Journal articles on the topic 'Race discrimination'
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1
Tomkins, Alan J. "Race discrimination." Behavioral Sciences & the Law 10, no. 2 (1992): 151–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/bsl.2370100202.
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Krasotkina, Anna, Antonia Götz, Barbara Höhle, and Gudrun Schwarzer. "Infants’ Gaze Patterns for Same-Race and Other-Race Faces, and the Other-Race Effect." Brain Sciences 10, no. 6 (May 29, 2020): 331. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/brainsci10060331.
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The other-race effect (ORE) can be described as difficulties in discriminating between faces of ethnicities other than one’s own, and can already be observed at approximately 9 months of age. Recent studies also showed that infants visually explore same-and other-race faces differently. However, it is still unclear whether infants’ looking behavior for same- and other-race faces is related to their face discrimination abilities. To investigate this question we conducted a habituation–dishabituation experiment to examine Caucasian 9-month-old infants’ gaze behavior, and their discrimination of same- and other-race faces, using eye-tracking measurements. We found that infants looked longer at the eyes of same-race faces over the course of habituation, as compared to other-race faces. After habituation, infants demonstrated a clear other-race effect by successfully discriminating between same-race faces, but not other-race faces. Importantly, the infants’ ability to discriminate between same-race faces significantly correlated with their fixation time towards the eyes of same-race faces during habituation. Thus, our findings suggest that for infants old enough to begin exhibiting the ORE, gaze behavior during habituation is related to their ability to differentiate among same-race faces, compared to other-race faces.
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Yang, Philip Q. "Race, Gender, and Perceived Employment Discrimination." Journal of Black Studies 52, no. 5 (June 15, 2021): 509–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/00219347211006486.
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This study investigates the effects of race and gender on perceived employment discrimination using the 2016 General Social Survey that provides new data on perceived employment discrimination that aligns more closely with the legal definition of employment discrimination. It is found that 19% of the American adults self-reported the experience of employment discrimination in job application, pay increase, or promotion in the past 5 years. The results of logistic regression analysis show that either controlling or not controlling for other factors, Blacks were much more likely to perceive being discriminated in employment than Whites, but other races were not significantly different from Whites in perceived employment discrimination after holding other variables constant. While gender did not have a significant independent effect on perceived job discrimination, it did interact with race to influence perceived job discrimination. Regardless of race, women were somewhat less likely than men to perceive job discrimination, but Black women were significantly even less likely than White women to self-report job discrimination, and Black men were much more likely to self-report employment discrimination than White men. These findings have implications for combating employment discrimination and addressing social inequalities.
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Furreed, Ralph, and Merthyr Tydfil. "Race and sex discrimination." Nursing Standard 11, no. 48 (August 20, 1997): 10. http://dx.doi.org/10.7748/ns.11.48.10.s21.
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Reskin, Barbara. "The Race Discrimination System." Annual Review of Sociology 38, no. 1 (August 11, 2012): 17–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-071811-145508.
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Brown, Colin. "Race relations and discrimination." Policy Studies 11, no. 2 (June 1990): 47–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01442879008423568.
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Dimond, Bridgit. "Step 51: Race discrimination." British Journal of Midwifery 11, no. 3 (March 2003): 152. http://dx.doi.org/10.12968/bjom.2003.11.3.11124.
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MEAD, GEOFFREY H. "SEX AND RACE DISCRIMINATION." Industrial Law Journal 17, no. 1 (1988): 188–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ilj/17.1.188.
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Daniels, Shanna, and LaDonna M. Thornton. "Race and workplace discrimination." Equality, Diversity and Inclusion: An International Journal 39, no. 3 (July 16, 2019): 319–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/edi-06-2018-0105.
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Purpose Drawing upon theories of modern discrimination, the present study focuses on cyber incivility and interpersonal incivility as mechanisms through which race leads to perceived discrimination. Participants included 408 full-time working adults who responded to an online survey. The results indicate that Non-White employees experience subtle forms of discrimination through the use of e-mail, which accentuate the need for organizations to eradicate workplace mistreatment so that their employees can avoid the adverse outcomes associated with experiencing cyber incivility. The purpose of this paper is to extend the understanding of selective incivility and concludes with directions for future research and practical implications. Design/methodology/approach Participants included 408 full-time working adults who responded to the survey online. Findings The results indicate that race was indirectly associated with discrimination through cyber incivility. The results indicate that Non-White employees experience subtle forms of discrimination through the use of technology and cyber space which accentuate the need for organizations to eradicate workplace incivility so that their employees can evade the adverse outcomes associated with experiencing incivility at work. Research limitations/implications This study extends the understanding of selective incivility and concludes with directions for future research and practical implications. Originality/value This paper is the first to explore the relationship between race, cyber incivility and discrimination.
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Lang, Kevin, and Ariella Kahn-Lang Spitzer. "Race Discrimination: An Economic Perspective." Journal of Economic Perspectives 34, no. 2 (May 1, 2020): 68–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/jep.34.2.68.
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We review the empirical literature in economics on discrimination in the labor market and criminal justice system, focusing primarily on discrimination by race. We then discuss theoretical models of taste-based discrimination, particularly models of frictional labor markets and models of statistical discrimination, including recent work on invalid statistical discrimination. We explore and evaluate the evidence for and against these theories. Although there is substantial evidence of the existence of discrimination, little is known about the extent to which disparities are driven by discrimination. Finally, we argue that economists miss the important self-enforcing relationship between disparities and discrimination and the effect of disparities in one domain on discrimination in other domains.
