Journal articles: 'Rainwater filtration'

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Khayan, Khayan, Adi Heru Husodo, Indwiani Astuti, Sudarmadji Sudarmadji, and Tjut Sugandawaty Djohan. "Rainwater as a Source of Drinking Water: Health Impacts and Rainwater Treatment." Journal of Environmental and Public Health 2019 (July 11, 2019): 1–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2019/1760950.

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Rainwater is the main source of drinking water in tropical communities, especially in West Kalimantan. Air contamination causes rainwater to become acidic and cloudy and adds heavy metals such as Pb into rainwater. In addition to pollution, the way in which the rainwater is collected such as through zinc roofing also exposes the rainwater to heavy metals. The presence of Pb in rainwater will have an impact on the health of the community in the long run. The model of simple water treatment using filtration is needed to overcome this problem with the use of media available in the region. The media used are in the form of mollusk sand and activated carbon. In the end, the mollusk sand filtration model and activated carbon sorption were effectively used to filter polluted rainwater to be safe for consumption.

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Kang, Wei, and Hongxiang Chai. "Assessment of runoff treatment operations with combined rainwater treatment system in the old city zone." Water Supply 19, no. 8 (April 19, 2019): 2507–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wcc.2019.171.

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Abstract Considering the diversity of pollution degree in different underlying surfaces, and the great difficulty in construction and high economic cost for an existing built community in an older city zone, in order to rationally distribute the load carrying capacity of each treatment facility, a design concept of combined rainwater treatment system was put forward to treat vehicle lane rainwater, square rainwater, and roof rainwater. In this study, one older city zone in Guangming new district, north-western Shenzhen, China was selected to meet the combined treatment of vehicle lane rainwater and roof rainwater, and four typical rainfall events were selected to analyze the water quantity and water quality control effect of this combined rainwater treatment system under different rainfall intensity and rainfall duration. Results showed that under the treatment of initial treatment facility and biological filtration facility, the runoff volume of vehicle lane and roof were all controlled effectively, and the discharge amount of different pollutants was also reduced effectively although initial treatment facility and biological filtration facility could not effectively decrease pollutant concentration. Therefore, this combined treatment of vehicle lane rainwater and roof rainwater can provide reference for the popularization and application of different kinds of combined rainwater treatment systems.

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Cho, Hyeongrak, Jungwoo Jung, Jinsik Sohn, Sangho Lee, and Soo Kwon Chae. "Analysis of Filtration Characteristics of Submerged Microfiltration Membranes for Rainwater Filtration." Membrane Journal 24, no. 1 (February 27, 2014): 31–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.14579/membrane_journal.2014.24.1.31.

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Kus, B., Jaya Kandasamy, S. Vigneswaran, H. K. Shon, and G. Moody. "Gravity driven membrane filtration system to improve the water quality in rainwater tanks." Water Supply 13, no. 2 (March 1, 2013): 479–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2013.046.

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The characterisation of rainwater in metropolitan Sydney and in rural New South Wales was undertaken. The results showed that factors such as the lack of vehicular traffic, air pollution and urban contamination meant that rural rainwater water quality was better. The rain water collected in both metropolitan and rural areas generally complied with the 2004 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines except for parameters such as the pH in both the metropolitan and rural rainwater tanks and the turbidity, and lead levels from the metropolitan tanks. This paper also reports the results of a laboratory and a pilot scale study with a deep bed filter (granular activated carbon, GAC) and microfiltration (MF) hollow fibre membrane filter system used to treat raw rainwater collected from a metropolitan rainwater tank. The results of the laboratory experiment and pilot scale systems focus on the non-compliant parameters of the sampling program, i.e. turbidity, lead and dissolved organic carbon (DOC). It was found that rainwater treated by the GAC filter removed the majority of the turbidity and organic substances. The treatment system reduced the concentration of turbidity, lead and DOC to below the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines limits. The pilot plant experiment demonstrated that a GAC filter system and gravity driven membrane could result in low cost and low maintenance operation.

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Arimawanti, Fransisca Widiana, Lucky Herawati, and F. X. Amanto Rahardjo. "Penggunaan Rangkaian Filtrasi FM2FV untuk Menurunkan Kadar Kekeruhan dan Coliform Air Hujan di RS Bethesda Yogyakarta Tahun 2012." Sanitasi: Jurnal Kesehatan Lingkungan 4, no. 4 (May 17, 2013): 151–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.29238/sanitasi.v4i4.782.

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Rainwater is one of the most potential sources for water supply which can be used for everydaypurposes, including in hospitals. Rainwater relatively has good quality, however, in the harvesting process, i.e. by collecting the water pouring from the roof, pollutants may be brought andaffecting the quality of the rainwater. Filtration by using multimedia filter and ultraviolet disinfection (FM2FV) prior to the use of rainwater is one effort that can be applied to tackle that problem.The study was held in Bethesda Hospital of Yogyakarta, and was aimed to know the influence ofthe use of the filtration series in decreasing turbidity and coliform by employing a pre-test posttest with control group designed experiment. The rainwater sample was collected by using integrated sampling method from five collection points, and the subsequent examination of turbidityand coliform were conducted in the Health Laboratory Office of Yogyakarta. Between each replications, in order to clean the filtration mediums, the series were washed before be used again.The results showed that after the data were tested by using multivariate anova (manova), it wasfound that the aggregated p value was <0.05, meaning that the filration process was significantin declining both the turbidity level and coliform number between the treatment and controlgroups. In the treatment group the turbidity and coliform decreased as much as 68,17 % and95,11 %, respectively.

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Nakada, Liane Yuri Kondo, and Rodrigo Braga Moruzzi. "Corn starch-based treatment improves rainwater quality." Water Supply 15, no. 6 (July 6, 2015): 1326–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2015.097.

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Rainwater harvesting can provide an alternative water source, which may demand little treatment, depending on the end use. Some starches have been used in water treatment as coagulant/flocculant/filtration aid, and might be applied as primary coagulant. Here, we show direct filtration with hydraulic rapid mixing, using 2–6 mg L−1 cationic corn starch as primary coagulant, considerably improves roof-harvested rainwater quality, achieving removal efficiencies of up to 71.7% of apparent colour, 78% of turbidity, 1.1 log-unit of total coliform, and 1.6 log-unit of Escherichia coli, meeting guidelines for turbidity, even for potable purposes. Cationic corn starch has proved to be a suitable primary coagulant when filtration is performed in a single-layer sand filter (coefficient of uniformity: 1.8, effective particle size: 0.52 mm), at hydraulic loading rate of 450 m day−1. However, a disinfection unit is required to meet an absence of faecal coliform.

