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Journal articles on the topic 'Racial injustices'
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1
Isom, Deena. "Microaggressions, Injustices, and Racial Identity." Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 32, no. 1 (October 7, 2015): 27–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1043986215607253.
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Messer, Chris M., Thomas E. Shriver, and Krystal K. Beamon. "Official Frames and the Tulsa Race Riot of 1921: The Struggle for Reparations." Sociology of Race and Ethnicity 4, no. 3 (December 4, 2017): 386–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2332649217742414.
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Movements that seek reparations against racial injustices must confront historic narratives of events and patterns of repression. These injustices are often legitimated through official narratives that discredit and vilify racial groups. This paper analyzes elite official frames in the case of the Tulsa Race Riot of 1921, in which an economically thriving African American neighborhood was destroyed. Our research examines the official frames that were promulgated by white elites in defending the violent repression and analyzes the ongoing efforts by reparations proponents to seek redress. We delineate the discursive mechanisms used by proponents to challenge the dominant white narrative of the riot and to campaign for reparations. We conclude by discussing the implications of our research for future research on racial injustices and reparations movements.
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Dixon, John, Kevin Durrheim, and Colin Tredoux. "Intergroup Contact and Attitudes Toward the Principle and Practice of Racial Equality." Psychological Science 18, no. 10 (October 2007): 867–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01993.x.
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Research on racial attitudes indicates that acceptance of the principle of racial equality is frequently offset by opposition to policies designed to eliminate injustice. At the same time, research on the contact hypothesis indicates that positive interaction between groups erodes various kinds of prejudiced attitudes. Integrating these two traditions of research, this study examined whether or not interracial contact reduces the principle-implementation gap in racial attitudes. The study comprised a random-digit-dialing survey of the attitudes and contact experiences of White and Black South Africans (N = 1,917). The results suggest that among Whites, there remains a stubborn core of resistance to policies designed to rectify the injustices of apartheid. The results also indicate that interracial contact has differential, and somewhat paradoxical, effects on the attitudes of Whites and Blacks toward practices aimed at achieving racial justice.
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Forness, Jennifer. "Reconsidering the Role of Stephen Foster in the Music Classroom." Music Educators Journal 103, no. 2 (December 2016): 58–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0027432116672919.
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The place of Stephen Foster and the music of American minstrelsy should be reconsidered for the music classroom. Some of this repertoire can be offensive because of its historical context and racially insensitive language. Critical theory can provide a framework for choosing repertoire that creates dialogue about racial structures in music. The use of critical theory in studying Stephen Foster’s music can engage students in praxis and work toward ending racial injustices in the classroom.
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Kitch, Sally, Joan McGregor, G. Mauricio Mejía, Sara El-Sayed, Christy Spackman, and Juliann Vitullo. "Gendered and Racial Injustices in American Food Systems and Cultures." Humanities 10, no. 2 (April 8, 2021): 66. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/h10020066.
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Multiple factors create food injustices in the United States. They occur in different societal sectors and traverse multiple scales, from the constrained choices of the industrialized food system to legal and corporate structures that replicate entrenched racial and gender inequalities, to cultural expectations around food preparation and consumption. Such injustices further harm already disadvantaged groups, especially women and racial minorities, while also exacerbating environmental deterioration. This article consists of five sections that employ complementary approaches in the humanities, design studies, and science and technology studies. The authors explore cases that represent structural injustices in the current American food system, including: the racialized and gendered effects of food systems and cultures on both men and women; the misguided and de-territorialized global branding of the Mediterranean Diet as a universal ideal; the role of food safety regulations around microbes in reinforcing racialized food injustices; and the benefits of considering the American food system and all of its parts as designed artifacts that can be redesigned. The article concludes by discussing how achieving food justice can simultaneously promote sustainable food production and consumption practices—a process that, like the article itself, invites scholars and practitioners to actively design our food system in ways that empower different stakeholders and emphasize the importance of collaboration and interconnection.
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Howard, Ayanna, and Monroe Kennedy. "Robots are not immune to bias and injustice." Science Robotics 5, no. 48 (November 18, 2020): eabf1364. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/scirobotics.abf1364.
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Franklin, V. P. "INTRODUCTION: DOCUMENTING THE NAACP'S FIRST CENTURY—FROM COMBATING RACIAL INJUSTICES TO CHALLENGING RACIAL INEQUITIES." Journal of African American History 94, no. 4 (October 2009): 453–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/jaahv94n4p453.
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Egendorf, Sara Perl, Howard W. Mielke, Jorge A. Castorena-Gonzalez, Eric T. Powell, and Christopher R. Gonzales. "Soil Lead (Pb) in New Orleans: A Spatiotemporal and Racial Analysis." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 3 (February 1, 2021): 1314. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18031314.
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Spatialized racial injustices drive morbidity and mortality inequalities. While many factors contribute to environmental injustices, Pb is particularly insidious, and is associated with cardio-vascular, kidney, and immune dysfunctions and is a leading cause of premature death worldwide. Here, we present a revised analysis from the New Orleans dataset of soil lead (SPb) and children’s blood Pb (BPb), which was systematically assembled for 2000–2005 and 2011–2016. We show the spatial–temporal inequities in SPb, children’s BPb, racial composition, and household income in New Orleans. Comparing medians for the inner city with outlying areas, soil Pb is 7.5 or 9.3 times greater, children’s blood Pb is ~2 times higher, and household income is lower. Between 2000–2005 and 2011–2016, a BPb decline occurred. Long-standing environmental and socioeconomic Pb exposure injustices have positioned Black populations at extreme risk of adverse health consequences. Given the overlapping health outcomes of Pb exposure with co-morbidities for conditions such as COVID-19, we suggest that further investigation be conducted on Pb exposure and pandemic-related mortality rates, particularly among Black populations. Mapping and remediating invisible environmental Pb provides a path forward for preventing future populations from developing a myriad of Pb-related health issues.
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Gillies, Carmen Leigh. "Curriculum Integration and the Forgotten Indigenous Students: Reflecting on Métis Teachers’ Experience." in education 26, no. 2 (June 3, 2021): 3–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.37119/ojs2021.v26i2.477.
