water 10, no. 8 (August 18, 2018): 1100. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w10081100.
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The objective of this work is to assess the impact of rainwater use in single-family houses on drinking water consumption and on the urban drainage system by means of a case study of a condominium of houses in the city of Curitiba, southern Brazil. A quantitative evaluation of the rainwater volume used and spilled in the recovery system was carried out using two methods for sizing the rainwater tank capacity. Using daily rainfall data and three demand scenarios of water consumption, it was possible to verify the efficiency and reliability of the adopted systems. Furthermore, in order to verify the impact on drainage, the greatest rainfall in the series was assessed and then it was possible to measure it by comparing the hydrograph peak flows with and without the rainwater harvesting systems in the watershed outfall, corresponding to the storage tanks (concrete boxes) in the condominium. It was concluded that there was a decrease in the peak flow of 4.9% and 4.4%, respectively, in the two storage tanks evaluated when the rainwater tank capacities were estimated using the method based on the German Practical Method.
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Czernek, Krystian, Marek Ochowiak, Daniel Janecki, Tomasz Zawilski, Leszek Dudek, Stanisław Witczak, Andżelika Krupińska, et al. "Sedimentation Tanks for Treating Rainwater: CFD Simulations and PIV Experiments." Energies 14, no. 23 (November 23, 2021): 7852. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en14237852.
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The removal of solids is the most important step when treating rainwater. The article evaluates two designs of sedimentation tanks that can be used for the continuous separation of fine particles from water: OS—standard sedimentation tanks, and OW—swirl sedimentation tanks. The tanks were studied by conducting computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modeling and particle image velocimetry (PIV) experiments. The settling process in sedimentation tank was carried out at varying operating flow rates. A tank with a modified structure was used for the tests, where water was supplied by a nozzle placed at an angle. This solution made it possible to obtain a rotational flow that transported the suspended particles towards its wall, where downward axial velocity resulted in the settling of particles. Based on the research, it was observed that the flow patterns showed inward flow at the bottom of the tank and an upward flow and the lifting of the settled particles near the hatch at the bottom. The presented experimental measurements provided detailed insight into flow patterns, and valuable calibration and verification data for further CFD modeling. Traditional PIV techniques are useful in the case of standard design, whereas CFD is invaluable for supporting this work and for investigating the design of novel sedimentation tanks.
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Nnaji, C. C., I. V. Nnaji, and R. O. Ekwule. "Storage-induced deterioration of domestic water quality." Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development 9, no. 2 (March 1, 2019): 329–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2019.151.
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Abstract Due to the failure of municipal supply systems in many Nigerian cities, residents often resort to long storage of water in large high-density polyethylene (HDPE) tanks in order to reduce water stress. This paper investigated deterioration of the quality of stored water for a period of 35 days. Samples from 20 purposively selected storage tanks in Enugu, Nigeria were collected for analysis. Heterotrophic bacteria, total coliform (TC), enterococci and Escherichia coli were present in 85%, 75%, 40% and 61% of the samples, respectively. E. coli (p < 0.001) and heterotrophic plate count (HPC) (p < 0.001) were significantly higher in storage tanks that were also used for rainwater collection than those that were not. HPC and TC counts in tanks that collect rainwater were twice those of tanks that do not, while E. coli and enterococci counts in tanks that also collect rainwater were three times those of tanks that do not collect rainwater. The most significant change (p < 0.001) in E. coli concentration occurred after 15 days of storage. Cleaning of tanks caused significant reduction of TC counts (p = 0.013), E. coli (p < 0.001), HPC (p < 0.001) and enterococci (p = 0.001). Hence, prolonged storage of water causes significant deterioration of water quality.
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Spinks, Jean, Suzanne Phillips, Priscilla Robinson, and Paul Van Buynder. "Bushfires and tank rainwater quality: A cause for concern?" Journal of Water and Health 4, no. 1 (March 1, 2006): 21–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2006.0001.
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In early 2003, after a prolonged drought period, extensive bushfires occurred in the east of Victoria affecting 1.5 million hectares of land. At the time, smoke and ash from bushfires, settling on roofs, contained pollutants that could potentially contaminate rainwater collected and stored in tanks for domestic use. The major concerns include polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from incomplete combustion of organic matter and arsenic from burnt copper chrome arsenate (CCA) treated wood. An increase in microbial contamination through altered nutrient levels was also hypothesised. A pilot study of 49 rainwater tank owners was undertaken in north-east Victoria. A rainwater tank sample was taken and analysed for a variety of parameters including organic compounds, microbiological indicators, metals, nutrients and physico-chemical parameters. A survey was administered concurrently. A number of results were outside the Australian Drinking Water Guideline (ADWG) values for metals and microbiological indicator organisms, but not for any tested organic compounds. PAHs and arsenic are unlikely to be elevated in rainwater tanks as a result of bushfires, but cadmium may be of concern.