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Sachoemar, Suhendar I., Ratu Siti Aliah, Har yanti, and Joko Prayitno Susanto. "HARVESTING AND USES OF RAIN WATER IN INDONESIA." INWASCON Technology Magazine 3 (February 4, 2021): 41–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.26480/itechmag.03.2021.41.49.

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As a tropical country, Indonesia has quite high rainfall reaching 2000-3000 mm per year in several areas. In general, rainwater utilization in Indonesia is used to support agricultural activities and meet household daily needs, especially drinking water. Methods of utilizing rainwater and processing in Indonesia use a variety of methods ranging from the simplest to the high technology. The manufacture of rainwater storage systems, infiltration wells and biopores are methods used for rainwater utilization and flood control for urban areas. As for the processing of rainwater into drinking water, many have used high technology such as filtration systems.

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Wei, Yan Jie, and Guo Yi Li. "Rainwater Treatment and Reuse in Harbor Yard." Advanced Materials Research 1065-1069 (December 2014): 2974–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.1065-1069.2974.

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Coagulation-sedimentation and Filtration by fibre-ball were applied to treat rainwater collected in Harbor Yard. The optimum parameters of coagulation-sedimentation process were determined through experiment. The dosage of Polymeric aluminum chloride (PAC) was 35 mg/L, settling time was 30min, the mixtures were stirred for 1min under the rotational speed of 200~400 r/min, then stirred for 10 min at 90~120 r/min, and10 min at 40~60 r/min. While the optimum parameters of filtration by fibre-ball were also found, including filter speed of 15-30 m/h, Filtration clcle 60-100h, Pollutant Capacity of 9.5-18.3 kg/m3, combine washing by fresh water (flow of 25L/ (m2∙s)) and gas (flow of 40 L/ (m2∙s)) with washing time of 20min. All those parameters were utilized in a rainwater treatment project of coal container yard in Tianjin Harbor. The effluent quality could satisfy the demand of Water quality standard for urban miscellaneous water consumption, and the clear water after treatment was used for spraying coal and removing dust.

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Du, Xing, Jiongji Xu, Zhuoyu Mo, Yunlong Luo, Junhao Su, Jinxu Nie, Zhihong Wang, Lifan Liu, and Heng Liang. "The performance of gravity-driven membrane (GDM) filtration for roofing rainwater reuse: Implications of roofing rainwater energy and rainwater purification." Science of The Total Environment 697 (December 2019): 134187. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.134187.

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Deng, Hai Yan, Wei Ping Wang, and Meng Bin. "Laboratory Experiments of Roofwater Treatment by Sand Column in Jinan." Applied Mechanics and Materials 361-363 (August 2013): 619–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.361-363.619.

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To satisfy the requirements of high speed, large volume and high water quality for fracture-karst aquifer recharge by roofwater, sand filtration column was designed. Lab experiment of roof rainwater treatment by sand column was conducted to study the effect of roof rainwater purification in Jinan as pretreatment for fracture-karst aquifer recharge. The results show that the sand filtration column is effective in removing pollutants in roof rainwater. The average removal rate of turbidity reaches 87%, and the average removal rate of suspended solids is above 70%; the sand column is also effective in removing chroma, volatile phenol, Pb and Zn to a certain degree. However, it has a poor effect in removing ammonia nitrogen and nitrite nitrogen. In addition, the removal of most pollutants such as turbidity, chroma and suspended solids mainly take palce in the upper layer, which needs to be replaced regularly.

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Sabina, L., B. Kus, H. K. Shon, and J. Kandasamy. "Membrane fouling propensity after adsorption as pretreatment in rainwater: a detailed organic characterisation." Water Science and Technology 58, no. 8 (October 1, 2008): 1535–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2008.522.

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Organic characterisation in rainwater was investigated in terms of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and molecular weight distribution (MWD) after powdered activated carbon (PAC) adsorption. PAC adsorption was used as pretreatment to membrane filtration to reduce membrane fouling. The MW of organic matter in rainwater used in this study was in the range of 43,000 Da to 30 Da. Each peak of organic matter consisted of biopolymers (polysaccharides and proteins), humic and fulvic acids, building blocks, low MW acids (hydrolysates of humic substances), low MW neutrals and amphiphilics. Rainwater contained the majority of hydrophilic compounds up to 72%. PAC adsorption removed 33% of total DOC. The removal efficiencies of the hydrophobic and hydrophilic fractions after PAC adsorption were 50% and 27%, respectively. PAC adsorption was found to preferentially remove the hydrophobic fraction. The majority of the smaller MW of 1,100 Da, 820 Da, 550 Da, 90 Da and 30 Da was removed after PAC adsorption. The MFI values decreased from 1,436 s/L2 to 147 s/L2 after PAC adsorption. It was concluded that PAC adsorption can be used as a pretreatment to membrane filtration with rainwater.

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Zuliarti, Armin, and Satyanto Krido Saptomo. "Perancangan dan Pemanfaatan Penampung Air Hujan dengan Filtrasi Sederhana Skala Unit Perumahan Villa Citra Bantarjati." Jurnal Teknik Sipil dan Lingkungan 6, no. 3 (December 31, 2021): 159–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.29244/jsil.6.3.159-176.

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Bogor city is included in the region with high rainfall with an average annual rainfall of 3.500 – 4.000 mm so that the potential for rainwater harvest. This research was conducted to plan the volume of rainwater reservoirs that can be applied at the scale of Villa Citra Bantarjati housing units and design simple filtration tools to improve the physical quality of rainwater that can be used to support domestic needs. This study was conducted using primary data covering the area of roofs used in rainwater harvesting as well as secondary data in the form of maximum rainfall data in the last 15 years. Water quality testing is conducted by physical quality test of rainwater before and after passing the design of a simple filter tool to produce water quality that meets class II water quality standards. The area of the roof used to catch rainwater is 25 m2, so the average volume of availability accommodated in rainwater reservoirs is 155,31 lt/day with a water loss factor due to runoff of 20%. The capacity of rainwater reservoirs that meet domestic water needs is 330 lt. The design of this simple filter is able to improve the physical quality of rainwater with a predetermined arrangement of filter media.

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Shakya, Binod, and Jeewan P. Thanju. "Technical Guidelines for Installation of Rainwater Harvesting System and its Operation." Hydro Nepal: Journal of Water, Energy and Environment 12 (October 29, 2013): 45–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/hn.v12i0.9032.