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Curriculum integration, or in other words, changing what students are taught within racially desegregated Canadian schools, has served as a primary but incomplete pathway to racial justice. In this paper, I present evidence from a qualitative critical race theory (CRT) methodological study with 13 Métis teachers to demonstrate how curricular integration has been framed as a key solution to inequitable outcomes concerning Indigenous students. This strategy has been instilled within the Saskatchewan K–12 education system by a wide spectrum of authorities over several decades. Although absolutely essential for multiple reasons, I argue that teaching students about Indigenous knowledge systems and experiences, as well as anti-racist content, cannot resolve the systemic racial injustices encountered by Indigenous students who attend provincial schools. In particular, three CRT analytical tools—structural determinism, anti-essentialism, and interest convergence—are utilized to examine the limitations of curricular integration as a strategy of racial justice.
Keywords: Métis teachers; Indigenous education; critical race theory; integrated schools
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Greene, Julie. "Spaniards on the Silver Roll: Labor Troubles and Liminality in the Panama Canal Zone, 1904–1914." International Labor and Working-Class History 66 (October 2004): 78–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0147547904000183.
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This article examines the experiences of Spanish workers during the construction of the Panama Canal by the United States from 1904 to 1914. Spaniards engaged in a wide range of protest actions during the construction years, from strikes to food riots to anarchist politics. Employing Victor Turner's concept of liminality, the article highlights the mutability of the Spaniards' position and identity and examines several factors that shaped their experiences: the US government's policies of racial segregation and the injustices Spaniards experienced; the political and racial identities they brought with them from Spain; and their complex racial and imperial status in the Canal Zone. Spaniards possessed a remarkably fluid racial identity, considered white or nonwhite depending on circumstances, and that shifting status fueled their racial animosities as well as their protests.
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Jochman, Joseph C., Jacob E. Cheadle, Bridget J. Goosby, Cara Tomaso, Chelsea Kozikowski, and Timothy Nelson. "Mental Health Outcomes of Discrimination among College Students on a Predominately White Campus: A Prospective Study." Socius: Sociological Research for a Dynamic World 5 (January 2019): 237802311984272. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2378023119842728.
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Racial discrimination is a social stressor harmful to mental health. In this paper, we explore the links between mental health and interpersonal discrimination-related social events, exposure to vicarious racism via social media, and rumination on racial injustices using a daily diary design. We utilize data from a racially diverse sample of 149 college students with 1,489 unique time observations at a large, predominantly white university. Results show that interpersonal discrimination-related social events predicted greater self-reported anger, anxiety, depressive symptoms, and loneliness both daily and on average over time. Vicarious racism from day to day was associated with increased anxiety symptoms. In contrast, rumination was not associated with negative mental health outcomes. These findings document an increased day-to-day mental health burden for minority students arising from frustrating and alienating social encounters experienced individually or learned about vicariously.
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Bicknell-Hersco, Prilly. "Reparations in the Caribbean and Diaspora." Caribbean Quilt 5 (May 19, 2020): 35–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.33137/caribbeanquilt.v5i0.34375.
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Millions of people have been victim to violent and inhumane social injustices, many of them based on racial and cultural hierarchies. The Nazi Holocaust or the colonization of North America through the genocide of indigenous populations are examples of such instances. When these victims have no direct claim on those who committed the harm, the victims turn to the government for reparations. It can be said that the enslavement of Africans in the Caribbean is another painful and violent injustice, yet few reparations, if any at all, have been paid out to those most affected by the transatlantic slave trade. In 2013, CARICOM released an official request for Reparations for the Native Genocide and Slavery from the United Kingdom and the other European colonies. The discussion of reparations for slavery has ignited debate worldwide.
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Croom, Marcus. "If “Black Lives Matter in Literacy Research,” Then Take This Racial Turn: Developing Racial Literacies." Journal of Literacy Research 52, no. 4 (October 28, 2020): 530–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1086296x20967396.
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When I look back before 2020, before the murder of Mr. George Floyd in particular, and think about this special issue, “Black Lives Matter in Literacy Research,” a question comes to my mind: Are we, the field of literacy research, sure that we want to include literacy research among the incalculable responses (already in progress) to racist killings, anti-Blackness, Black living and dying, and ongoing injustices in the United States of America? In other words, will Black human beings matter to our field? With the hope that our field of literacy research is finally taking this racial turn as an institution, I introduce the post-White orientation as well as practice of race theory (PRT) and argue for the lifelong development of racial literacies among fellow literacy researchers. In short, this article is designed to support the development of racial literacies in the field of literacy research with the aim of affecting research, practice, and policy.
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Roberts, Dorothy E., and Oliver Rollins. "Why Sociology Matters to Race and Biosocial Science." Annual Review of Sociology 46, no. 1 (July 30, 2020): 195–214. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-121919-054903.
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Recent developments in genetics and neuroscience have led to increasing interest in biosocial approaches to social life. While today's biosocial paradigms seek to examine more fully the inextricable relationships between the biological and the social, they have also renewed concerns about the scientific study of race. Our review describes the innovative ways sociologists have designed biosocial models to capture embodied impacts of racism, but also analyzes the potential for these models normatively to reinforce existing racial inequities. First, we examine how concepts and measurements of difference in the postgenomic era have affected scientific knowledges and social practices of racial identity. Next, we assess sociological investigations of racial inequality in the biosocial era, including the implications of the biological disciplines’ move to embrace the social. We conclude with a discussion of the growing interest in social algorithms and their potential to embed past racial injustices in their predictions of the future.
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Zahid, Amena, Noor Fatima, and Zoha Fatima. "US 2020 Elections – Will Biden make America Great again?" Global Foreign Policies Review III, no. I (December 30, 2020): 42–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.31703/gfpr.2020(iii-i).05.
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As America had faced several racial protests and injustices during Trump’s era, Biden took a strong stance on racism in US and stated that racial injustice must be dealt with through broad economic and social programs to support minorities. Donald Trump’s vision of “Making America Great Again” and of capitalizing and fortifying the intrinsic capabilities of America is what sets him apart from the previous Obama regime. Trump’s Strategy in South Asia has been three-fold and its targets are primarily four countries: Afghanistan, India, Pakistan and China. With Biden coming into presidency, there is hope that the United States foreign policy might return to a pre-Trump era and even Republicans are hopeful for a return to the good order. The main issues with which Biden administration will struggle in the coming day will be in convincing the American people once again that global reengagement and multilateralism will help in improving the United States’ standing once again. Many of Biden’s aides are claiming that there is a possibility that America’s approach to problems can be reinvented and there is an effective policy blueprint for Biden’s first 100 days and those beyond which will fix most of what they can.