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Kim, Youngjin, and Mooyoung Han. "Rainwater storage tank as a remedy for a local urban flood control." Water Supply 8, no. 1 (April 1, 2008): 31–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2008.029.
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Surcharge runoff over the capacity of drainage pipes is one of main flood breaking factors in urban area. Change into larger pipes is costly and time consuming solution. Rainwater tanks can be a sustainable solution for the control of heavy runoff. The Rainfall-Storage-Drain(RSD) model is developed for the design of rainwater tanks of flood control. Design rainfall of Huff's distribution and runoff analysis on building rooftop makes inflow curves into the tanks. Through a water balance equation, tank volume versus peak flow curves can determine the minimum tank volume needed for controlled peak flow value of a design period. The case study in Seoul City shows a tank of 29 L/m2 can control the runoff of 30-years with the drainage pipes of 10-years design period. The RSD model can give simple and easy curves to understand for tank capacity determination in a local flood condition.
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Dobrowsky, P. H., A. van Deventer, M. De Kwaadsteniet, T. Ndlovu, S. Khan, T. E. Cloete, and W. Khan. "Prevalence of Virulence Genes Associated with Pathogenic Escherichia coli Strains Isolated from Domestically Harvested Rainwater during Low- and High-Rainfall Periods." Applied and Environmental Microbiology 80, no. 5 (December 27, 2013): 1633–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/aem.03061-13.
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ABSTRACTThe possible health risks associated with the consumption of harvested rainwater remains one of the major obstacles hampering its large-scale implementation in water limited countries such as South Africa. Rainwater tank samples collected on eight occasions during the low- and high-rainfall periods (March to August 2012) in Kleinmond, South Africa, were monitored for the presence of virulence genes associated withEscherichia coli. The identity of presumptiveE. coliisolates in rainwater samples collected from 10 domestic rainwater harvesting (DRWH) tanks throughout the sampling period was confirmed through universal 16S rRNA PCR with subsequent sequencing and phylogenetic analysis. Species-specific primers were also used to routinely screen for the virulent genes,aggR,stx,eae, andipaHfound in enteroaggregativeE. coli(EAEC), enterohemorrhagicE. coli(EHEC), enteropathogenicE. coli(EPEC), and enteroinvasiveE. coli, respectively, in the rainwater samples. Of the 92E. colistrains isolated from the rainwater using culture based techniques, 6% were presumptively positively identified asE. coliO157:H7 using 16S rRNA. Furthermore, virulent pathogenicE. coligenes were detected in 3% (EPEC and EHEC) and 16% (EAEC) of the 80 rainwater samples collected during the sampling period from the 10 DRWH tanks. This study thus contributes valuable information to the limited data available regarding the ongoing prevalence of virulent pathotypes ofE. coliin harvested rainwater during a longitudinal study in a high-population-density, periurban setting.
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Kus, B., J. Kandasamy, S. Vigneswaran, and H. K. Shon. "Analysis of first flush to improve the water quality in rainwater tanks." Water Science and Technology 61, no. 2 (January 1, 2010): 421–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2010.823.
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Although most Australians receive their domestic supply from reticulated mains or town water, there are vast areas with very low population densities and few reticulated supplies. In many of these areas rainwater collected in tanks is the primary source of drinking water. Heavy metals have recently become a concern as their concentration in rain water tanks was found to exceed recommended levels suitable for human consumption. Rainwater storage tanks also accumulate contaminants and sediments that settle to the bottom. Although not widely acknowledged, small amounts of contaminants such as lead found in rain water (used as drinking water) may have a cumulative and poisonous effect on human health over a life time. This is true for certain factors that underlie many of the chronic illnesses that are becoming increasingly common in contemporary society. The paper reports on a study which is part of a project that aims to develop a cost effective in-line filtration system to improve water quality in rainwater tanks. To enable this, the characteristics of rainwater need to be known. One component of this characterization is to observe the effects of the first flush on a rainwater tank. Samples of the roof runoff collected from an urban residential roof located in the Sydney Metropolitan Area in the initial first few millimetres of rain were analysed. The results show that bypassing the first 2 mm of rainfall gives water with most water quality parameters compliant with the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines (ADWG) standards. The parameters that did not comply were lead and turbidity, which required bypassing approximately the first 5 mm of rainfall to meet ADWG standards. Molecular weight distribution (MWD) analysis showed that the concentration of rainwater organic matter (RWOM) decreased with increasing amount of roof runoff.