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Rainwater harvesting (RWH) systems have been in use since ancient times, and these days its use is increasing. However, due to improper planning and design, problems are seen and the collected water is polluted. The major reason for water contamination is attributed to the toxic materials used for the rain harvesting system, faulty operation, improper rain filtration system and improper disinfection methods. The reason for diseases arising from drinking rainwater is the consumption of contaminated rainwater. Clean raindrops comprising rainwater will become contaminated as they pass through the atmosphere, flow over the roof surface, flow along the gutter, and upon collection and storage. This paper focuses on the technical guidelines for the installation of RWH components, its operation and maintenance, and rainwater quality improvement for household use. Hydro Nepal: Journal of Water, Energy and Environment Vol. 12, 2013, January Page: 45-51DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/hn.v12i0.9032 Uploaded Date : 10/29/2013

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Sion Ong, Yoong, Ken Sim Ong, Y. k. Tan, and Azadeh Ghadimi. "The Enhancement of Pre-Storage Filtration Efficiency for the Rainwater Harvesting System in Malaysia." MATEC Web of Conferences 152 (2018): 02015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/201815202015.

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A conventional design of rainwater harvesting system collects and directs the rainwater through water piping from roof of building to the water storage. The filtration system which locates before the water tank storage and first flush bypass system is the main focus of the research. A filtration system consists of a control volume of filter compartment, filter screen (stainless steel mesh) and water piping that direct the water flow. The filtration efficiency of an existing filter “3P Volume Filter VF1” by industrial company is enhanced. A full scale filter design prototype with filter screen of 1000 μm stainless steel metal mesh is tested to compare with the original filter system design. Three types of water inlet setups are tested. Among the proposed water inlet setups, the 90° inlet setup with extension provides the best filtration rate per unit time, following by the 45° inlet setup. The 45° and 90° inlet setup has similar filtration efficiency at low to medium flow rate while 45° inlet setup has better efficiency at high flow rate. The filtration efficiency with the 90° inlet setup with extension is observed to maintain at highest value at medium to high flow rate. The overall filtration performance achieved by the 90° inlet setup with extension at low to high flow rate is between 34.1 to 35.7%.

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Fatian, Galih, Hari Siswoyo, and Riyanto Haribowo. "Rainwater Quality Improvement Model as an Alternative Source for Drinking Water in Mojoagung District, Jombang Regency." Civil and Environmental Science 005, no. 02 (October 3, 2022): 107–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.21776/ub.civense.2022.00502.1.

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Water is a basic need for humans, yet often the quality and quantity become cronstrained as happened in Mojoagung District, Jombang Regency. During the dry season, the potential for water reserves available for use is rainwater that has been stored. Based on laboratory tests, the quality of the stored rainwater is below the quality standard due to its high KMnO4 (Calium Permanganate) content. Hence we need a simple filter to improve the water quality. Researchers have conducted experiments with the filter composition of zeolite, activated charcoal, activated sand, sterile cotton, and aquarium filter. The results of the filtration process showed a significant decrease in potassium permanganate. The filtration results from the filter with the composition of zeolite, activated charcoal, activated sand, sterile cotton, and an aquarium filter sequentially 5 cm, 10 cm, 15 cm, 4 cm, and 2 cm succeeded in reducing potassium permanganate levels from 11.73 to an average of 2.12 mg. /l. The best filter due to experimental activities will be integrated with rainwater harvesting structure system which has been discussed along with related social community and stakeholders

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Silva Vieira, A., M. Weeber, and E. Ghisi. "Self-cleaning filtration: A novel concept for rainwater harvesting systems." Resources, Conservation and Recycling 78 (September 2013): 67–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2013.06.008.

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Ding, An, Jinlong Wang, Dachao Lin, Xiaoxiang Cheng, Hui Wang, Langming Bai, Nanqi Ren, Guibai Li, and Heng Liang. "Effect of PAC particle layer on the performance of gravity-driven membrane filtration (GDM) system during rainwater treatment." Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology 4, no. 1 (2018): 48–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c7ew00298j.

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The gravity-driven membrane filtration (GDM) process is very suitable for decentralized drinking water or rainwater treatment due to low maintenance (no backwashing, physical flushing and chemical cleaning) and low energy consumption.

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Ahn, Jaeyoon, Dongseop Lee, Shinin Han, Youngwook Jung, Sangwoo Park, and Hangseok Choi. "Experimental study on performance of sand filter layer to remove non-point source pollutants in rainwater." Water Supply 17, no. 6 (May 9, 2017): 1748–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2017.056.

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Abstract Clogging characteristics of conventional sand filter layers with different grain-size distributions were experimentally studied to estimate their filtration capacity to capture non-point source pollutants in an artificial rainwater reservoir. A series of laboratory-scale chamber tests was conducted for artificial urban runoff synthesized with non-point source pollutants collected from a real road in Seoul, Korea. In addition, an analytical filtration model for estimating removal of non-point source pollutants was adopted considering the clogging characteristics. To evaluate the performance of three types of sand filter layers with different grain size characteristics, the pollutant concentration was measured in terms of total suspended solids and chemical oxygen demand. The lumped parameter (θ) related to the clogging property was estimated by comparing the accumulated weight of pollutant particles obtained from the laboratory chamber experiments and the theoretical estimation from the analytical filtration model. Based on the experimental study and theoretical consideration, a double-sand-filter layer consisting of two separate layers is proposed as the optimum system for removing non-point source pollutants in the pilot-scale rainwater reservoir.

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Perens, Rein, Arvo Käärd, and Anto Raukas. "Hydrogeological assumptions for stormwater management in Tallinn." Baltica 33, no. 1 (August 1, 2020): 71–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.5200/baltica.2020.1.7.

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Most cities in temperate climate zones, including Tallinn, face the threat of torrential rains and resultant floods, which cause extensive damage to city economies. The main causes of floods are climatic; however, unreasonable building activity and insufficiently developed and maintained drainage systems also contribute to this problem. The percentage of impervious pavement has increased with the consolidation of buildings and road networks. Rainwater drainage is an important issue in a number of different areas of human activity ranging from town planning and environmental protection to building, maintenance and operation of rainwater drainage systems. Hence, to deal with the rainwater drainage issue, it is necessary to develop an integrated and scientifically justified strategy. The present study represents a constituent part of the relevant strategy development process. The authors pay special attention to options for increasing rainwater percolation in different environmental conditions, including geological setting, topography and different soil filtration properties.

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Heidy Gabriela, Ruiz Martínez, and Cornejo Tueros Jose Vladimir. "Rainwater harvesting system as a strategy for adaptation on climate change: A review." IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1121, no. 1 (December 1, 2022): 012007. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1121/1/012007.