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Palmer, Elizabeth S. "Literature Review of Social Justice in Music Education: Acknowledging Oppression and Privilege." Update: Applications of Research in Music Education 36, no. 2 (May 26, 2017): 22–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/8755123317711091.
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Within the past few years the notions of a postracial America and achieved equality have been topics of discussion in various public and social circles. The visibility of racial and ethnic minorities, women, those in the LGBTQ (lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans, and queer) community, and individuals with disabilities feeds a narrative of equality within a postracial America. However, the aforementioned groups still face discrimination. Social justice offers equity within social spaces by challenging injustices inflicted on disfranchised groups. Given the complex nature of injustices against disfranchised people, how can music educators address these issues that appear to be extramusical and beyond our control? This literature review defines social justice and explores social justice issues in (a) music education, (b) higher education, and (c) pathways toward more socially just practices.
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Pellow, David, and Jasmine Vazin. "The Intersection of Race, Immigration Status, and Environmental Justice." Sustainability 11, no. 14 (July 19, 2019): 3942. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su11143942.
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Environmental injustice occurs when marginalized groups face disproportionate environmental impacts from a range of threats. Environmental racism is a particular form of environmental injustice and frequently includes the implementation of policies, regulations, or institutional practices that target communities of color for undesirable waste sites, zoning, and industry. One example of how the United States federal and state governments are currently practicing environmental racism is in the form of building and maintaining toxic prisons and immigrant detention prisons, where people of color and undocumented persons are the majority of inmates and detainees who suffer disproportionate health risk and harms. This article discusses the historical and contemporary conditions that have shaped the present political landscape of racial and immigration conflicts and considers those dynamics in the context of the literature on environmental justice. Case studies are then presented to highlight specific locations and instances that exemplify environmental injustice and racism in the carceral sector. The article concludes with an analysis of the current political drivers and motivations contributing to these risks and injustices, and ends with a discussion of the scale and depth of analysis required to alleviate these impacts in the future, which might contribute to greater sustainability among the communities affected.
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Clark, Peter A. "Prejudice and the Medical Profession: A Five-Year Update." Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics 37, no. 1 (2009): 118–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-720x.2009.00356.x.
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Over the past decades the mortality rate in the United States has decreased and life expectancy has increased. Yet a number of recent studies have drawn Americans attention to the fact that racial and ethnic disparities persist in health care. It is clear that the U.S. health care system is not only flawed for many reasons including basic injustices, but may be the cause of both injury and death for members of racial and ethnic minorities.In 2002, an Institute of Medicine (IOM) report requested by Congress listed more than 100 studies documenting a wide range of disparities in the United States health care system. This report found that people belonging to racial and ethnic minorities often receive lower quality of health care than do people of European descent, even when their medical insurance coverage and income levels are the same as that of the latter.
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Baker, Robert. "In Defense of Bioethics." Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics 37, no. 1 (2009): 83–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-720x.2009.00353.x.
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Reading Scofield’s scathing indictment of my field, bioethics, reminded me of how it felt, as an American liberal committed to the cause of racial justice, to read Soviet diatribes against American racism published during the Cold War. I shared with the authors a deep commitment to rectify the injustices they protested. Yet, like Scofield, they proffered accounts of events so radically selective and decontextualized that their version of history seemed more akin to fiction than to fact.
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Stewart, Shontel. "Man’s Best Friend? How Dogs Have Been Used to Oppress African Americans." Michigan Journal of Race & Law, no. 25.2 (2020): 183. http://dx.doi.org/10.36643/mjrl.25.2.man.
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The use of dogs as tools of oppression against African Americans has its roots in slavery and persists today in everyday life and police interactions. Due to such harmful practices, African Americans are not only disproportionately terrorized by officers with dogs, but they are also subject to instances of misplaced sympathy, illsuited laws, and social exclusion in their communities. Whether extreme and violent or subtle and pervasive, the use of dogs in oppressive acts is a critical layer of racial bias in the United States that has consistently built injustices that impede social and legal progress. By recognizing this pattern and committing to an intentional effort to end the devaluation of African Americans, the United States can begin to address the trailing pawprints of its racial inequities.
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Knezevic, Zlatana. "A Cry for Care But not Justice: Embodied Vulnerabilities and the Moral Economy of Child Welfare." Affilia 35, no. 2 (September 30, 2019): 231–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0886109919878272.
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This study explores the pivotal role of the body for political recognition and rights claims in child welfare “moral” interventions. I examine how the bodily figures in child welfare assessments, linking these manifestations to the concept of the moral economy of care. A sample of assessment reports from a Swedish municipality, all addressing violations of children’s bodies or integrity, are used as empirical material. I show how the psychosomatically suffering child is being best “heard” as vulnerable. I also argue that such a moral economy of care silences children’s accounts of gendered and racial injustices. Furthermore, racialized moral divides are indicated when assessments of different child bodies are considered. A concluding remark points to a need for a child welfare moral economy of social justice that responds to structural intersecting injustices in childhoods, including to those of a racialized child welfare and its individualized and symptom-oriented services.
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Reese, Renford. "The Lack of Political Activism Among Today’s Black Student-Athlete." Journal of Higher Education Athletics & Innovation, no. 2 (September 29, 2017): 123–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.15763/issn.2376-5267.2017.1.2.123-131.