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Raimondi, A., and G. Becciu. "Probabilistic Design of Multi-use Rainwater Tanks." Procedia Engineering 70 (2014): 1391–400. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2014.02.154.
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Zdeb, Monika, Justyna Zamorska, Dorota Papciak, and Agata Skwarczyńska-Wojsa. "Investigation of Microbiological Quality Changes of Roof-Harvested Rainwater Stored in the Tanks." Resources 10, no. 10 (October 11, 2021): 103. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/resources10100103.
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Rainwater has been found to be a valuable source of drinking water in Europe, especially in such crisis situations as those caused by contamination of water uptake into water supply systems, large-scale floods or terrorist attacks (e.g., biological weapons). The microbiological quality of water plays a significant role, which is directly related to the potential health risks associated with harvested rainwater (including rainwater stored in the tanks). Microbial contamination is commonly found in rainwater. However, in the literature, detailed results of qualitative and quantitative microbiological assessments are sparse and remain unexplored. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate and analyze changes in the microbiological quality of roof-harvested rainwater stored in the tanks, depending on the collection conditions (type of roof surface), storage duration and season. Authors elucidate that conditions such as storage duration, the season in which rainwater is collected, the roof-like surface types and morphology of the catchment area highly affect rainwater quality. This study showed that rainwater harvested from a galvanized steel sheet roof had the best microbial quality, regarding the lowest number of bacteria, while rainwater from a flat roof covered with epoxy resin was the worst. Further, it was detected that rainwater collected in autumn and spring obtained the best microbiological quality. Moreover, a decrease in the number of bacteria was observed in correlation to storage duration. The water became sanitary safe after six weeks of storage at 12 °C. Its use for purposes requiring drinking water quality before six weeks of storage required disinfection.
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Struk-Sokołowska, Joanna, Joanna Gwoździej-Mazur, Piotr Jadwiszczak, Andrzej Butarewicz, Piotr Ofman, Marcin Wdowikowski, and Bartosz Kaźmierczak. "The Quality of Stored Rainwater for Washing Purposes." Water 12, no. 1 (January 16, 2020): 252. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w12010252.
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The use of rainwater for washing clothes is determined by its amount, composition and quality of washing. Raw rainwater is soft and free of pollution. The collected rainwater already contains pollution present in the atmosphere and washed away from roofs and other surfaces. It can also change its quality when stored in tanks. Washing clothes does not require drinking quality water but just clean, safe water that guarantees effective removal of dirt from fabrics. The study determined the physicochemical and microbiological changes of rainwater characteristics during retention. Rainwater was collected in a standard underground tank for 30 days and water analyses were conducted every 10 days. The possibility of tap water replacement in the household with collected rainwater for ecological clothes washing has been assessed.
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Kus, B., Jaya Kandasamy, S. Vigneswaran, and H. K. Shon. "Water quality characterisation of rainwater in tanks at different times and locations." Water Science and Technology 61, no. 2 (January 1, 2010): 429–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2010.824.
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Rainwater collected from ten domestic roofs in Sydney and from one in Wollongong, a town south of Sydney, Australia was analysed to determine the water quality and to compare against the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines (ADWG) to determine its suitability as a potable water supply. The pollutants analysed were 13 heavy metals, 8 salts & minerals, pH, ammonia, orthophosphate, conductivity, water hardness, turbidity, total suspended solids, Total dissolved salts & Bicarbonate. The results indicate that the rainwater tested complied to most of the parameters specified in the ADWG. Molecular weight distribution of organic matter from one of the domestic rainwater tanks was analysed in terms of the effects of aging and roof contact. Molecular weight distribution of organic matter in rainwater showed prominent peaks at 37,500 daltons may be due to biopolymers, 850 Da to humic substances, 500 Da to building blocks, 220 Da to low MW acids, and less than 220 Da to amphiphilics. The findings also indicate that the first flush volumes that by-passed the tank can have a significant influence on the water quality in the rainwater tank.
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Ward, S., F. A. Memon, and D. Butler. "Rainwater harvesting: model-based design evaluation." Water Science and Technology 61, no. 1 (January 1, 2010): 85–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2010.783.