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Abstract In the face of increasing water scarcity aggravated by climate change, the rainwater harvesting system is a technique that increases the water supply for various purposes. The objective of this research is to analyse the recent literature published on the rainwater collection system, for which the systematic review method was used. The main form of rainwater catchment are roofs, but the material used is important because it can affect the quality of the water. Some physicochemical parameters of rainwater may be within the standards for human consumption, but it is contaminated by pathogenic microorganisms, which represents a risk to public health if it is consumed without prior treatment, so it is mainly used for irrigation and flushing toilets. However, this system has been implemented mainly in rural areas to satisfy their basic needs, including human consumption, because these places do not have access to the central drinking water system. Given this scenario, treatment technologies are being developed that are easy to operate and maintain, such as solar disinfection and filtration for drinking water purposes. This study provides a global overview progress of research related to the rainwater harvesting system.

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Matsubara, Chiyo, Kazuhiro Yoshihara, Hirofumi Ejima, and Kiyoko Takamura. "Determination of arsenate and phosphate in rainwater: Preconcentration bt membrane filtration." Applied Organometallic Chemistry 4, no. 3 (May 1990): 293–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/aoc.590040319.

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Engström, J. E., and C. Leck. "Determination of water-insoluble light absorbing matter in rainwater using polycarbonate membrane filters and photometric detection." Atmospheric Measurement Techniques Discussions 2, no. 1 (February 4, 2009): 237–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/amtd-2-237-2009.

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Abstract. A method for determination of water-insoluble light absorbing matter in rainwater has been developed. After collection the rainwater samples were filtered using polycarbonate membrane filter in the laboratory. After drying the filter in filtered air, the amount of water-insoluble light absorbing matter (soot) on the filters was determined with photometry at a wavelength of 555 nm. The precision for the method was better than 10% calculated as relative standard deviation. The overall loss of soot due to adsorption during collection and filtration was 22±2%. The detection limit was estimated to 0.025 in optical density, or 2 ng/ml expressed as a concentration assuming a filtration volume of 30 ml. Analysis of environmental samples have been successfully performed with the described method at the Maldives Climate Observatory Hanimaadhoo and Nepal Climate Observatory. At Maldives the average soot concentration in rain was 0.048 μg/ml and at the Nepal obseravtory 0.086 μg/ml.

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Strauss, André, Brandon Reyneke, Monique Waso, and Wesaal Khan. "Compound parabolic collector solar disinfection system for the treatment of harvested rainwater." Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology 4, no. 7 (2018): 976–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c8ew00152a.

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Cost-effective SODIS-CPC systems significantly improved the microbial quality of harvested rainwater. These point-of-use treatment systems can be implemented on site where standard water infrastructure cannot be employed. The use of a first flush diverter as a pre-filtration step also reduced microbial contamination.

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Garrido, S., M. Aviles, A. Ramirez, A. Gonzalez, L. Montellano, B. Gonzalez, J. de la Paz, and R. M. Ramirez. "Improving collected rainwater quality in rural communities." Water Science and Technology 63, no. 10 (May 1, 2011): 2395–402. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2011.199.

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The country of Mexico is facing serious problems with water quality and supply for human use and consumption in rural communities, mainly due to topographic and isolation. In Mexico the average annual precipitation is 1,500 cubic kilometers of water, if 3% of that amount were used, 13 million Mexicans could be supplied with drinking water that they currently do not have access. Considering the limited infrastructure and management in rural communities, which do not receive services from the centralized systems of large cities, a modified pilot multi-stage filtration (MMSF) system was designed, developed, and evaluated for treating collected rainwater in three rural communities, Ajuchitlan and Villa Nicolas Zapata (Morelos State) and Xacxamayo (Puebla State). The efficiencies obtained in the treatment system were: colour and turbidity >93%. It is worth mentioning that the water obtained for human use and consumption complies with the Mexican Standard NOM-127-SSA1-1994.

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Kus, B., Jaya Kandasamy, S. Vigneswaran, H. K. Shon, and G. Moody. "Household rainwater harvesting system – pilot scale gravity driven membrane-based filtration system." Water Supply 13, no. 3 (May 1, 2013): 790–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2013.067.

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This paper presents the results of a pilot scale study consisting of pre-treatment with a granular activated carbon (GAC) filter followed by membrane filtration. Detailed characterisation of rainwater tanks has highlighted that turbidity, dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and heavy metals, in particular lead, were not compliant with the 2004 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines (ADWG). Further, organic matter present in the water causes membrane fouling and leads to carcinogenic compounds upon chlorination. A GAC filter was used as a first step to remove dissolved organic matter (measured in terms of DOC) in particular and also to reduce the concentration, of turbidity and lead. Membrane filtration can remove any remaining solids reducing the concentrations of turbidity and microorganisms. In this study a pilot scale rainwater treatment system consisting of a gravity fed GAC filter and membrane filter (Ultra Flo) was operated for a period of 120 days. The performance of this system was assessed in terms of membrane flux and improvement in water quality measured against the 2004 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines. Determination of the flux especially in the later stages of membrane operation was important to be able to size the filters in a manner that meets the expected demand. The treatment system of GAC filter and membrane filter was effective in reducing the turbidity, DOC and heavy metals. The system reduced the turbidity to levels of 0.3–0.4 NTU, below the ADWG limit of 1 NTU. The concentration of DOC was reduced to below the 2004 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines limit of 0.2 mg/L. The concentration of lead was reduced to less than 0.005 mg/L, and below the ADWD limit of 0.01 mg/L. The concentrations of all other heavy metals were well within the ADWG limits. Further, the GAC filter removed a majority of the organic substances from raw rainwater collected from the roof. After the initial flux decline, the stable flux achieved was 0.47 L/m2/h consistently over the final 60 days of the experiment.

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Kang, Yong-Tae, and Kil-Soo Hyun. "Reuse of Industrial Complex Runoff Rainwater using High-rate Sedimentation/ Filtration Technique." Journal of Korean Society of Water Science and Technology 30, no. 3 (June 30, 2022): 29–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.17640/kswst.2022.30.3.29.

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Yulistyorini, Anie, Gilang Idfi, and Evy Dwi Fahmi. "Enhanced rooftop rainwater harvesting quality through filtration using zeolite and activated carbon." MATEC Web of Conferences 204 (2018): 03016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/201820403016.