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Lane, Tom. "Along which identity lines does 21st-century Britain divide? Evidence from Big Brother." Rationality and Society 32, no. 2 (February 10, 2020): 197–222. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1043463120904049.
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This article measures discrimination in the reality TV show Big Brother, a high-stakes environment. Data on contestants’ nominations are taken from 35 series of the British version of the show, covering the years 2000–2016. Race and age discrimination are found, with contestants more likely to nominate those of a different race and those different in age from themselves. However, no discrimination is identified on the basis of gender, geographical region of origin, or level of education. Racial discrimination is driven by males, but females exhibit stronger age discrimination than males. Age discrimination is driven by the younger contestants discriminating against the older. Regional differences emerge, particularly between contestants from Greater London and those from the north of England; northerners have a stronger tendency to engage in racial and age discrimination, and to discriminate in favour of the opposite gender.
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Bacchini, Fabio, and Ludovica Lorusso. "Race, again: how face recognition technology reinforces racial discrimination." Journal of Information, Communication and Ethics in Society 17, no. 3 (August 12, 2019): 321–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/jices-05-2018-0050.
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Purpose This study aims to explore whether face recognition technology – as it is intensely used by state and local police departments and law enforcement agencies – is racism free or, on the contrary, is affected by racial biases and/or racist prejudices, thus reinforcing overall racial discrimination. Design/methodology/approach The study investigates the causal pathways through which face recognition technology may reinforce the racial disproportion in enforcement; it also inquires whether it further discriminates black people by making them experience more racial discrimination and self-identify more decisively as black – two conditions that are shown to be harmful in various respects. Findings This study shows that face recognition technology, as it is produced, implemented and used in Western societies, reinforces existing racial disparities in stop, investigation, arrest and incarceration rates because of racist prejudices and even contributes to strengthen the unhealthy effects of racism on historically disadvantaged racial groups, like black people. Practical implications The findings hope to make law enforcement agencies and software companies aware that they must take adequate action against the racially discriminative effects of the use of face recognition technology. Social implications This study highlights that no implementation of an allegedly racism-free biometric technology is safe from the risk of racially discriminating, simply because each implementation leans against our society, which is affected by racism in many persisting ways. Originality/value While the ethical survey of biometric technologies is traditionally framed in the discourse of universal rights, this study explores an issue that has not been deeply scrutinized so far, that is, how face recognition technology differently affects distinct racial groups and how it contributes to racial discrimination.
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Atrey, Shreya. "Structural Racism and Race Discrimination." Current Legal Problems 74, no. 1 (October 11, 2021): 1–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/clp/cuab009.
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Abstract What is the relationship between ‘racism’ and ‘race discrimination’? The paper explores this question. It shows that once we look beyond racism understood colloquially as individual bigotry, to racism understood in a structural sense as embedded in the social, economic, cultural and political dimensions of the State itself, it is possible to locate racism in the practice of discrimination law, within the category of race discrimination. Yet, discrimination law frequently fails to grasp structural racism. The paper reveals how this happens and in turn shows how race discrimination can be infiltrated with a structural view of racism. The overall purpose is to establish that discrimination law fails to be relevant in the face of contemporary forms of racism in the absence of a structural view.
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Rambe, Sri Astuti, and Asnani Asnani. "RACE DISCRIMINATION IN TONY KUSHNER’S MOVIE SCRIPT LINCOLN." JOURNAL OF LANGUAGE 3, no. 2 (November 29, 2021): 208–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.30743/jol.v3i2.4551.
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This research is concerned with the race discrimination in Tony Kushner’s movie script Lincoln. A story of four months of struggle of Lincoln and the Republican party and its supporters to pass the 13th amendment which formally abolished slavery in the United States passing the Senate on April 8, 1864, and the House on January 31, 1865 and approved by President Abraham Lincoln on February 1, 1865. The analysis focuses on the types of race discrimination: the direct and the indirect of race discrimination and the negative impacts of race discrimination adopted from Liliweri. This research used descriptive qualitative research. The one adopted in the research is proposed by Khotari and Bogdan Taylor. The finding shows that the direct race discrimination is an act of limiting a job based on race. It comes from black soldiers. There is also a tendency to discriminate between groups and beliefs with human law itself. The negative impacts of race discrimination are slavery and civil war. Furthermore, race discrimination also causes heavy casualties between whites and blacks by taking over place the territories of the minority.
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HEYWOOD, JOHN S. "Race Discrimination and Union Voice." Industrial Relations 31, no. 3 (September 1992): 500–508. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-232x.1992.tb00323.x.
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Chai, Shenglan, and Brian H. Kleiner. "Housing discrimination based on race." Equal Opportunities International 22, no. 3 (May 2003): 16–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/02610150310787405.
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Sidlo, Richard B., and Brian H. Kleiner. "Discrimination in Employment by Race." Equal Opportunities International 11, no. 2 (February 1992): 1–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/eb010567.
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Putri, Erischa Rahayu, Galant Nanta Adhitya, and Yohanes Angie Kristiawan. "Biracial Discrimination Recounted: A Deep Dive into The Meaning of Mariah Carey." Rubikon : Journal of Transnational American Studies 11, no. 1 (April 30, 2024): 37. http://dx.doi.org/10.22146/rubikon.v11i1.95660.