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The rate of uptake of rainwater harvesting (RWH) in the UK has been slow to date, but is expected to gain momentum in the near future. The designs of two different new-build rainwater harvesting systems, based on simple methods, are evaluated using three different design methods, including a continuous simulation modelling approach. The RWH systems are shown to fulfill 36% and 46% of WC demand. Financial analyses reveal that RWH systems within large commercial buildings maybe more financially viable than smaller domestic systems. It is identified that design methods based on simple approaches generate tank sizes substantially larger than the continuous simulation. Comparison of the actual tank sizes and those calculated using continuous simulation established that the tanks installed are oversized for their associated demand level and catchment size. Oversizing tanks can lead to excessive system capital costs, which currently hinders the uptake of systems. Furthermore, it is demonstrated that the catchment area size is often overlooked when designing UK-based RWH systems. With respect to these findings, a recommendation for a transition from the use of simple tools to continuous simulation models is made.
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Sharma, Ashok Kumar, Stephen Cook, Ted Gardner, and Grace Tjandraatmadja. "Rainwater tanks in modern cities: a review of current practices and research." Journal of Water and Climate Change 7, no. 3 (March 18, 2016): 445–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wcc.2016.039.
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Rainwater tanks often provide a reliable and affordable water supply source in rural and remote areas where piped water supply systems are unfeasible due to economic considerations. However, over recent decades there has been an increase in the adoption of rainwater harvesting as part of the water supply source mix in modern cities. The uptake of rainwater harvesting has been influenced by the rise of ecological sustainable development as a mainstream practice. Rainwater harvesting is now implemented as part of an integrated urban water management approach to alleviate pressure on traditional water supply sources due to increased demand, driven by the rapid growth of urbanised populations. While examples of rainwater harvesting in human settlements can be found since ancient times, there are still gaps in understanding the role that it can play in modern cities. This paper reviews current international experiences with rainwater harvesting, particularly examining the drivers for their adoption in different urban contexts and the impediments faced for greater mainstream adoption. The paper then reviews the current state of research associated with understanding the value of rainwater harvesting in modern cities, which include impacts on reducing mains water demand, public health risks, energy implications, environmental impacts, and cost-effectiveness.
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Kus, B., Jaya Kandasamy, S. Vigneswaran, H. K. Shon, and G. Moody. "Gravity driven membrane filtration system to improve the water quality in rainwater tanks." Water Supply 13, no. 2 (March 1, 2013): 479–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2013.046.
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The characterisation of rainwater in metropolitan Sydney and in rural New South Wales was undertaken. The results showed that factors such as the lack of vehicular traffic, air pollution and urban contamination meant that rural rainwater water quality was better. The rain water collected in both metropolitan and rural areas generally complied with the 2004 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines except for parameters such as the pH in both the metropolitan and rural rainwater tanks and the turbidity, and lead levels from the metropolitan tanks. This paper also reports the results of a laboratory and a pilot scale study with a deep bed filter (granular activated carbon, GAC) and microfiltration (MF) hollow fibre membrane filter system used to treat raw rainwater collected from a metropolitan rainwater tank. The results of the laboratory experiment and pilot scale systems focus on the non-compliant parameters of the sampling program, i.e. turbidity, lead and dissolved organic carbon (DOC). It was found that rainwater treated by the GAC filter removed the majority of the turbidity and organic substances. The treatment system reduced the concentration of turbidity, lead and DOC to below the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines limits. The pilot plant experiment demonstrated that a GAC filter system and gravity driven membrane could result in low cost and low maintenance operation.
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Campisano, Alberto, and Carlo Modica. "Appropriate resolution timescale to evaluate water saving and retention potential of rainwater harvesting for toilet flushing in single houses." Journal of Hydroinformatics 17, no. 3 (January 3, 2015): 331–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/hydro.2015.022.
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The main objective of the paper is to identify the appropriate temporal scale for modeling the behavior of rainwater harvesting tanks in relation to the purpose they are built for, i.e., water saving, stormwater retention potential, etc. A tank water balance model coupled with a specific procedure to determine long-term series of rainfall (tank inflow) and toilet flushes (tank outflow) at different daily and sub-daily resolution timescales was developed. The model was applied to a household case study for which detailed water demand data are available from measurements. Simulations show that the daily scale may be reliably chosen to evaluate the tank water saving efficiency. In contrast, sub-daily resolutions (at least the hourly time step) are needed for the evaluation of the tank retention efficiency to limit inaccuracies, especially for small tanks and for high values of the water demand. Moreover, preliminary results at the 5 min time step show that rainwater tanks can help in reducing the rainfall intensity peak, basically depending on the tank storage and on the rainfall event characteristics.