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The period of 1968-1972 was the only period in American sport history that black athletes were outwardly committed to the struggle for liberation and equality. Throughout American history, the black athlete has been socialized to be politically unconscious, inactive, and docile. During the era in which Dr. Harry Edwards led the revolt of the black athletes, the activism of the athletes matched the injustices that existed in American society. With the rise of the prison industrial complex, racial profiling, the extraordinary racial disparities in the criminal justice system, the disdain of our former black president, ubiquitous black poverty, and the incessant incidents of police brutality, this article examines how the activism of today’s black student-athletes does not match the glaring injustices that exist in American society. The protest by the University of Missouri’s football team in 2015, which resulted in the president of the university resigning, highlighted the power of black student-athletes when their voice is collective, animated, and purposeful. NCAA Division I athletics has become a $10 billion industry and black-student athletes are responsible for generating a significant amount of this revenue. Today, they have the leverage, influence, and power to change many policies that affect their own development and the condition of those in their communities. This paper examines the lack of activism and political consciousness among today’s black-student athletes.
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Whittemore, Andrew H. "The Experience of Racial and Ethnic Minorities with Zoning in the United States." Journal of Planning Literature 32, no. 1 (December 19, 2016): 16–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0885412216683671.
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To date, scholars have examined two common effects of zoning that disproportionately impact racial and ethnic minorities in the United States: (1) exclusionary effects, resulting from zoning’s erection of direct, discriminatory barriers or indirect, economic barriers to geographic mobility; and (2) intensive and expulsive effects, resulting from zoning’s disproportionate targeting of minority residential neighborhoods for commercial and industrial development. In light of recent legal and federal policy developments, continued research is needed to better understand the scale of the gap between the treatment of white and minority communities and to better understand how zoning can reverse past injustices.
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Corral, Álvaro J. "Allies, Antagonists, or Ambivalent? Exploring Latino Attitudes about the Black Lives Matter Movement." Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences 42, no. 4 (August 10, 2020): 431–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0739986320949540.
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While many Latinos suffer the injustices of racial profiling at the hands of law enforcement and immigration officials, differences in immigration status, racial identity, contact with the Black community, and the prevalence anti-Black sentiment pose challenges for coalition building with Blacks. This study explores the factors that lead to an avenue for allyship from the Latino community to the Black community. Using attitudes about the Black Lives Matter (BLM) movement, a series of hypotheses are tested to examine the structure of Latino-Black compared to white-Black coalitions. Two major findings emerge from the analysis; first, differences between whites and Latinos reveal that the effect of harboring anti-Black stereotypes are extraordinarily predictive of rejecting calls for racial social justice and combatting the scourge of police killings of unarmed Black men among whites but not among Latinos. Second, differences according to Latino racial identity and indicators of acculturation also impact support for the BLM movement in ways that both reaffirm but also challenge previous scholarship. These results suggest that while on the whole Latinos, and especially immigrants, are uninformed about BLM, once aware they exhibit a generally supportive stance toward the movement’s goals of criminal justice reform.
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Lopes, João Marques. "O colonialismo interno em O outro pé da sereia, de Mia Couto." Letras de Hoje 51, no. 4 (December 31, 2016): 565. http://dx.doi.org/10.15448/1984-7726.2016.4.26174.
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Neste artigo, sustentarei que, no romance O outro pé da sereia (2006), Mia Coutoestá preocupado com os efeitos do“colonialismo interno” (Walter Mignolo). Nos começos do século XXI, no Moçambique pós-colonial, o empresárioCasuarino e outras personagens do romance são agentes da “colonialidade do poder” transnacional e neo-liberal. Utilizam o “pós-colonialismo” e a “raça” para perpetuar hierarquias, desigualdades e injustiças à escala local, nacional e global. Pelo contrário, Mwadia, que é uma personagem de “fronteira”, desafia simultaneamente o “colonialismo interno” e a “colonialidade do poder” independentemente das limitações raciais.********************************************************************Internal colonialism in Mia Couto’s O outro pé da sereiaAbstract: In this article, I shall argue that Mia Couto’s novel O outro pé da sereia (2006) deals with the effects of the so-called “internal colonialism” (Walter Mignolo). At the beginning of 21th century, in post-colonial Mozambique, businessman Casuarino and other characters of the novel are agents of the transnational and neo-liberal “coloniality of power”. They utilize “post-colonialism” and “race” to perpetuate hierarchies, inequalities and injustices at local, national and global scales. On the contrary, Mwadia, which is a character that feels herself in a “in-between situation”, challenges altogether the “internal colonialism” and the “coloniality of power” regardless of racial boundaries. Keywords: Mia Couto; Internal colonialism; Coloniality of power; Post-colonialism
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Kinloch, Valerie, Carlotta Penn, and Tanja Burkhard. "Black Lives Matter: Storying, Identities, and Counternarratives." Journal of Literacy Research 52, no. 4 (October 29, 2020): 382–405. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1086296x20966372.
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In this academic counternarrative, we examine how Black students and adults get positioned by, and come to resist, discourses that favor dominant linguistic and cultural practices. We ask, How do Black youth and adults resist the gaze of whiteness, or dominant discourses, in schools and communities, and what are pedagogical implications of such resistances? We address these questions by discussing three contemporary examples of injustices experienced by Rachel Jeantel, Amariyanna Copeny, and Black youth who continue the activism of Colin Kaepernik. Thereafter, we analyze data from three research vignettes of Black teachers and Youth of Color who produce counternarratives through storying. In our conclusion, we advocate for a pedagogical agenda in literacy studies grounded in cultural equality and linguistic, racial, and social justice for Black people and other People of Color. We situate this work as an academic counternarrative—an analysis of young people’s unapologetic affirmation of Black humanity, brilliance, and power.
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Raine, Samuel, Amy Liu, Joel Mintz, Waseem Wahood, Kyle Huntley, and Farzanna Haffizulla. "Racial and Ethnic Disparities in COVID-19 Outcomes: Social Determination of Health." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 21 (November 3, 2020): 8115. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17218115.