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Mariah Carey is an American singer and songwriter; whose mother is white, but her father is black. In 2020, she released The Meaning of Mariah Carey retracks Carey’s life as a biracial woman. This article explains how she is discriminated and reacts to the discrimination. The theories employed are Post-National American Studies; Blank, Dabady, and Citro’s types of discrimination; and Aguirre and Turner’s reaction to discrimination. When she was a kid, teenager, and young adult, the discrimination she endures is more intentional and explicit. The discrimination becomes subtler and more indirect, as she has cemented her status as a musical icon. The fact that she is still discriminated even after she has reached the peak of her superstardom suggests that biracial discrimination can happen to any mixed-race person, regardless of their socioeconomic class. Discrimination comes from both sides of the race. The article signifies how the discrimination faced by mixed-raced people are both similar, but also different from the experiences of other minorities.
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Parker, Lauren J., Haslyn Hunte, and Anita Ohmit. "Discrimination in Health Care: Correlates of Health Care Discrimination Among Black Males." American Journal of Men's Health 11, no. 4 (May 7, 2015): 999–1007. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1557988315585164.
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Using data from the Indiana Black Men’s Health Study ( N = 455), a community-based sample of adult Black men, the primary aim of this study was to explore factors of health care discrimination, and to examine if such reports differed by age and the frequency of race thoughts. Approximately one in four men reported experiencing discrimination in the health care setting. Results from the multivariable logistic regression models suggested that frequent race thoughts (odds ratio [ OR]: 1.89, p < .05), not having health insurance ( OR: 1.80, p < .05), and increased depressive symptomology ( OR: 1.06, p < .01) were positively associated with reports of health care discrimination. A multiplicative interaction coefficient of age and frequency of race thoughts was included to determine if health care discrimination differed by age and frequency of race thoughts ( OR: 1.03, p = .08). Results from the predicted probability plot suggested that the likelihood of experiencing health care discrimination decreases with age ( OR: 0.97, p < .05). In particular, results suggested that between the ages of 33 and 53 years, Black men who experienced frequent race thoughts were more likely to report experiences of discrimination in the health care setting than men of the same age that did not experience frequent race thoughts. These results highlight the need for empirical work to better understand the experiences of Black men, a group less likely to utilize health care services than most adult groups within the health care setting.
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Bastos, João Luiz, Aluisio J. D. Barros, Roger Keller Celeste, Yin Paradies, and Eduardo Faerstein. "Age, class and race discrimination: their interactions and associations with mental health among Brazilian university students." Cadernos de Saúde Pública 30, no. 1 (January 2014): 175–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/0102-311x00163812.
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Although research on discrimination and health has progressed significantly, it has tended to focus on racial discrimination and US populations. This study explored different types of discrimination, their interactions and associations with common mental disorders among Brazilian university students, in Rio de Janeiro in 2010. Associations between discrimination and common mental disorders were examined using multiple logistic regression models, adjusted for confounders. Interactions between discrimination and socio-demographics were tested. Discrimination attributed to age, class and skin color/race were the most frequently reported. In a fully adjusted model, discrimination attributed to skin color/race and class were both independently associated with increased odds of common mental disorders. The simultaneous reporting of skin color/race, class and age discrimination was associated with the highest odds ratio. No significant interactions were found. Skin color/race and class discrimination were important, but their simultaneous reporting, in conjunction with age discrimination, were associated with the highest occurrence of common mental disorders.
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Yona, Lihi. "Whiteness at Work." Michigan Journal of Race & Law, no. 24.1 (2018): 111. http://dx.doi.org/10.36643/mjrl.24.1.whiteness.
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How do courts understand Whiteness in Title VII litigation? This Article argues that one fruitful site for such examination is same-race discrimination cases between Whites. Such cases offer a peek into what enables regimes of Whiteness and White supremacy in the workplace, and the way in which Whiteness is theorized within Title VII adjudication. Intra-White discrimination cases may range from associational discrimination cases to cases involving discrimination against poor rural Whites, often referred to as “White trash.” While intragroup discrimination is acknowledged in sex-discrimination cases and race-discrimination cases within racial minority groups, same-race discrimination between Whites is currently an under-theorized phenomenon. This Article maps current cases dealing with racial discrimination between Whites, arguing that these cases suffer from under-theorization stemming from courts’ tendency to de-racialize Whiteness and see White people as ‘not being of any race.’ This tendency has led to a limited doctrine of same-race discrimination between Whites, affording it recognition only when racial minorities are involved. Acknowledging Whiteness as a racial project— the product of White supremacy—may enable courts to better theorize intra-White discrimination. Such possible theorization is developed via the stereotype doctrine. Accordingly, same-race discrimination and/or harassment between Whites is often a result of Whites policing other Whites to conform to stereotypes and expectations regarding Whiteness, i.e., how White people should act or with whom they may associate. Recognizing dynamics of intra-White racialization and the racial work behind Whiteness, this Article concludes, is aligned with Title VII’s antisubordination goals, as it is in the interest of racial minorities as well.
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Farmer, Heather R., Linda A. Wray, and Jason R. Thomas. "Do Race and Everyday Discrimination Predict Mortality Risk? Evidence From the Health and Retirement Study." Gerontology and Geriatric Medicine 5 (January 2019): 233372141985566. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2333721419855665.