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Liang, Ruijie, Michael Di Matteo, Holger Maier, and Mark Thyer. "Real-Time, Smart Rainwater Storage Systems: Potential Solution to Mitigate Urban Flooding." Water 11, no. 12 (November 20, 2019): 2428. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w11122428.
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Urban water systems are being stressed due to the effects of urbanization and climate change. Although household rainwater tanks are primarily used for water supply purposes, they also have the potential to provide flood benefits. However, this potential is limited for critical storms, as they become ineffective once their capacity is exceeded. This limitation can be overcome by controlling tanks as systems during rainfall events, as this can offset the timing of outflow peaks from different tanks. In this paper, the effectiveness of such systems is tested for two tank sizes under a wide range of design rainfall conditions for three Australian cities with different climates. Results show that a generic relationship exists between the ratio of tank:runoff volume and percentage peak flow reduction, irrespective of location and storm characteristics. Smart tank systems are able to reduce peak system outflows by between 35% and 85% for corresponding ranges in tank:runoff volumes of 0.15–0.8. This corresponds to a relative performance improvement on the order of 35% to 50% compared with smart tanks that are not operated in real-time. These results highlight the potential for using household rainwater tanks for mitigating urban flooding, even for extreme events.
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Ayog, Janice Lynn, Mohd Radzif Taharin, and Tang Zi Sheng. "Rainwater Availability Assessment for Tourism Development: A Case Study of Turtle Islands Park, Sabah." Applied Mechanics and Materials 802 (October 2015): 575–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.802.575.
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This study mainly focused on the rainwater availability assessment in Turtle Islands Park, Sabah, Malaysia. Consisting of three small islands, this marine park is home to two endangered turtle species – Green and Hawkbills turtles. This special feature of the islands attracts tourist around the world, thus increasing the demand of freshwater supply for tourism development in the marine park. However, due to the shortage of freshwater from the ground due to salinity intrusion, rainwater is seen to be an alternative in fulfilling the freshwater demand. To evaluate the source of freshwater in these islands, information is obtained from the main users of the water source, which are the Sabah Park officers, the approved tour operator on the islands and the security forces. The rainwater tanks available on the islands are calculated to assess the storing capacity of rainwater. The water demand was estimated by multiplying the number of visitors with the average water usage per visitor. With the existing water tanks, this study found that the Turtle Islands Park has the ability to store 414 m3 of rainwater in Selingaan island, 3.2 m3 in Gulisaan island, and 102.1 m3 in Bakkungan Kechil island. However, the monthly water demand of each island exceeds the existing storage tanks, hence it is proposed that the number of rainwater tanks be increased to harvest as much rainfall as possible for the use of the islands’ inhabitants.
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Vaes, G., and J. Berlamont. "The impact of rainwater reuse on CSO emissions." Water Science and Technology 39, no. 5 (March 1, 1999): 57–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1999.0222.
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The increasing consumption of drinking water puts a heavy burden on our future water resources. Therefore the reuse of rain water in households can be a good option to tackle this problem. On the other hand the rapidly drained rain water leads to problems in the combined sewer systems and watercourses. If the storage in the rain water tanks can be used to flatten the rain water runoff, rain water tanks can have an additional benefit. The effect of rain water tanks on the combined sewer overflow (CSO) emissions is therefore investigated with a reservoir model. Compared with storage in the combined sewer system or at the overflow, storage in rain water tanks will be more efficient in reducing the overflow emissions. However much more storage in rain water tanks must be provided to obtain the same overflow frequency as when downstream storage is used, because the storage in rain water tanks is less frequently available. When all the economical, social and environmental aspects are considered, rain water tanks can certainly be promoted as a good solution.
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Jayasooriya, V. M., V. M. M. Perera, and S. Muthukumaran. "Rainwater as an alternative drinking water source for the Chronic Kidney Disease Of Uncertain etiology (CKDu) prone areas: a case study for Girandurukotte, Sri Lanka." Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development 10, no. 3 (July 16, 2020): 539–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2020.085.