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As of 18 October 2020, over 39.5 million cases of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and 1.1 million associated deaths have been reported worldwide. It is crucial to understand the effect of social determination of health on novel COVID-19 outcomes in order to establish health justice. There is an imperative need, for policy makers at all levels, to consider socioeconomic and racial and ethnic disparities in pandemic planning. Cross-sectional analysis from COVID Boston University’s Center for Antiracist Research COVID Racial Data Tracker was performed to evaluate the racial and ethnic distribution of COVID-19 outcomes relative to representation in the United States. Representation quotients (RQs) were calculated to assess for disparity using state-level data from the American Community Survey (ACS). We found that on a national level, Hispanic/Latinx, American Indian/Alaskan Native, Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islanders, and Black people had RQs > 1, indicating that these groups are over-represented in COVID-19 incidence. Dramatic racial and ethnic variances in state-level incidence and mortality RQs were also observed. This study investigates pandemic disparities and examines some factors which inform the social determination of health. These findings are key for developing effective public policy and allocating resources to effectively decrease health disparities. Protective standards, stay-at-home orders, and essential worker guidelines must be tailored to address the social determination of health in order to mitigate health injustices, as identified by COVID-19 incidence and mortality RQs.
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Mukherjee, Sahana, and Michael J. Perez. "All Americans are Not Perceived as “True” Americans: Implications for Policy." Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences 8, no. 1 (February 11, 2021): 34–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2372732220984806.
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The United States is a nation of immigrants with significant ethnic and racial diversity. Yet, American identity is associated with European-Americans and their cultural values, defining ethnic minorities as less American. Experiences of identity denial are associated with negative mental and physical health outcomes, as well as lower political and civic engagement. Perceptions of prototypical American-ness link to a wide range of social policy about language, affirmative action, and redistribution. A cultural psychological perspective analyzes the contexts that promote exclusive conceptions of American identity, and it focuses on individual people who make up these contexts. Policies that recognize minority-group cultures and acknowledge the historical injustices against them can promote inclusive conceptions of American identity.
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Noble, Donnette J. "Pratfalls, Pitfalls, and Passion: The Melding of Leadership and Social Justice." Creighton Journal of Interdisciplinary Leadership 1, no. 2 (November 16, 2015): 107. http://dx.doi.org/10.17062/cjil.v1i2.15.
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<p>Frequent conflicts over money, land, power, and other resources make it difficult for some societies to find or sustain any sense of equilibrium. Additionally, racial, ethnic, religious, socioeconomic, educational, and political injustices, among others, require that leaders increase their understanding and commitment to social justice. Such efforts are critical in light of the vastly disparate opinions and increasingly polarized positions at the heart of contentious relationships that exist among people. This paper explores the origins of social justice, discusses the definition and perceptions of social justice, introduces the relationship between social justice and leadership, addresses current social and environmental conditions, presents c n terms of addressing social justice, and offers implications for socially just leadership.</p><p> </p><p> </p>
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Walker, Vanessa Siddle. "Second-Class Integration: A Historical Perspective for a Contemporary Agenda." Harvard Educational Review 79, no. 2 (June 30, 2009): 269–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.17763/haer.79.2.b1637p4u4093484m.
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In this essay, Vanessa Siddle Walker invokes the voices of black educators who challenged the diluted and failed vision for an integrated South after the 1954 Brown v. Board of Education decision mandating school desegregation. Through collaboration and activism, these educators fought against the second-class integration implemented in the southern states and instead advocated for true equality and empowerment for black children entering integrated schools. Walker demonstrates that these educators' critiques are strikingly applicable to the present U.S. educational system,as they highlight our country's failure to provide educational equity despite decades of debate about its necessity and reforms to address the injustices. She advises President Obama's administration to incorporate these original visions of black educators in efforts to craft and advance a new vision for integration and racial equality in schools.
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Ford, Donna Y., Breshawn N. Harris, Janice A. Byrd, and Nicole McZeal Walters. "Blacked Out and Whited Out: The Double Bind of Gifted Black Females who are Often a Footnote in Educational Discourse." International Journal of Educational Reform 27, no. 3 (July 2018): 253–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/105678791802700302.
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Black females are often placed in a difficult position of facing barriers in educational, vocational, and social settings that relegate them to second-class status when compared to issues facing Black males and those facing White females. Sharing race with one and gender with the other, the lived experiences of Black females is understudied and perhaps even discounted in the increasing racial injustices facing Black males and sexism facing White females. In this article, the authors address these neglects in the context of gifted education and Advanced Placement. We attend to what has been written about gifted and/ or high-achieving Black females regarding areas that have been neglected and needs more attention to ensure that this student group is more than a footnote in educational and social justice work.
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Asey, Farid. "THE BODY, THE STRANGER, AND CORDON MINORITAIRE." Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race 18, no. 1 (2021): 181–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1742058x20000272.
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AbstractCanada is touted as a diverse, tolerant, and multicultural country where the prevailing understanding is that racial injustices emanating from structural oppression are not widespread. Analysing lived experiences of racialized participants who worked in publicly funded places of employment in British Columbia (BC), this qualitative study offers a phenomenological exploration of a particular manifestation of racial discrimination: that of quarantine-like containment of mobility at work. Examining undue restrictions and mobility limitations imposed on participants, this article will use three metaphors—stranger for racialized individuals, body for workplaces, and cordon minoritaire as the process of containing the mobility of strangers within the body—to present and discuss findings on: 1) excessive targeted scrutiny; 2) wrongful seating arrangements; 3) cold and transactional interactions; and, 4) bad faith references. In this regard, cordon minoritaire is presented as a novel analytical framework to illustrate the ways in which racialized workers were cordoned off, with their professional freedoms and career mobilities restricted, in order to quarantine White ecosystems of employment. Consequently, cordon minoritaire machinations created perniciously unequal conditions that fundamentally and unjustly constrained participants into working under discriminatory conditions—depravities that are at odds with whimsical notions of Canada as tolerant, multicultural, and morally superior to its neighbour south of the border.
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Vann, Michael G. "Caricaturing 'The Colonial Good Life' in French Indochina." European Comic Art 2, no. 1 (January 1, 2009): 83–108. http://dx.doi.org/10.3828/eca.2.1.6.
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André Joyeux's La Vie large des colonies ['The Colonial Good Life'] is an insider's portrait of the French colonial encounter in Southeast Asia. Published in Paris in 1912 but most likely penned in Saigon, the collection of cartoons explores the racial order of the colony. Although the artist critiques many aspects of the colony and highlights certain gross injustices, such as the coloniser's sexual predation and physical violence, he also articulates many of the bluntly racist French stereotypes of the Vietnamese, Chinese and other Asians in the colony. Joyeux, as an artist and as an art teacher, contributed to the development of cartoon and caricature as a medium in Vietnam, which would eventually be used in the anti-colonial, nationalist and communist movements. La Vie large des colonies is of importance as a primary source in the study of empire.