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Everyday discrimination is a potent source of stress for racial minorities, and is associated with a wide range of negative health outcomes, spanning both mental and physical health. Few studies have examined the relationships linking race and discrimination to mortality in later life. We examined the longitudinal association among race, everyday discrimination, and all-cause mortality in 12,081 respondents participating in the Health and Retirement Study. Cox proportional hazards models showed that everyday discrimination, but not race, was positively associated with mortality; depressive symptoms and lifestyle factors partially accounted for the relationship between everyday discrimination and mortality; and race did not moderate the association between everyday discrimination and mortality. These findings contribute to a growing body of evidence on the role that discrimination plays in shaping the life chances, resources, and health of people, and, in particular, minority members, who are continuously exposed to unfair treatment in their everyday lives.
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Stepanikova, Irena, and Gabriela R. Oates. "Dimensions of Racial Identity and Perceived Discrimination in Health Care." Ethnicity & Disease 26, no. 4 (October 20, 2016): 501. http://dx.doi.org/10.18865/ed.26.4.501.
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<p class="Pa7"><strong>Objective: </strong>Perceived discrimination is an important risk factor for minority health. Drawing from the scholarship on multidimensionality of race, this study examines the relationships between perceived discrimination in health care and two dimensions of racial identity: self-identified race/ethnicity and perceived attributed race/ ethnicity (respondents’ perceptions of how they are racially classified by others).</p><p class="Pa7"><strong>Methods: </strong>We used Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System data collected in 2004- 2013 and we specifically examined the data on perceived racial discrimination in health care during the past 12 months, perceived attributed race/ethnicity, and self-identified race/ethnicity.</p><p class="Pa7"><strong>Results: </strong>In models adjusting for sociodemographic and other factors, both dimensions of racial/ethnic identity contributed independently to perceived discrimination in health care. After controlling for self-identified race/ethnicity, respondents who reported being classified as Black, Asian, Hispanic, and Native American had higher likelihood of perceived discrimination than respondents who reported being classified as White. Similarly, after taking perceived attributed race/ethnicity into account, self-identified Blacks, Native Americans, and multiracial respondents were more likely to report perceived discrimination than counterparts who self-identified as White. The model using only perceived attributed race/ ethnicity to predict perceived discrimination showed a superior fit with the data than the model using only self-identified race/ ethnicity.</p><p class="Pa7"><strong>Conclusion: </strong>Perceived attributed race/ ethnicity captures an aspect of racial/ethnic identity that is correlated, but not interchangeable, with self-identified race/ethnicity and contributes uniquely to perceived discrimination in health care. Applying the concept of multidimensionality of race/ ethnicity to health disparities research may reveal understudied mechanisms linking race/ethnicity to health risks.</p><p class="Pa7"><em>Ethn Dis. </em>2016;26(4):501-512; doi:10.18865/ ed.26.4.501</p><p><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><br /></span></span></p>
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Perone, Angela. "Discrimination in Long-Term Care Facilities: Legal Consciousness and Problem-Solving Among Staff." Innovation in Aging 5, Supplement_1 (December 1, 2021): 500. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/geroni/igab046.1932.
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Abstract Over half of direct care workers in long-term care facilities are women of color. Building on legal consciousness theory–which explains how individuals invoke legal principles to define everyday experiences–this study examines how staff understand and resolve discrimination between residents and staff and among staff. This study employs a multi-method qualitative extended comparative case approach. Data includes in-depth semi-structured interviews (n=80) and participant and non-participant observation (n=8 months) at two facilities that vary in staff racial composition. Findings reveal rampant unreported instances of race and sex discrimination toward Black staff by white staff and residents. Black staff at all levels did not invoke rights or discrimination rhetoric when they experienced overt race discrimination by residents but engaged in significant emotional labor to respond to race discrimination by residents. Black staff, however, perceived microaggressions and unequal treatment by white staff as discrimination. At both facilities, floor staff and management adopted diverse team approaches across race and staff hierarchy for responding to race discrimination by residents toward Black female staff. These findings suggest the need for new and targeted policy and practice approaches that recognize extensive emotional labor expended by staff of color when addressing discrimination by residents and challenges from white staff when addressing race discrimination by staff. These findings have theoretical implications by extending legal consciousness theory to multi-level staff understandings of discrimination. Findings also provide useful tools and case examples for policymakers and practitioners interested in racial justice, particularly given how COVID has exacerbated racial inequities in long-term care.
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Anderson, Deborah J., and Samuel Cohn. "Race, Gender, and Discrimination at Work." Industrial and Labor Relations Review 54, no. 2 (January 2001): 375. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2696016.
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Sawyer, Tonya L. "Equal Protection: Race and Ethnicity Discrimination." Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance 93, no. 4 (May 4, 2022): 55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07303084.2022.2050154.
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Dyer, Owen. "BMA settles in race discrimination cases." BMJ 328, no. 7449 (May 13, 2004): 1154.5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.328.7449.1154-d.
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Galster, George C., and W. Mark Keeney. "Race, Residence, Discrimination, and Economic Opportunity." Urban Affairs Quarterly 24, no. 1 (September 1988): 87–117. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/004208168802400106.
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Majewski, John. "The Economics of Race and Discrimination." Economic Affairs 8, no. 3 (February 1988): 23–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0270.1988.tb01547.x.