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Abstract Chronic Kidney Disease of uncertain etiology (CKDu) is a fatal disease that causes death from kidney failure due to unknown risk factors and has already affected more than 400,000 people in the rural agricultural landscape (dry zone) of Sri Lanka. The major drinking source in Sri Lanka is groundwater and it is suspected that the pollution of groundwater sources due to agricultural means has a major impact on CKDu. The primary objective of this study is to determine whether rainwater can be used as an alternative safe drinking water source in Girandurukotte area, Sri Lanka, which is known to be an area endemic for CKDu. The physical, chemical, and biological analyses were performed to compare the water quality parameters of three water sources (groundwater, surface water, and rainwater) for Girandurukotte area. The most common storage tanks in polyethylene (PE) and ferrocement (FC) were compared to assess the influence of the material of rainwater tank on water quality. The results showed that there is a significant difference in rainwater in terms of water quality compared to groundwater and surface water. Rainwater in FC and PE tanks showed significant differences (p < 0.05) for some parameters however, they were still within accepted potable drinking water standards.
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Lawrence, Dustin, and Vicente L. Lopes. "RELIABILITY ANALYSIS OF URBAN RAINWATER HARVESTING." Journal of Urban and Environmental Engineering 10, no. 1 (August 23, 2016): 124–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.4090/juee.2016.v10n1.124-134.
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The purpose of this study was to inform decision makers at state and local levels, as well as property owners about the amount of water that can be supplied by rainwater harvesting systems in Texas so that it may be included in any future planning. Reliability of a rainwater tank is important because people want to know that a source of water can be depended on. Performance analyses were conducted on rainwater harvesting tanks for three Texas cities under different rainfall conditions and multiple scenarios to demonstrate the importance of optimizing rainwater tank design. Reliability curves were produced and reflect the percentage of days in a year that water can be supplied by a tank. Operational thresholds were reached in all scenarios and mark the point at which reliability increases by only 2% or less with an increase in tank size. A payback period analysis was conducted on tank sizes to estimate the amount of time it would take to recoup the cost of installing a rainwater harvesting system.
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Lawrence, Dustin, and Vicente L. Lopes. "RELIABILITY ANALYSIS OF URBAN RAINWATER HARVESTING." Journal of Urban and Environmental Engineering 10, no. 1 (August 23, 2016): 124–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.4090/juee.2016.v10n1.124134.
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The purpose of this study was to inform decision makers at state and local levels, as well as property owners about the amount of water that can be supplied by rainwater harvesting systems in Texas so that it may be included in any future planning. Reliability of a rainwater tank is important because people want to know that a source of water can be depended on. Performance analyses were conducted on rainwater harvesting tanks for three Texas cities under different rainfall conditions and multiple scenarios to demonstrate the importance of optimizing rainwater tank design. Reliability curves were produced and reflect the percentage of days in a year that water can be supplied by a tank. Operational thresholds were reached in all scenarios and mark the point at which reliability increases by only 2% or less with an increase in tank size. A payback period analysis was conducted on tank sizes to estimate the amount of time it would take to recoup the cost of installing a rainwater harvesting system.
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Imteaz, Monzur Alam, Vassiliki Terezinha Galvão Boulomytis, Abdullah G. Yilmaz, and Abdallah Shanableh. "Water Quality Improvement through Rainwater Tanks: A Review and Simulation Study." Water 14, no. 9 (April 28, 2022): 1411. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w14091411.
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First, this paper presents a thorough review of water quality data using a rainwater tank, categorizing the data as with and without sedimentation. Data are presented showing minimum, maximum, and mean values for the different parameters. The data measured from several sources reveal that water collected from the tank is much better than the water directly collected from the roof. In addition, to analyse the phenomena through a mathematical model, a hypothetical 5 kL rainwater tank with a 200 m2 roof was modelled with the MUSIC model. The simulations were compared with the measured water quality data from a rainwater tank in Melbourne. In general, we found that MUSIC’s simulations on the mean daily concentrations of total suspended solids (TSS) and total phosphorus (TP) are slight underestimations compared to the measured data from Melbourne. Further MUSIC simulations reveal that significant reductions in the daily maximum concentrations of TSS, TP, and total nitrogen (TN) are expected through a rainwater tank.
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Gee, Kathy DeBusk, Daniel Schimoler, Bree T. Charron, Mitch D. Woodward, and William F. Hunt. "A Comparison of Methods to Address Anaerobic Conditions in Rainwater Harvesting Systems." Water 13, no. 23 (December 3, 2021): 3419. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w13233419.