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Doucet, Andrea. "What does Rachel Carson have to do with family sociology and family policies? Ecological imaginaries, relational ontologies, and crossing social imaginaries." Families, Relationships and Societies 10, no. 1 (March 1, 2021): 11–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1332/204674321x16111320274832.
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In the past decade, multiple compounding crises ‐ ecological, racial injustices, ‘care crises’ and multiple recent crises related to the COVID-19 pandemic ‐ have reinforced the powerful role of critical and social policy researchers to push back against ‘fake news’, ‘alternative facts’, and a post-truth era that denigrates science and evidence-based research. These new realities can pose challenges for social scientists who work within relational, ontological, non-representational, new materialist, performative, decolonising, or ecological ‘turns’ in social theory and epistemologies. This article’s overarching question is: How does one work within non-representational research paradigms while also attempting to hold onto representational, authoritative and convincing versions of truth, evidence, facts and data? Informed by my research on feminist philosopher and epistemologist Lorraine Code’s 40-year trajectory of writing about knowledge making and ecological social imaginaries, I navigate these dilemmas by calling on an unexpected ally to family sociology and family policy: the late American environmentalist Rachel Carson. Extending Code’s case study of Carson, I argue for an approach that combines (1) ecological relational ontologies, (2) the ethics and politics of knowledge making, (3) crossing social imaginaries of knowledge making and (4) a reconfigured view of knowledge makers as working towards just and cohabitable worlds.
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Tepe, Sultan. "A Religious Movement on Trial: Transformative Years, Judicial Questions and the Nation of Islam." International Journal of Religion 1, no. 1 (November 22, 2020): 61–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.33182/ijor.v1i1.1229.
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The Nation of Islam (NOI) is one of the most controversial political-religious groups in the United States. Some define it as an exclusionary race-based group, while others see it as a genuine empowerment movement. Although it has been viewed as an unconventional fringe group, NOI represents an important syncretic movement of its time. Its approach to Islam was marked by a range of currents from the anti-colonial interpretive framework of the Ahmadiyya to Marcus Garvey's Universal Negro Improvement Association forging a highly dynamic narrative to explain the racial injustices and individual and collective requirements of future emancipation. Despite its strong anti-establishment discourse, NOI operates within the parameters legal and judicial system and seeks to reach out to new groups. As NOI faces the challenge of balancing its clashing inner currents rooted in its commitments to orthodox vs. vernacularized Islam or anti-systemic vs. accommodationist policies and often stigmatized by outside observers, it constitutes one of the most promising and precarious black movement.
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Gaiter, Colette. "Visualizing a Black Future: Emory Douglas and the Black Panther Party." Journal of Visual Culture 17, no. 3 (December 2018): 299–311. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1470412918800007.
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In the post-Civil Rights late 1960s, the Black Panther Party (BPP) artist Emory Douglas created visual messages mirroring the US Western genre and gun culture of the time. For black people still struggling against severe oppression, Douglas’s work metaphorically armed them to defend against daily injustices. The BPP’s intrepid and carefully constructed images were compelling, but conversely, they motivated lawmakers and law enforcement officers to disrupt the organization aggressively. Decades after mainstream media vilified Douglas’s work, new generations celebrate its prescient activism and bold aesthetics. Using empathetic strategies of reflecting black communities back to themselves, Douglas visualized everyday superheroes. The gun-carrying avenger/cowboy hero archetype prevalent in Westerns did not transcend deeply embedded US racial stereotypes branding black people as inherently dangerous. Douglas helped the Panthers create visual mythology that merged fluidly with the ideas of Afrofuturism, which would develop years later as an expression of imagined liberated black futures.
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Benz, Terressa A. "Toxic Cities: Neoliberalism and Environmental Racism in Flint and Detroit Michigan." Critical Sociology 45, no. 1 (June 3, 2017): 49–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0896920517708339.
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The consequences of neoliberal colorblind policies concerning environmental justice in Michigan are explored using critical race theorist Alan Freeman’s victim and perpetrator perspectives on legal decision-making. The victim perspective allows evidence of disparate impact to be proof of unequal protection under the law. The dominant perpetrator perspective requires proof of the intent to discriminate for a racial discrimination claim to be valid. Michigan’s environmental legal history is examined through the lens of these two perspectives, tracing how Michigan as a state, with the aid of the federal government, has institutionalized a racialized caste system of ‘worthiness’ for environmental protection through strict adherence to the perpetrator perspective. Specific attention is paid to the water crisis in Flint and a Marathon Oil refinery in Detroit. The injustices occurring at these locations are less the result of racist individuals than the product of decades of neoliberal colorblind policymaking supported and upheld in our court rooms.
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Sinclair-Chapman, Valeria, and Harry Targ. "Fusion Politics from the Poor People’s Campaign to the Rainbow Coalition to the New Poor People’s Campaign." Perspectives on Global Development and Technology 18, no. 1-2 (January 18, 2019): 24–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15691497-12341502.
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Abstract This article examines a model of fusion politics that connects activism to end poverty, and addresses a constellation of social injustices across more than a half century in the United States. We consider an articulation of fusion politics that highlights the actions of disparate groups and individuals, including youth, racial and ethnic minorities, women, LGBT activists, teachers, and union members who have joined in a cooperative effort to address independent but linked concerns such as quality public schools, livable wages, affordable healthcare, environmental justice, immigrant rights, women’s reproductive rights, fair elections, and criminal justice. Our analysis points out the historical links between the 1968 Poor People’s Campaign, the Rainbow Coalition of the 1980s, and the new Poor People’s Campaign launched in 2018. It draws heavily on the words and writings of Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr. and the Reverend William Barber, II in understanding the organizing, objectives, and transformative potential of these movements.
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Patrick, Stephanie. "You get to stop him! Gendered violence and interactive witnessing in Netflix’s Kimmy vs The Reverend." Critical Studies in Television: The International Journal of Television Studies 16, no. 1 (February 23, 2021): 30–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1749602020976914.