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Joly, Danièle, and Jim Beckford. "“Race” Relations and Discrimination in Prison." Journal of Immigrant & Refugee Studies 4, no. 2 (May 22, 2006): 1–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1300/j500v04n02_01.
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Mays, Vickie M., Susan D. Cochran, and Namdi W. Barnes. "Race, Race-Based Discrimination, and Health Outcomes Among African Americans." Annual Review of Psychology 58, no. 1 (January 2007): 201–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.57.102904.190212.
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Lai, Lei. "The Model Minority Thesis and Workplace Discrimination of Asian Americans." Industrial and Organizational Psychology 6, no. 1 (March 2013): 93–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/iops.12015.
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In the focal article, Ruggs et al. (2013) observed that there is a dearth of racial discrimination research beyond the traditional White–Black or White–nonWhite comparisons in the industrial–organizational (I–O) literature and urged researchers to treat each minority race separately because individuals may have unique experiences with discrimination based on different racial stereotypes associated with their race/ethnicity. I agree with the above assessments. Moreover, I argue that the overlook of negative consequences of positive stereotypes of some marginalized groups, such as Asian Americans, is another “missed opportunity” that has not been addressed in the focal article. Specifically, the traditional paradigm, which tends to exclusively focus on how negative stereotypes of a marginalized group (e.g., Blacks, individuals with disabilities) lead to workplace discriminations against them, may be too narrowly focused. In this commentary, I use Asian Americans as an example to illustrate how seemingly positive stereotypes, the model minority thesis, may also lead to workplace discrimination of Asian Americans, an often overlooked minority group in the discrimination literature.
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Beatty Moody, Danielle L., Shari R. Waldstein, Daniel K. Leibel, Lori S. Hoggard, Gilbert C. Gee, Jason J. Ashe, Elizabeth Brondolo, Elias Al-Najjar, Michele K. Evans, and Alan B. Zonderman. "Race and other sociodemographic categories are differentially linked to multiple dimensions of interpersonal-level discrimination: Implications for intersectional, health research." PLOS ONE 16, no. 5 (May 19, 2021): e0251174. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0251174.
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Objectives To examine whether intersections of race with other key sociodemographic categories contribute to variations in multiple dimensions of race- and non-race-related, interpersonal-level discrimination and burden in urban-dwelling African Americans and Whites. Methods Data from 2,958 participants aged 30–64 in the population-based Healthy Aging in Neighborhoods of Diversity across the Life Span (HANDLS) study were used to estimate up to four-way interactions of race, age, gender, and poverty status with reports of racial and everyday discrimination, discrimination across multiple social statuses, and related lifetime discrimination burden in multiple regression models. Results We observed that: 1) African Americans experienced all forms of discrimination more frequently than Whites, but this finding was qualified by interactions of race with age, gender, and/or poverty status; 2) older African Americans, particularly African American men, and African American men living in poverty reported the greatest lifetime discrimination burden; 3) older African Americans reported greater racial discrimination and greater frequency of multiple social status-based discrimination than younger African Americans; 4) African American men reported greater racial and everyday discrimination and a greater frequency of social status discrimination than African American women; and, 5) White women reported greater frequency of discrimination than White men. All p’s < .05. Conclusions Within African Americans, older, male individuals with lower SES experienced greater racial, lifetime, and multiple social status-based discrimination, but this pattern was not observed in Whites. Among Whites, women reported greater frequency of discrimination across multiple social statuses and other factors (i.e., gender, income, appearance, and health status) than men. Efforts to reduce discrimination-related health disparities should concurrently assess dimensions of interpersonal-level discrimination across multiple sociodemographic categories, while simultaneously considering the broader socioecological context shaping these factors.
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Hendricksen, Meghan, Jeffrey Stokes, Sarah Forrester, and Beth Dugan. "DOES DISCRIMINATION MODERATE THE RELATIONSHIP OF AGE, GENDER, AND RACE WITH HEALTH OUTCOMES IN OLDER ADULTS?" Innovation in Aging 6, Supplement_1 (November 1, 2022): 13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/geroni/igac059.046.
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Abstract Discrimination and experiences of prejudice are a social determinant of health, with potential consequences at the individual, interpersonal, and systemic levels. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between discrimination experienced by older adults and health outcomes. Data were drawn from 13,290 participants from the Health and Retirement Study, who completed the Leave Behind Questionnaire in 2012 or 2014. Logistic regressions were conducted to examine relationships between age, gender, and race/ethnicity and self-reported health (SRH), risk of stroke, and heart attack. Interaction terms were tested for everyday discrimination and age, gender, and race/ethnicity, then for health discrimination and age, gender, and race/ethnicity. Results found associations between age, gender, and race and SRH, stroke, and heart attack. Everyday discrimination moderated the association between gender and risk of heart attack, where differences in men and women’s risk of heart attack were exacerbated at higher levels of discrimination. Similarly, everyday discrimination moderated the association between race and risk of heart attack, where differences in white and non-white participant’s risk of heart attack were exacerbated at higher levels of discrimination. Experiences of discrimination in healthcare moderated associations between gender and both SRH and heart attack. Reduction in experiences of discrimination in all settings, but especially in healthcare, should be a top priority. Future work in the field of research around discrimination and health outcomes should address the mechanisms that are a product of historical systemic racism, ageism, and misogyny that impact the everyday lives of older adults, people of color, and women.