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Although historically used in semi-arid and arid regions, rainwater harvesting (RWH) systems have increasingly been used in non-arid and humid regions of the world to conserve potable water and mitigate stormwater runoff. Rainfall characteristics and usage patterns of stored rainwater are distinctly different in (semi-)arid and humid regions, thus presenting a unique set of challenges with respect to their utilization. Coupled with infrequent use, the addition of nitrogen and organic matter via pollen during the spring season can lead to anaerobic conditions within storage tanks, which hinders nitrogen removal, gives stored water an offensive odor, and ultimately discourages use of the water. This study evaluated three measures that can be implemented for new and existing RWH systems to prevent the development of anaerobic conditions within storage tanks: first flush diversion, simulated use, and the continuous circulation of stored water. Study findings indicate that preventing anaerobic conditions via simulated use and recirculation (1) does not necessarily remedy the issue of poor aesthetics within rainwater storage tanks, and (2) can decrease the water quality benefits provided by these systems. Rather, preventing the introduction of pollen and particulate matter to the storage tank via a first flush diverter and minimizing disturbance of settled material in the tank appear to be the most effective methods of addressing the poor aesthetics and odor problems associated with anaerobic conditions.
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Sobremisana, Marisa, Antonio Gabino Sobremisana, Jasper Aliangan, and Simplicio Veluz. "Harvesting and Managing Rainwater Using Collapsible Rubber Tanks." Climate, Disaster and Development Journal 4, no. 1 (May 17, 2019): 1–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.18783/cddj.v004.i01.a01.
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Londra, Paraskevi A., Ioannis-Eleftherios Kotsatos, Nikolaos Theotokatos, Achilleas T. Theocharis, and Nicholas Dercas. "Reliability Analysis of Rainwater Harvesting Tanks for Irrigation Use in Greenhouse Agriculture." Hydrology 8, no. 3 (September 2, 2021): 132. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/hydrology8030132.
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Rainwater harvesting is an ancient water management practice that has been used to cover potable and non-potable water needs. In recent years, this practice is adopted as a promising alternative and sustainable source of water to meet irrigation needs in agriculture in arid and semi-arid regions. In the present study, a daily water balance model was applied to investigate the size of rainwater tanks for irrigation use in greenhouse begonia and tomato cultivation in two regions of Greece with significant greenhouse areas. For the application of the water balance model, daily rainfall depth values of a 12-year time series (2008–2020) from representative rainfall stations of the study areas were used, as well as the daily water needs of the crops. The greenhouse roof was assumed to be the water collection area of the rainwater harvesting system with values ranging from 1000 to 10,000 m2. The analysis of the results showed that in the case of the begonia crop, the covered tanks ranged from 100 to 200 m3 per 1000 m2 greenhouse area with a reliability coefficient that ranged from 65 to 72%, respectively, to meet the water needs of plants. Further increase of the reliability coefficient was carried out with disproportionately large volumes of tanks. In the case of the tomato crop, covered tank volumes ranged from 100 to 290 m3 per 1000 m2 of greenhouse area, and had a reliability coefficient of 90% to 100%, respectively, while uncovered tanks had a maximum reliability coefficient of 91% for a critical tank volume of 177 m3 per 1000 m2 of greenhouse area and decreased for any further increase of tank volume.
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Ross, PhD, Kirstin E., Harriet Whiley, PhD, Emmanuel Chubaka, MEnvSci, PhD Candidate, Malinda Steenkamp, PhD, and Paul Arbon, PhD. "Potential contaminants in rainwater after a bushfire." Journal of Emergency Management 16, no. 3 (May 1, 2018): 183. http://dx.doi.org/10.5055/jem.2018.0367.
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Using roof harvested rainwater held in domestic rainwater tanks is a common practice in Australia, particularly in rural areas. This rainwater might become contaminated with ash and other contaminants during or after a bushfire. Current advice from Australian Health Departments can include the recommendation that landholders drain their tanks after a bushfire, which can cause additional distress to landholders who have already been through a traumatic event. This study created artificially contaminated water, spiked with chemicals likely to be associated with bushfires, including chromated copper arsenate-treated timber ash and firefighting foam to determine the possibility of contamination. The authors also tested two readily available filter systems and found that they removed some but not all contaminants. The artificially created contaminated water fell within guidelines for nonpotable uses such as irrigation and stock watering. This suggests that advice to landholders should be that tank water following a bushfire is likely to be safe for use for purposes apart from drinking. Landholders should be encouraged to retain and use their water for recovery purposes, but not for potable use.
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Londra, Paraskevi A., Panagiota Gkolfinopoulou, Anastasia Mponou, and Achilleas T. Theocharis. "Effect of Rainfall Regime on Rainwater Harvesting Tank Sizing for Greenhouse Irrigation Use." Hydrology 9, no. 7 (July 7, 2022): 122. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/hydrology9070122.