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This study aimed to investigate the quality of the rooftop rainwater harvesting (RRWH) and to treat it for clean water supply alternative of Graha Rektorat building at State University of Malang, Indonesia. Different combinations of zeolite and activated carbon were used as filter media to treat the RRWH. Several parameters have tested to investigate the quality of RRWH based on Permenkes RI No. 416 / MENKES / PER / IX / 1990. Most of the quality of the RRWH met clean water and drinking water standard. However, there were three parameters have to be reduced and required further treatment. The results showed T4 reduced TDS and coliform bacteria by 37% and 36%, while T5 eliminated organic substances (KMnO4) for 35%.

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Ahmed, W., L. Hodgers, N. Masters, J. P. S. Sidhu, M. Katouli, and S. Toze. "Occurrence of Intestinal and Extraintestinal Virulence Genes in Escherichia coli Isolates from Rainwater Tanks in Southeast Queensland, Australia." Applied and Environmental Microbiology 77, no. 20 (August 26, 2011): 7394–400. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/aem.06047-11.

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ABSTRACTIn this study, 200Escherichia coliisolates from 22 rainwater tank samples in Southeast Queensland, Australia, were tested for the presence of 20 virulence genes (VGs) associated with intestinal and extraintestinal pathotypes. In addition,E. coliisolates were also classified into phylogenetic groups based on the detection of thechuA,yjaA, and TSPE4.C2 genes. Of the 22 rainwater tanks, 8 (36%) and 5 (23%) were positive for theeaeA(belonging to enteropathogenicE. coli[EPEC] and Shiga-toxigenicE. coli[STEC]) and ST1 (belonging to enterotoxigenicE. coli[ETEC]) genes, respectively. VGs (cdtB,cvaC,ibeA,kpsMTallele III, PAI,papAH, andtraT) belonging to extraintestinal pathogenicE. coli(ExPEC) were detected in 15 (68%) of the 22 rainwater tanks. Of the 22 samples, 17 (77%) and 11 (50%) containedE. colibelonging to phylogenetic groups A and B1, respectively. Similarly, 10 (45%) and 16 (72%) containedE. colibelonging to phylogenetic groups B2 and D, respectively. Of the 96 of the 200 strains from 22 tanks that were VG positive, 40 (42%) were carrying a single VG, 36 (37.5%) were carrying two VGs, 17 (18%) were carrying three VGs, and 3 (3%) had four or more VGs. This study reports the presence of multiple VGs inE. colistrains belonging to the STEC, EPEC, ETEC, and ExPEC pathotypes in rainwater tanks. The public health risks associated with potentially clinically significantE. coliin rainwater tanks should be assessed, as the water is used for drinking and other, nonpotable purposes. It is recommended that rainwater be disinfected using effective treatment procedures such as filtration, UV disinfection, or simply boiling prior to drinking.

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Teixeira, Celimar Azambuja, and Enedir Ghisi. "Comparative Analysis of Granular and Membrane Filters for Rainwater Treatment." Water 11, no. 5 (May 14, 2019): 1004. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w11051004.

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The objective of this study was to compare the efficiency of rainwater treatment using two types of filters: one with filtration materials (gravel, sand, and anthracite) and the other employing membranes. In both cases, the quality of the rainwater after passing through the filter met the standards required by NBR 15527:2007 (Brazilian Association of Technical Standards (ABNT)) and the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for non-potable uses according to the parameters pH, temperature, turbidity, ammonia, nitrate, nitrite, alkalinity, and calcium hardness. The results obtained were also compared with Directive 2914/2011 of the Brazilian Ministry of Health, which deals with water potability, and with Resolution 357/2005 of CONAMA (Brazilian National Council for the Environment), which is applied to surface water bodies, especially rivers, and establishes the possibility of direct contact of the water with human skin. It was concluded that the rainwater obtained from both filters could be used for non-potable uses, such as toilet flushing, garden irrigation, and sidewalk cleaning, as well as for direct-contact activities, such as bathing and washing clothes.

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Noubactep, Chicgoua. "Special Issue on Planning, Designing and Managing Decentralized Drinking Water Supply System—Editorial." Processes 9, no. 6 (May 25, 2021): 930. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pr9060930.

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The growing demands for affordable and applicable technologies for decentralized safe drinking water provision have instigated technical innovations in the water filtration industry. Adsorptive filtration appears to be the most affordable, resilient, and socially acceptable solution for households and small communities worldwide. However, water filtration devices have not yet been widely implemented due to lack of awareness for the efficiency of such systems using locally available materials. Water filtration has the potential to secure universal access to safe drinking water by 2030. This special issue has elucidated the applicability, benefits, constraints, effectiveness, and limitations of metallic iron as filter material for safe drinking water provision. Tools to make rainwater a primary water source are also presented together with ways to transform existing centralized water management systems into decentralized ones (sectorization). The knowledge is applicable to a wide variety of situations on a global scale.

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Kim, Ree-Ho, Sangho Lee, and Jong-Oh Kim. "Application of a metal membrane for rainwater utilization: filtration characteristics and membrane fouling." Desalination 177, no. 1-3 (June 2005): 121–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2004.12.004.

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Kim, Ree Ho, Jung Hun Lee, Sang Ho Lee, and Hana Kim. "Analysis of Fiber Filter Media after 6 Years of Use as a First Flush Filter." Materials Science Forum 695 (July 2011): 93–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.695.93.

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Pollutants in rainwater often cause problems such as non-point source pollutant and deterioration of collected water quality in rainwater harvesting systems. Fiber filter media have been developed to resolve these problems by removing pollutants in rainwater by filtration and ion-exchange mechanisms. They have been also successfully applied for the treatment of first-flush rainwater. However, little information is available on the long-term efficiency and the lifetime of the fiber filter media. In this study, new and used fiber filter media were compared in terms of their filterability and ion-exchange capability. The used filter media samples were taken from a first flush filter in a rainwater harvesting system located in an elementary school in Kyonggi-Do. They were used from 2005 to 2010 without any replacement or cleaning. Water quality parameters of an inflow and outflow in the first flush filter were analyzed to quantify the on-site treatment efficiency of the used media. It was shown that the turbidity was removed by approximately 60% and COD was partly removed. The removal efficiency of particles by the used media was similar to that by the new media. Nevertheless, the removal efficiencies of nitrogen and phosphorous by the used media were substantially reduced when compared with the new media. This suggests that the fiber filter media should be periodically replaced to maintain high removals of nutrients. On the other hand, they can be used for more than 6 years if their primary purpose is to removal particles.

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Kus, B., J. Kandasamy, S. Vigneswaran, and H. K. Shon. "Analysis of first flush to improve the water quality in rainwater tanks." Water Science and Technology 61, no. 2 (January 1, 2010): 421–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2010.823.