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Wu, Yuning, and Liqun Cao. "Race/ethnicity, discrimination, and confidence in order institutions." Policing: An International Journal 41, no. 6 (December 3, 2018): 704–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/pijpsm-03-2017-0031.
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PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to propose and test a conceptual model that explains racially/ethnically differential confidence in order institutions through a mediating mechanism of perception of discrimination.Design/methodology/approachThis study relies on a nationally representative sample of 1,001 respondents and path analysis to test the relationships between race/ethnicity, multiple mediating factors, and confidence in order institutions.FindingsBoth African and Latino Americans reported significantly lower levels of confidence compared to White Americans. People who have stronger senses of being discriminated against, regardless of their races, have reduced confidence. A range of other cognitive/evaluative variables have promoted or inhibited people’s confidence in order institutions.Research limitations/implicationsThis study relies on cross-sectional data which preclude definite inferences regarding causal relationships among the variables. Some measures are limited due to constraint of data.Practical implicationsTo lessen discrimination, both actual and perceived, officials from order institutions should act fairly and impartially, recognize citizen rights, and treat people with respect and dignity. In addition, comprehensive measures involving interventions throughout the entire criminal justice system to reduce racial inequalities should be in place.Social implicationsEqual protection and application of the law by order institutions are imperative, so are social policies that aim to close the structural gaps among all races and ethnicities.Originality/valueThis paper takes an innovative effort of incorporating the currently dominant group position perspective and the injustice perspective into an integrated account of the process by which race and ethnicity affect the perception of discrimination, which, in turn, links to confidence in order institutions.
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Powell, Cedric M. "The Post-Racial Deception of the Roberts Court." SMU Law Review 77, no. 1 (2024): 7–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.25172/smulr.77.1.3.
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Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard/UNC (SFFA) is a post-racial deception unmoored from precedent and societal reality. SFFA deceives the polity and signals an all out assault on anti-discrimination law. To preserve its institutional legitimacy, the Roberts Court promotes doctrinal and conceptual distortions—post-racial deceptions of cognizable injuries advanced through reverse discrimination claims of white plaintiffs; racial proxy claims of discrimination proffered by Asian-Americans; and the fairness rationale of the Court’s circular post-racial edict that “the way to stop discrimination on the basis of race is to stop discriminating on the basis of race.” Chief Justice Roberts’s majority opinion discards the anti-subordination principle of the Fourteenth Amendment and replaces it with a post-racial anti-differentiation principle: “Eliminating racial discrimination means eliminating all of it.” Expanding the circularity of Chief Justice Roberts’s post-racialism even further, Justice Thomas’s concurrence offers an ostensibly originalist reinterpretation of the Fourteenth Amendment that erases the race-conscious history of the Reconstruction Amendments and reframes it as the codification of the Declaration of Independence. Rejecting this post-racial deception, Justices Sotomayor and Jackson, in dissent, foreground the anti-subordination principle as the essential doctrinal core of the Fourteenth Amendment and offer a rebuke of the Court’s facile post-racialism with a comprehensive discussion of systemic racism, structural inequality, and the present-day effects of past discrimination. The Court’s post-racial constitutionalism is a post-racial deception which must be discredited and rejected if we are to ever achieve the multi-racial democracy promised by the Second Founding.
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Karim, Syed Faisal. "Race and Gender Discrimination in Toni Morrison's Jazz." International Journal of English Literature and Social Sciences 8, no. 6 (2023): 247–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.22161/ijels.86.37.
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In her 1992 novel Jazz, Toni Morrison—an African American Nobel laureate—examines the ways in which African American women experience various forms of discrimination. This paper investigates the discriminations involving race, class, and gender and portrays Harlem as a discriminatory setting in the novel, using the qualitative technique on the bibliographic study. Jazz tells the story of the hardships faced by African American women who settled in Harlem at the beginning of the 20th century. The female African American characters in the book, who are still troubled by memories of slavery, find themselves oppressed both inside their own black community and in the society that is ruled by white people. In the book, Harlem is referred to as "the City" and describes itself as the relational setting where black women encounter the overlapping alienation and subjection from their racial, social class, and gender roles.
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Yi, Eun-Hye, Michin Hong, and Cherish Bolton. "RACIAL DISCRIMINATION IN HEALTHCARE SETTINGS OF OLDER ADULTS: SUBJECTIVE REASONS AND CONTRIBUTORS." Innovation in Aging 6, Supplement_1 (November 1, 2022): 474. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/geroni/igac059.1835.
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Abstract Racism is prevalent in the United States; however, literature exploring racial discrimination experienced by older adults is still limited. The current study examined subjective reasons for discrimination and compared race/ethnic groups. Then, we examined the contributors to racial discrimination in healthcare settings. An older adult sample aged 55 or higher was drawn from California Health and Interview Survey 2017 for analysis (N=12,261). African Americans were the highest (13.06%) among five racial-ethnic groups who reported racial discrimination experienced in a lifetime in getting medical care, while Whites were the lowest (1.57%). Perceived reasons for discrimination were significantly different by racial/ethnic group. Only 3.5% of Whites perceived they were discriminated against due to their race, whereas racial/ethnic minorities perceived the main reason for discrimination was their race/skin color (African American: 55.43%, Others: 24.06%, Asian Americans: 20.26%, Hispanics: 18.22%). The weighted logistic regression analyses revealed that being a racial/ethnic minority, economic status, mental health status, citizenship, the length of living in the United States, and age were significantly associated with the experience of racial discrimination of older people. Analyses by race/ethnic groups found different contributors. For example, poverty was the most prominent factor in racial discrimination for Whites, while education was for African Americans. This study identified an apparent gap in lifetime discrimination toward racial/ethnic minority older people. Also, we found racial discrimination experience combined with systematic barriers. The findings of this study support the need for interventions for race/ethnicity-based trauma of older people and anti-racism framework education for healthcare professionals and researchers.