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Across four seasons of her Netflix hit comedy, Kimmy Schmidt emerged as a strong, female survivor of sexual violence. However, Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt would often walk a fine line between post-feminist and feminist understandings of rape and gendered violence, while reinforcing harmful racial tropes rooted in ‘white feminism’. In 2020, Netflix brought Kimmy back for her ‘biggest adventure yet’ in Kimmy vs the Reverend, but, this time, the viewer had the power, as the tagline read, to ‘decide what happens’, with Netflix’s interactive feature. The article argues that Netflix’s interactivity feature is employed in potentially transformative ways, providing a call-to-action to fans and implicating the audience as both spectators and witnesses to injustices of systemic violence against women. However, the 2020 film's investment in, and deployment of white feminist politics mirrors a broader media erasure of the experiences of racialised women, while closing down the interactive potential of identification across difference.
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Baliño Rios, Sofia. "Rebalancing the extra-judicial scales: Documentary aesthetics and the legacy of the Central Park Five." Synthesis: an Anglophone Journal of Comparative Literary Studies, no. 13 (July 19, 2021): 70. http://dx.doi.org/10.12681/syn.27562.
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The Central Park jogger case has returned to news headlines with the 2019 Netflix mini-series When They See Us, a dramatised account of the original trials. It has reignited debate over the injustices faced by the Black community in the United States, and led to lawsuits and job resignations on the part of former police investigators and prosecutors. Since the case’s inception, issues of race, media reporting, economics, and the identity of New York City have influenced the trial and its aftermath and have inspired documentaries, books, and the landmark 1990 essay “Sentimental Journeys” by Joan Didion. In this article, I argue that the creators of two of these works, by testing the boundaries of narrative, demonstrate that the case was inexorably tainted by a pervasive feeling of social precarity and racial prejudice which cost five young men several years of their lives, and offer a productive line of enquiry for acknowledging such factors and their influence, if not resolving them.
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Gunes, Ali. "The Deconstruction of the Cartesian Dichotomy of Black and White in William Blake’s The Little Black Boy." Journal of History Culture and Art Research 4, no. 2 (December 23, 2015): 144. http://dx.doi.org/10.7596/taksad.v4i2.455.
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This paper discusses English Romantic Poet William Blake’s anti-racial views in his poem The Little Black Boy. In so doing, it focuses upon how Blake attempts to deconstruct the Cartesian dichotomy of Western world view, a dichotomy which has usually been based on the theory that the universe has been ruled from its origins by two conflicting powers, one good and one evil, both existing as equally ultimate first causes. In this binary and hierarchal relationship, there are two essential terms in which one term is absolutely regarded as primary or fundamental in its essence, whereas the other term is considered secondary or something that lacks originality and presence. Once this equation is applied to the relationship between black and white people, it will easily be seen in the Western world that white people are always primary or fundamental to black-skinned people, and thus the perception behind this binary and hierarchal relationship seems the root of all the racial problems between black and white. This paper argues that Blake strives to deconstruct radically in The Little Black Boy the basis of this binary and hierarchal relationship which has been carried out for centuries in the Western world to segregate and then control the lives of black people. Finally, the paper maintains that Blake also shows a strong aspiration for creating an egalitarian society free of discrimination and injustices at a time when anti-slavery campaigns hit the top on both sides of Atlantic.
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Yesufu, Shaka. "Deaths of blacks in police custody: a black british perspective of over 50 years of police racial injustices in the United Kingdom." EUREKA: Social and Humanities, no. 4 (July 30, 2021): 33–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.21303/2504-5571.2021.001981.
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On 25 May 2020, the death of an unknown Blackman named George Floyd in the Minneapolis United States has led to a wave of global protests worldwide. The United Kingdom was not left out of these protests. The deaths of black people in police custody are not a new unfortunate phenomenon in the United Kingdom. The author looks at some of these deaths in the United Kingdom from a historical perspective, relying on both racial typologies theorists on one side and the responses, provided by Afrocentric theorists on race over time, on the other side. The author relies on several case studies of black deaths and secondary sources, arguing that racism can be held responsible for most of these killings by the police. The research findings are encapsulated in the trio unfortunate incidents of slavery, colonialism, and apartheid. These incidences have metamorphosed over time, becoming a social stigma black people wear from cradle to grave. The author suggests that police officers who murder black people and hide behind the wearing of uniforms should not be given immunity from justice. The author debunks the myth, suggesting that the life of a black person is often portrayed as worthless by whites folks. More findings are that both black lives and every human being's lives matter with great intrinsic value. No life must be wasted under the guise of policing. The right to life unarguably remains the most fundamental human right, which the state must protect at all times. Without the protection of life, all other fundamental human rights become meaningless.
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Shandler, Jeffrey. "¿Dónde están los Judíos en la “Vida Americana?”: Art, Politics, and Identity on Exhibit." IMAGES 13, no. 1 (December 2, 2020): 144–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/18718000-12340138.
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Abstract Vida Americana: Mexican Muralists Remake American Art, 1925–1945, an exhibition that opened at the Whitney Museum of American Art in February, 2020, proposed to remake art history by demonstrating the profound impact Mexican painters had on their counterparts in the United States, inspiring American artists “to use their art to protest economic, social, and racial injustices.” An unexamined part of this chapter of art history concerns the role of radical Jews, who constitute almost one half of the American artists whose work appears in the exhibition. Rooted in a distinct experience, as either immigrants or their American-born children, these Jewish artists had been making politically charged artworks well before the Mexican muralists’ arrival in the United States. Considering the role of left-wing Jews in this period of art-making would complicate the curatorial thesis of Vida Americana. Moreover, the exhibition’s lack of attention to Jews in creating and promoting this body of work raises questions about how the present cultural politics of race may have informed the analysis of this chapter of art history.
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Kubota, Ryuko. "Confronting Epistemological Racism, Decolonizing Scholarly Knowledge: Race and Gender in Applied Linguistics." Applied Linguistics 41, no. 5 (June 15, 2019): 712–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/applin/amz033.