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Although most Australians receive their domestic supply from reticulated mains or town water, there are vast areas with very low population densities and few reticulated supplies. In many of these areas rainwater collected in tanks is the primary source of drinking water. Heavy metals have recently become a concern as their concentration in rain water tanks was found to exceed recommended levels suitable for human consumption. Rainwater storage tanks also accumulate contaminants and sediments that settle to the bottom. Although not widely acknowledged, small amounts of contaminants such as lead found in rain water (used as drinking water) may have a cumulative and poisonous effect on human health over a life time. This is true for certain factors that underlie many of the chronic illnesses that are becoming increasingly common in contemporary society. The paper reports on a study which is part of a project that aims to develop a cost effective in-line filtration system to improve water quality in rainwater tanks. To enable this, the characteristics of rainwater need to be known. One component of this characterization is to observe the effects of the first flush on a rainwater tank. Samples of the roof runoff collected from an urban residential roof located in the Sydney Metropolitan Area in the initial first few millimetres of rain were analysed. The results show that bypassing the first 2 mm of rainfall gives water with most water quality parameters compliant with the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines (ADWG) standards. The parameters that did not comply were lead and turbidity, which required bypassing approximately the first 5 mm of rainfall to meet ADWG standards. Molecular weight distribution (MWD) analysis showed that the concentration of rainwater organic matter (RWOM) decreased with increasing amount of roof runoff.

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Dai, Yiqing, Jiwang Jiang, Xingyu Gu, Yanjing Zhao, and Fujian Ni. "Sustainable Urban Street Comprising Permeable Pavement and Bioretention Facilities: A Practice." Sustainability 12, no. 19 (October 8, 2020): 8288. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su12198288.

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Roadside bioretention and permeable pavements have proven effectiveness in rainwater filtration and waterlogging mitigation, but conventional street design approach could not accommodate their work in conjunction. In this research, possible roadside facilities allowing water transmission from permeable pavements and bioretention to the pipe system are proposed. Hydraulic properties of the comprised elements were analyzed, including rainfall intensity, permeable pavements, soil layers and pipe systems. A transformation method was formulated to obtain a successive time-intensity formula from conventional design parameters to describe the rainfall behavior, and therefore the water retention capacity of the bioretention could be considered. A test section of 1.6 km combining permeable pavements and roadside bioretention was constructed, and its hydraulic performance was predicted based on the proposed design method and Storm Water Management Model (SWMM). The research results suggest that the bioretention facilities and permeable pavements cooperate well in the test section. In a light rain event, the proposed street has favorable performance in rainwater collection and filtration. In a relatively intense rainstorm event, the street collects and filters water in the initial stage, but will have similar hydraulic performance to a conventional street once the retention facilities are saturated. Thus, no reduction in diameters of drainage pipes from conventional designs is suggested in similar projects.

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Al-Houri, Zain, and Abbas Al-Omari. "Assessment of rooftop rainwater harvesting in Ajloun, Jordan." Journal of Water Reuse and Desalination 12, no. 1 (November 24, 2021): 22–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wrd.2021.064.

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Abstract In response to water scarcity in Ajloun governorate, Jordan, the effectiveness of implementing rooftop rainwater harvesting (RRWH) was investigated. In addition, a structured questionnaire was prepared and distributed to randomly selected residents to assess the status of the current RRWH practices in the governorate and the people's perceptions of this practice. It was found that between 0.39 million cubic meters (MCM) in a dry year (2017) and 0.96 MCM in a wet year (2018) can be harvested, which is equivalent to 7.6% and 16.8% of the domestic water supply for these years, respectively. The analysis of a total of 360 questionnaires revealed that only 14.2% of the households in Ajloun governorate own an RRWH system. However, the majority, 80.6%, of those who do not own an RRWH system showed interest in installing one. An overwhelming majority of the sample, 96.7%, believes that the government should provide incentives to subsidize the construction of RRWH systems, which is attributed to the high initial cost of these systems. The technical and social feasibilities of RRWH, in addition to the high cost of the alternatives, justifies providing incentives, such as cost sharing for the consumers in Ajloun to implement RRWH systems.

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João, Jair Juarez, Matheus Frederico Ferreira Henckmaier, Gustavo Reche Santa Rosa, Amanda Schueng Lima, and Vitória De Godoy Saciloto. "Case Study: Evaluation and Reuse of Rainwater in a Prison in Santa Catarina State, Brazil." Journal of Agricultural Studies 10, no. 4 (August 16, 2022): 12. http://dx.doi.org/10.5296/jas.v10i4.20180.

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The capture and reuse of rainwater is a viable alternative in regions where water is scarce or in places where water consumption is high. However, the economic viability of the implementation of an appropriate system is reduced by the need to install pumps, filter pipes and filters. This case study was focused on evaluating the potential for the harvesting and reuse of rainwater in a prison in Santa Catarina State, Brazil. The experiment was carried out at Tubarão prison, where three sampling points were strategically selected for the collection of rainwater. The total area of the prison is 4793.73 m² and in this research only the roof areas of the buildings used to keep inmates in closed and semi-open regimes were used. In total, 3483.53 m² were considered, which guarantees an annual capture of 4314 m3 of water and corresponds to 17% of the water consumed in the prison, providing potential savings of US$ 5408 per year. After collection, the water was filtered through an activated carbon filter to be applied as reuse water. The results demonstrate significant reductions for all parameters analyzed. In general, the average efficiency was above 70%. The best results were obtained for the removal of suspended solids (94%), dissolved solids (94%), total solids (83) and phosphorus (81%). In addition, removal values for color, chlorides and nitrate were around 70%, verifying that the filtration system with activated carbon is efficient for harvested rainwater.

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Moreira Neto, Ronan Fernandes, Maria Lúcia Calijuri, Isabella de Castro Carvalho, and Aníbal da Fonseca Santiago. "Rainwater treatment in airports using slow sand filtration followed by chlorination: Efficiency and costs." Resources, Conservation and Recycling 65 (August 2012): 124–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2012.06.001.

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Liu, Huipu, Leixiang Wu, Chunfang Wu, Laisheng Liu, and Jiapeng Wu. "The filtering efficiency of iron and salt of city rainwater by sand filtration process." IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 227 (March 2, 2019): 052067. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/227/5/052067.

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Annisa, Qori Nur, Prayudhy Yushananta, and Bambang Murwanto. "Filtration Method with Three Media Combinations to Improve Rainwater Quality as A Drinking Water." Jurnal Aisyah : Jurnal Ilmu Kesehatan 7, no. 3 (August 11, 2022): 921–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.30604/jika.v7i3.1235.