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Addai-Mununkum, Theresah, and Rexford Boateng Gyasi. "Our skin is trouble: Racial discourse in Athol Fugard’s Sizwe Bansi is Dead, Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness and Wole Soyinka’s ‘Telephone Conversation’." International Journal of Comparative Literature and Translation Studies 9, no. 2 (July 25, 2021): 24. http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.ijclts.v.9n.2p.24.
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The recent incident in Minneapolis, United States, where George Floyd, an African-American man, was manhandled by a police officer has brought about the resurgence of racial awareness as championed by the Black Lives Matter Movement. The concept of race has shaped the lives of so many generations and continues to do so in the 21st century. Racial segregation as well as the public hysteria on racism has had so much influence on societies and has led to discrimination and racial slurs across races. Using Critical Race Theory, this study examines racial discourse in Athol Fugard’s Sizwe Bansi is Dead, Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness and Wole Soyinka’s ‘Telephone Conversation’. The analysis of the discourse reveals racial tendencies in the description of the black race through white-black (Self/Other) binary (racial segregation), race-based discrimination and animal metaphors. The paper contributes to scholarship on racial discourses and foregrounds the function of language in depicting the racial orientation of characters in literary texts.
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Heymann, Jody, Sheleana Varvaro-Toney, Amy Raub, Firooz Kabir, and Aleta Sprague. "Race, ethnicity, and discrimination at work: a new analysis of legal protections and gaps in all 193 UN countries." Equality, Diversity and Inclusion: An International Journal 42, no. 9 (February 1, 2023): 16–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/edi-01-2022-0027.
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PurposeWhile only one aspect of fulfilling equal rights, effectively addressing workplace discrimination is integral to creating economies, and countries, that allow for everyone's full and equal participation.Design/methodology/approachLabor, anti-discrimination, and other relevant pieces of legislation were identified through the International Labor Organization's NATLEX database, supplemented with legislation identified through country websites. For each country, two researchers independently coded legislation and answered questions about key policy features. Systematic quality checks and outlier verifications were conducted.FindingsMore than 1 in 5 countries do not explicitly prohibit racial discrimination in employment. 54 countries fail to prohibit unequal pay based on race. 107 countries prohibit racial and/or ethnic discrimination but do not explicitly require employers to take preventive measures against discrimination. The gaps are even larger with respect to multiple and intersectional discrimination. 112 countries fail to prohibit discrimination based on both migration status and race and/or ethnicity; 103 fail to do so for foreign national origin and race and/or ethnicity.Practical implicationsBoth recent and decades-old international treaties and agreements require every country globally to uphold equal rights regardless of race. However, specific national legislation that operationalizes these commitments and prohibits discrimination in the workplace is essential to their impact. This research highlights progress and gaps that must be addressed.Originality/valueThis is the first study to measure legal protections against employment discrimination based on race and ethnicity in all 193 UN countries. This study also examines protection in all countries from discrimination on the basis of characteristics that have been used in a number of settings as a proxy for racial/ethnic discrimination and exclusion, including SES, migration status, and religion.
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Segar, Matthew W., Byron C. Jaeger, Kershaw V. Patel, Vijay Nambi, Chiadi E. Ndumele, Adolfo Correa, Javed Butler, et al. "Development and Validation of Machine Learning–Based Race-Specific Models to Predict 10-Year Risk of Heart Failure: A Multicohort Analysis." Circulation 143, no. 24 (June 15, 2021): 2370–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/circulationaha.120.053134.
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Background: Heart failure (HF) risk and the underlying risk factors vary by race. Traditional models for HF risk prediction treat race as a covariate in risk prediction and do not account for significant parameters such as cardiac biomarkers. Machine learning (ML) may offer advantages over traditional modeling techniques to develop race-specific HF risk prediction models and to elucidate important contributors of HF development across races. Methods: We performed a retrospective analysis of 4 large, community cohort studies (ARIC [Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities], DHS [Dallas Heart Study], JHS [Jackson Heart Study], and MESA [Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis]) with adjudicated HF events. The study included participants who were >40 years of age and free of HF at baseline. Race-specific ML models for HF risk prediction were developed in the JHS cohort (for Black race–specific model) and White adults from ARIC (for White race–specific model). The models included 39 candidate variables across demographic, anthropometric, medical history, laboratory, and electrocardiographic domains. The ML models were externally validated and compared with prior established traditional and non–race-specific ML models in race-specific subgroups of the pooled MESA/DHS cohort and Black participants of ARIC. The Harrell C-index and Greenwood-Nam-D’Agostino χ 2 tests were used to assess discrimination and calibration, respectively. Results: The ML models had excellent discrimination in the derivation cohorts for Black (n=4141 in JHS, C-index=0.88) and White (n=7858 in ARIC, C-index=0.89) participants. In the external validation cohorts, the race-specific ML model demonstrated adequate calibration and superior discrimination (Black individuals, C-index=0.80–0.83; White individuals, C-index=0.82) compared with established HF risk models or with non–race-specific ML models derived with race included as a covariate. Among the risk factors, natriuretic peptide levels were the most important predictor of HF risk across both races, followed by troponin levels in Black and ECG-based Cornell voltage in White individuals. Other key predictors of HF risk among Black individuals were glycemic parameters and socioeconomic factors. In contrast, prevalent cardiovascular disease and traditional cardiovascular risk factors were stronger predictors of HF risk in White adults. Conclusions: Race-specific and ML-based HF risk models that integrate clinical, laboratory, and biomarker data demonstrated superior performance compared with traditional HF risk and non–race-specific ML models. This approach identifies distinct race-specific contributors of HF.