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Abstract Recent scholarship in sociolinguistics and language education has examined how race and language intersect each other and how racism influences linguistic and educational practices. While racism is often conceptualized in terms of individual and institutional injustices, a critical examination of another form of racism—epistemological racism—problematizes how racial inequalities influence our knowledge production and consumption in academe. Highlighting the importance of the intersectional nature of identity categories, this conceptual article aims to draw scholars’ attention on how epistemological racism marginalizes and erases the knowledge produced by scholars in the Global South, women scholars of color, and other minoritized groups. In today’s neoliberal culture of competition, scholars of color are compelled to become complicit with white Euro-American hegemonic knowledge, further perpetuating the hegemony of white knowledge while marginalizing women scholars of color. Valorizing non-European knowledge and collectivity as an alternative framework also risks essentialism and male hegemony. Conversely, the ethics promoted by black feminism emphasizes a personal ethical commitment to antiracism. Epistemological antiracism invites scholars to validate alternative theories, rethink our citation practices, and develop critical reflexivity and accountability.
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Rule, Pauline. "The Transformative Effect of Australian Experience on the Life of Ho A Mei, 1838–1901, Hong Kong Community Leader and Entrepreneur." Journal of Chinese Overseas 9, no. 2 (2013): 107–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/17932548-12341256.
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Abstract Ho A Mei, one of the earliest young Chinese to receive a thorough English education in the colony of Hong Kong, spent ten difficult years from 1858 to 1868, striving to make a fortune in the gold rush Australian colony of Victoria. Here he learnt much about modern business practices and ventures and also protested against the racial hostility that the Chinese encountered. Eventually after his retreat back to Hong Kong and Guangdong Province, he was successful partly because of his experiences in the advanced capitalist economy of colonial Victoria. This led him to move beyond the mercantile enterprises and property buying, which were key activities of many Hong Kong Chinese businessmen, into the areas of modern financial and telegraph services and mining ventures. He also spoke out frequently in a provocative manner against the colonial government over injustices and discrimination that limited the rights and freedom of the Chinese in Hong Kong. During the 1880s and 1890s, he was a recognized Chinese community leader, one whose assertiveness on behalf of Chinese interests was not always appreciated by the Hong Kong authorities.
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Bond, Patrick. "SOUTH AFRICAN SOCIAL POLICY ‘TOKENISM’ AS AUSTERITY GRIPS." Africanus: Journal of Development Studies 46, no. 1 (December 9, 2016): 32–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.25159/0304-615x/1513.
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The South African government’s mandate was to transform state social policy and correct historic class, racial, gendered and other injustices. The main design patterns of economic and social policy during the 1990s-2000s, however, can be characterised respectively as ‘neoliberal’ (insofar as they favour the market) and ‘tokenistic’ (insofar as that part of the society that is not served by the market is provided only a small fraction of what is required to live a decent life). The state has sufficient resources and could tax or prevent profit outflows that would allow surpluses to be redistributed. But as part of a more general tendency to ‘talk left, walk right,’ the ruling party has declined to engage in substantive redistribution, risking the ire of its constituencies. The rise of left opposition forces coincides with a new top-down commitment to austerity, one that already began to fray by mid-2016. Only when those forces become more coherent, potentially by the time of the 2019 national election, will a full accounting of the damage of tokenistic social policy be possible, as part of a systemic effort to reverse course.Â
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Fifolt, Matthew, and Lisa C. McCormick. "Advancing Public Health Education Through Place-Based Learning: “On the Road in the Deep South”." Pedagogy in Health Promotion 6, no. 2 (March 27, 2019): 102–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2373379919839076.
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Documented health disparities among racial and ethnic minorities exist in the United States, and health injustices frequently have deep historical ties, especially in the South. Therefore, it is critically important for students to understand root causes of both historical and contemporary public health issues and their effects on population health. In spring 2018, 15 undergraduate and graduate students from the University of Alabama at Birmingham participated in a six-credit-hour travel course by touring throughout the Deep South to learn more about the ways in which history and place interact with programs, policies, and practices to influence population health. Students saw firsthand how the social determinants of health frequently affected access to health care and discovered the value of a multidisciplinary approach to public health and health programs in addressing health equity. The purpose of this article is to describe student experiences with the travel course through an exploration of students’ reflective journal entries, blog posts, and student presentations. Additionally, the authors report results of a self-assessment designed to measure student interest and level of comfort in working with, or on behalf of, medically underserved populations. The article concludes with implications for public health and best practices for offering place-based courses across academic majors.
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Hesselbein, Frances. "BATTLING RACIAL INJUSTICE." Leader to Leader 2020, no. 98 (June 26, 2020): 4–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ltl.20538.
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Matthew, D. C. "Racial Injustice, Racial Discrimination, and Racism." Social Theory and Practice 43, no. 4 (2017): 885–914. http://dx.doi.org/10.5840/soctheorpract201711226.
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Whitman, Dan. "OUTSMARTING APARTHEID: An Oral History of United States–South Africa Cultural and Educational Exchange, 1960–1999." Oral History Journal of South Africa 2, no. 2 (March 22, 2015): 95–107. http://dx.doi.org/10.25159/2309-5792/11.
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Outsmarting Apartheid is an oral history of educational and cultural exchange programs conducted by the United States Government with citizens of South Africa during the apartheid period. The “OA” collection, published in one volume by the University Press of the State University of New York in April of 2014, conveys the stories of those who administered the programs, as well as those who benefitted, during three troubled decades of South African history. The exchanges involved some 2-3000 participants during a dark period of social unrest and institutionalized injustices. Quietly in the background, U.S. diplomats and their South African colleagues bent rules and stretched limits imposed by the apartheid regime. Collectively they played cat-and-mouse games to outsmart the regime through conniving and bravado. The author’s year as executive director of the Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training (Arlington, Virginia), 2006-07, provided a methodology and archiving structure forming the basis of the interviews, conducted over a two-year period in the United States and South Africa. There was little optimism at the time for South Africa’s political or social future during the 1960-1990 period. After Nelson Mandela’s release from prison in 1990 and during his presidency of 1995-99, the country discovered rich cadres from within, of intellectuals, artists, journalists, scientists, and political leaders prepared to take on the task of constructing the New South Africa. In no small measure, these exchange programs contributed to the quick and sudden realization of suppressed wishes and aspirations for a majority of South Africa’s citizens -- of all ethnic and racial backgrounds.