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Bilad, Muhammad Roil, Siti Rahma Junaeda, Yusran Khery, Baiq Asma Nufida, Norazanita Shamsuddin, Anwar Usman, and Violet Violet. "Compaction of a Polymeric Membrane in Ultra-Low-Pressure Water Filtration." Polymers 14, no. 16 (August 10, 2022): 3254. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/polym14163254.

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Applications of ultra-low-pressure filtration systems are increasing as they offer enhanced sustainability due to lower energy input, almost no use of chemicals, and minimum operational expenditure. In many cases, they operate as a decentralized system using a gravity-driven membrane (GDM) filtration process. These applications are relatively new; hence, the fundamental knowledge of the process is still limited. In this study, we investigated the phenomenon of polymeric membrane compaction under an ultra-low-pressure system. The compaction phenomenon is well-recognized in the traditional pressure-driven system operating at high transmembrane pressures (ΔPs > 200 kPa), but it is less documented in ultra-low-pressure systems (ΔP < 10 kPa). A simple GDM filtration setup operated under a constant-pressure system was employed to investigate the compaction phenomena in a polymeric hollow fiber membrane for clean water filtration. Firstly, a short-term pressure stepping test was performed to investigate the occurrence of instantaneous compaction in the ΔP range of 1–10 kPa. The slow compaction was later investigated. Finally, the compaction dynamic was assessed under alternating high and low ΔP and relaxation in between the filtrations. The findings demonstrated the prominence of membrane compaction, as shown by the decreasing trend in clean water permeability at higher ΔPs (i.e., 3240 and 2401 L m−2 h−1 bar−1 at ΔPs of 1 and 10 kPa, respectively). We also found that the intrinsic permeability of the applied polymeric membrane was significantly higher than the apparent one (4351 vs. 2401 L m−2 h−1 bar−1), demonstrating >50% loss due to compaction. The compaction was mainly instantaneous, which occurred when the ΔP was changed, whereas only minor changes in permeability occurred over time when operating at a constant ΔP. The compaction was highly reversible and could be restored (i.e., decompaction) through relaxation by temporarily stopping the filtration. A small fraction of irreversible compaction could be detected by operating alternating filtrations under ΔPs of 1 and 10 kPa. The overall findings are essential to support emerging GDM filtration applications, in which membrane compaction has been ignored and confounded with membrane fouling. The role of compaction is more prominent for high-flux GDM filtration systems treating less-fouling-prone feed (i.e., rainwater, river water) and involving membrane cleaning (i.e., relaxation) in which both reversible and irreversible compaction occurred simultaneously.

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Ochir, Duuriimaa, Yonggu Lee, Jaegwan Shin, Sangwon Kim, Jinwoo Kwak, and Kangmin Chon. "Oxidative Treatments of Pesticides in Rainwater Runoff by HOCl, O3, and O3/H2O2: Effects of pH, Humic Acids and Inorganic Matters." Separations 8, no. 7 (July 8, 2021): 101. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/separations8070101.

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This study systematically investigated the oxidative treatment of five selected pesticides, alachlor (ALA), carbendazim (CAR), diuron (DIU), pyrimethanil (PYR), and tebuconazole (TEB), by comparing their relative reactivities as a function of three different oxidative treatment processes (i.e., chlorine (HOCl), ozone (O3), and ozone/hydrogen peroxide (O3/H2O2)) under various oxidant dosages, reaction times, and pH conditions. For oxidative treatment, pesticide standards were spiked into rainwater. The removal efficiency of the selected pesticides varied considerably depending on the oxidative treatment processes. HOCl, O3, and O3/H2O2 treatments were highly effective at eliminating CAR (>80%) and PYR (>99%), while they were not significantly effective in removing TEB (<20%). In the case of DIU, HOCl (81%) was shown to be more effective than O3 (24%) and O3/H2O2 (49%). The removal efficiency of ALA was in the order of O3/H2O2 (49%) > O3 (20%) > HOCl (8.5%). The effect of increasing the solution pH from 5.0 to 9.0 on pesticide degradation varied between the oxidative treatment processes. Additionally, NH4+, NO2−, and humic acid in rainwater significantly inhibited pesticide degradation.

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Pembe-Ali, Zuleikha, Tulinave Burton Mwamila, Mesia Lufingo, Willis Gwenzi, Janeth Marwa, Mwemezi J. Rwiza, Innocent Lugodisha, Qinwen Qi, and Chicgoua Noubactep. "Application of the Kilimanjaro Concept in Reversing Seawater Intrusion and Securing Water Supply in Zanzibar, Tanzania." Water 13, no. 15 (July 30, 2021): 2085. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w13152085.

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There is escalating salinity levels on small islands due to uncontrolled groundwater extraction. Conventionally, this challenge is addressed by adopting optimal groundwater pumping strategies. Currently, on Unguja Island (Zanzibar), urban freshwater is supplied by desalination, which is expensive and energy-intensive. Hence, desalinization cannot be afforded by rural communities. This study demonstrates that the innovative Kilimanjaro Concept (KC), based on rainwater harvesting (RWH) can remediate seawater intrusion in Unguja, while enabling a universal safe drinking water supply. The reasoning is rooted in the water balance of the whole island. It is shown that if rainwater is systematically harvested, quantitatively stored, and partly infiltrated, seawater intrusion will be reversed, and a universal safe drinking water supply will be secured. Water treatment with affordable technologies (e.g., filtration and adsorption) is suggested. The universality of KC and its suitability for small islands is demonstrated. Future research should focus on pilot testing of this concept on Unguja Island and other island nations.

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Steenkamp, Malinda, Kirstin Ross, Harriet Whiley, Emmanuel Chubaka, and Paul Arbon. "Assessing the Quality of Roof-Harvested Rainwater after Bushfires." Prehospital and Disaster Medicine 34, s1 (May 2019): s42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1049023x19001018.