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The use of rainwater harvesting tanks to supply human water needs is an old and sustainable practice. In the case of covering irrigation demand in greenhouse agriculture, the potential is huge. Still, the relative research worldwide is low, while it is nearly absent in Greece. In this study, the rainwater harvesting tank size for irrigation use of greenhouse tomato cultivation was investigated by applying a daily water balance model in three regions of Crete Island (Greece) with significant greenhouse areas. Daily rainfall data from three representative rainfall stations of the study areas characterized by different rainfall regime for a 12-year time series were used. Additionally, the daily irrigation water needs for a tomato crop during an 8-month cultivation period were used. The greenhouse roof was defined as catchment area of the rainwater harvesting system and greenhouse areas of 1000, 5000 and 10,000 m2 were studied. In all areas examined, a tank of 30–100 m3 per 1000 m2 of greenhouse area could reach approximately 80–90% reliability. Higher values of reliability (reaching 100%) could be achieved mainly with covered tanks. Tank size for 100% reliability in covered tanks, ranged from 200 m3 (per 1000 m2 of greenhouse area) in the study area with high mean annual rainfall depth (974.24 mm) and moderate mean longest dry period (87.67 days), to 276 m3 (per 1000 m2 of greenhouse area) in the study area with relatively low mean annual rainfall depth (524.12 mm) and high mean longest dry period (117.42 days). For uncovered tanks, a 100% reliability value could be reached only with a tank size of 520 m3 (per 1000 m2 of greenhouse area) in the study area with high mean annual rainfall depth and moderate mean longest dry period.
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Kim, Mikyeong, and Mooyoung Han. "Composition and distribution of bacteria in an operating rainwater harvesting tank." Water Science and Technology 63, no. 7 (April 1, 2011): 1524–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2011.410.
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In this study, we investigated the phylogenetic distribution of the bacteria present in an operating rainwater tank by denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE), and compared the bacterial composition in rainwater and biofilm from the inlet and outlet of the tank. Seventeen species were identified, the DGGE profiles of which showed a clear difference between the planktonic bacterial community and the community in the biofilm. Most of the bacteria were closely related to fresh water, soil, and biofilm bacteria found in natural environments. The high proportion of Proteobacteria indicates the generally clean oligotrophic nature of the tank water. Biofilm formation is an advantage for bacteria that exist in oligotrophic environments. The groups identified in the biofilm, such as Sphingomonas, Bacillus, and Sphingophyxis, have been demonstrated to degrade certain contaminants and to act as bio-control agents. Thus, biofilm formation in rainwater tanks not only represents a survival strategy for bacteria, but also serves as a natural filter by removing contaminants and bacteria from rainwater.
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Frichot, Joel Joseph Hughes, Rubiyatno, and Gaurav Talukdar. "Water Quality Assessment of Roof-collected Rainwater in Miri, Malaysia." Tropical Aquatic and Soil Pollution 1, no. 2 (October 25, 2021): 87–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.53623/tasp.v1i2.19.
Full textAbstract:
Rainwater harvesting systems are becoming more acceptable as an alternative method to harvest water sources for both potable and non-potable uses. While the method has proven to be very simplistic and cost-effective, the collected rainwater source remains untreated and can pose serious health concerns if not used properly. This study focused on the physicochemical and heavy metal parameters of roof-collected rainwater in Miri, Sarawak. Individual sites were chosen throughout Miri, Sarawak for representative samples. Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy was used for the analysis of heavy metal concentrations. Heavy metal analysis included manganese, zinc, iron, copper, and cadmium. pH, temperature, turbidity, dissolved oxygen (DO), total suspended solids (TSS), total dissolved solids (TDS), nitrate, and fluoride were among the physicochemical parameters examined. Seasonal comparison indicated the majority of the higher concentration levels occurred during the wet season. The overall mean concentration for the physicochemical parameters indicated CLASS I usage, with the exception of BOD5, which was CLASS III usage. The overall mean concentration for metals analyzed indicated a CLASS I usage threshold with the exception of copper, which had concentrations well above the 0.02mg/L threshold for all sites. Thus, copper was considered one of the major contaminants for this study. Moreover, the types of storage tanks also showcased key findings. Open top storage tanks are more vulnerable to contamination than closed storage tanks. Metal storage tanks offer higher rainwater temperatures in comparison to other types of storage tanks.