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Introduction:Roof-harvested rainwater held in domestic tanks is used for a variety of purposes in Australia, including drinking and irrigation. There is limited evidence about the quality of rainwater after bushfires. Current health guidelines can be interpreted that landholders need to drain their rainwater tanks to avoid the risk of contamination. Anecdotal reports indicate that following such advice caused additional distress to landowners affected by bushfires in South Australia. Sustainable water management is important for future resilience and more evidence on water quality following bushfires is needed.Aim:This project investigated whether there is contamination of roof-harvested rainwater after bushfires, and if so, whether such water was safe for various purposes.Methods:In 2017 we tested artificially contaminated water spiked with chemicals associated with bushfires (chromated copper arsenate-treated ash and firefighting foam) and conducted a pilot field study using two purposely built roofs during a pre-fire season burn off. A field validation is planned for the summer of 2018/19 (December 2018 - March 2019), i.e., we plan to obtain 200 samples from 50 households affected by bushfire – two samples immediately after the fire event and another two after the first rain.Results:The artificially created contaminated water fell within guidelines for non-potable uses such as irrigation and stock watering, but was found unsuitable for drinking even after being filtered through two commercially available water filtration systems. We also plan to present results from our field study of 50 households.Discussion:Contaminant concentrations, even in artificially spiked water samples, are low and acceptable for non-potable uses. Bottled water should be used for drinking. Landholders should be encouraged to use their water for recovery purposes. Such advice may assist with decreasing the stress experienced by affected landholders and help with recovery efforts through the availability of a greater body of water.

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Malema, Mokaba Shirley, Jean-Marc Mwenge Kahinda, Akebe Luther King Abia, Roman Tandlich, Bongumusa M. Zuma, and Eunice Ubomba-Jaswa. "The efficiency of a low-cost hydrogen sulphide (H2S) kit as an early warning test for assessing microbial rainwater quality and its correlation with standard indicators microorganisms." Nova Biotechnologica et Chimica 18, no. 2 (December 1, 2019): 133–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/nbec-2019-0016.

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Abstract Testing microbial quality of the harvested rainwater remains a challenge in many countries. The H2S test kit is a low-cost microbiological field-based test which can be used in areas where water testing facilities are limited. This study compares its efficiency with the standard indicators microorganisms in the detection of faecal contamination of rainwater in South Africa. A total of 88 rainwater samples were collected from various tanks in the Eastern Cape, South Africa over three months in 2016. The collected samples were analysed for faecal bacterial contamination using the H2S test kit, Colilert-18/Quanti-tray®/2000 and the membrane filtration technique for faecal coliforms (MFT). The correspondence rate of the H2S test kit with MFT was 88 %, while for the Colilert® it was 76 %. The H2S test kit confirmed faecal contamination when concentrations of standards indicators microorganisms were 5 most-probable number of cells/100 cm3 or higher. Overall, the best correspondence of the H2S test kit with Colilert® was observed at E. coli concentrations above 50 most-probable number of cells/100 cm3. Results of the H2S test kit correlated better with MTF, while the medium used has strongly influenced the enumeration of faecal contamination. Results point to strong effect of media used and revealed the need to calibrate the correspondence between the standard indicator microorganisms and the H2S test kit under local conditions for specific settings.

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Kang, Sungwon, Seogku Kim, Sangmin Lee, and Taeyoon Lee. "An Upflow-Type Filtration Device Using Expanded Polypropylene Media (EPM) to Treat First Flush of Rainwater." Water Environment Research 88, no. 3 (March 1, 2016): 195–200. http://dx.doi.org/10.2175/106143016x14504669767373.

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Hartigan, Martin. "Help from Above: Considering Rainwater Harvesting as An Alternative to Filtration (Innovations Case Discussion: SONO Filters)." Innovations: Technology, Governance, Globalization 4, no. 3 (July 2009): 103–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/itgg.2009.4.3.103.

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Lévesque, B., D. Pereg, E. Watkinson, J. S. Maguire, L. Bissonnette, S. Gingras, P. Rouja, M. G. Bergeron, and É. Dewailly. "Assessment of microbiological quality of drinking water from household tanks in Bermuda." Canadian Journal of Microbiology 54, no. 6 (June 2008): 495–500. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/w08-038.

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Bermuda residents collect rainwater from rooftops to fulfil their freshwater needs. The objective of this study was to assess the microbiological quality of drinking water in household tanks throughout Bermuda. The tanks surveyed were selected randomly from the electoral register. Governmental officers visited the selected household (n = 102) to collect water samples and administer a short questionnaire about the tank characteristics, the residents’ habits in terms of water use, and general information on the water collecting system and its maintenance. At the same time, water samples were collected for analysis and total coliforms and Escherichia coli were determined by 2 methods (membrane filtration and culture on chromogenic media, Colilert kit). Results from the 2 methods were highly correlated and showed that approximately 90% of the samples analysed were contaminated with total coliforms in concentrations exceeding 10 CFU/100 mL, and approximately 66% of samples showed contamination with E. coli. Tank cleaning in the year prior to sampling seems to protect against water contamination. If rainwater collection from roofs is the most efficient mean for providing freshwater to Bermudians, it must not be considered a source of high quality drinking water because of the high levels of microbial contamination.

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Pharmawati, Kancitra, Dhuhri Hidayatullah, and Priyadi Wirasakti. "Identification The Application of Water Conservation in Hotel." E3S Web of Conferences 73 (2018): 04019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/20187304019.

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Water conservation aspect is a part of Green Building concept. In addition, to save more first clean water consumption, The X Hotel applied water conservation aspect, which are the WAC 3 (Water Recycling), WAC 4 (Alternative Water Resources), and the WAC 5 (Rainwater Harvesting) (GBCI, 2013). The plumbing installation system with water conservation aspects at X Hotel aims to distribute first class clean water, dispose of the wastewater to a treatment site with appropriate water requirements refers to SNI 03-7065-2005 X Hotel required 114,640 m3/day of first class clean water, and 91,71 m3/day of the total wastewater discharge, includes 18,35 m3/day of black water and 73,36 m3/day of gray water. The X Hotel has additional alternative sources of water condensate from air conditioner (AC) about 44,16 m3/day and 52,53 m3 of rainwater, that can be used for water closet and urinal flushing in the public area at the Hotel, after through the anaerobic – aerobic biofilter STP (Sewerage Treatment Plant) and membrane filtration unit. After the calculation, water conservation aspects application can reduce first class clean water needs with an efficiency around 10%.

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Ding, An, Jinlong Wang, Dachao Lin, Xiaobin Tang, Xiaoxiang Cheng, Hui Wang, Langming Bai, Guibai Li, and Heng Liang. "A low pressure gravity-driven membrane filtration (GDM) system for rainwater recycling: Flux stabilization and removal performance." Chemosphere 172 (April 2017): 21–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.12.111.

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Ding, An, Jinlong Wang, Dachao Lin, Rong Zeng, Shengping Yu, Zhendong Gan, Nanqi Ren, Guibai Li, and Heng Liang. "Effects of GAC layer on the performance of gravity-driven membrane filtration (GDM) system for rainwater recycling." Chemosphere 191 (January 2018): 253–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.10.034.

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Journal articles on the topic 'Rainwater filtration'

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