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Layton, Matthew L., and Amy Erica Smith. "Is It Race, Class, or Gender? The Sources of Perceived Discrimination in Brazil." Latin American Politics and Society 59, no. 1 (2017): 52–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/laps.12010.
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AbstractObservers have long noted Brazil's distinctive racial politics: the coexistence of relatively integrated race relations and a national ideology of “racial democracy” with deep social inequalities along color lines. Those defending a vision of a nonracist Brazil attribute such inequalities to mechanisms perpetuating class distinctions. This article examines how members of disadvantaged groups perceive their disadvantage and what determines self-reports of discriminatory experiences, using 2010 AmericasBarometer data. About a third of respondents reported experiencing discrimination. Consistent with Brazilian national myths, respondents were much more likely to report discrimination due to their class than to their race. Nonetheless, the respondent's skin color, as coded by the interviewer, was a strong determinant of reporting class as well as race and gender discrimination. Race is more strongly associated with perceived “class” discrimination than is household wealth, education, or region of residence; female gender intensifies the association between color and discrimination.
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Abrokwa, Alice. ""When They Enter, We All Enter": Opening the Door to Intersectional Discrimination Claims Based on Race and Disability." Michigan Journal of Race & Law, no. 24.1 (2018): 15. http://dx.doi.org/10.36643/mjrl.24.1.when.
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This Article explores the intersection of race and disability in the context of employment discrimination, arguing that people of color with disabilities can and should obtain more robust relief for their harms by asserting intersectional discrimination claims. Professor Kimberlé Crenshaw first articulated the intersectionality framework by explaining that Black women can experience a form of discrimination distinct from that experienced by White women or Black men, that is, they may face discrimination as Black women due to the intersection of their race and gender. Likewise, people of color with disabilities can experience discrimination distinct from that felt by people of color without disabilities or by White people with disabilities due to the intersection of their race and disability. Yet often our legal and cultural institutions have been reluctant to acknowledge the intersectional experience, preferring instead to understand people by a singular trait like their race, gender, or disability. While courts have recognized the validity of intersectional discrimination claims, they have offered little guidance on how to articulate and prove the claims, leaving compound and complex forms of discrimination unaddressed. This Article thus offers an analysis of how courts and litigants should evaluate claims of workplace discrimination based on the intersection of race and disability, highlighting in particular the experience of Black disabled individuals. Only by fully embracing intersectionality analysis can we realize the potential of antidiscrimination law to remedy the harms of those most at risk of being denied equal opportunity.
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Ryan, James E. "Race Discrimination in Education: A Legal Perspective." Teachers College Record: The Voice of Scholarship in Education 105, no. 6 (August 2003): 1087–118. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/016146810310500605.
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This paper was prepared for the Panel on Methods for Assessing Discrimination, National Academy of Sciences, Committee on National Statistics. It describes the formal legal definitions of race discrimination in education, demonstrates how those definitions are applied in various contexts, and highlights the role that social science evidence has played and could play in the cases. The paper argues that what currently counts as race discrimination in education and how such discrimination is proven are, from a legal perspective, at once both straightforward and complex questions. They are straightforward because the formal legal definitions are simple enough to grasp. The questions are complex because at times the formal definitions of race discrimination are modified in their application, and also because some important questions about how to apply those definitions in a particular case or context remain unanswered. The paper offers some suggestions as to how these lingering questions could be answered and describes the limited role that social science evidence could play in shaping the answers. It also highlights the irony that, under the current legal definitions of race discrimination, it is much easier to block voluntary integration efforts designed to assist minority (and white) students than it is to block practices that unintentionally disadvantage minority students.
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Barry, Caroline M., Brady A. Garrett, Melvin D. Livingston, Terrence K. Kominsky, Bethany J. Livingston, and Kelli A. Komro. "Perceived Racial/Ethnic Discrimination and Depressive Symptoms among Adolescents Living in the Cherokee Nation." American Indian and Alaska Native Mental Health Research 29, no. 1 (March 2022): 22–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.5820/aian.2901.2022.22.
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The objective of this study was to examine the longitudinal relationship between perceived racial/ethnic discrimination and depressive symptoms among adolescents living in the Cherokee Nation, as well as the potential moderating roles of race and social support. Self-reported survey data were analyzed from a sample of high school students (n = 1,622) who identified as American Indian only, American Indian and White, and White only. Compared to students who reported no discrimination on the basis of race, those who reported ever having experienced discrimination scored, on average, 1.62 units higher on the depressive symptoms scale six months later (p = .0001, 95% CI: 0.90, 2.33), while adjusting for age, race, gender, baseline depressive symptoms, enrollment in a free/reduced-price lunch program, and social support. Discrimination intensity did not significantly predict depressive symptoms among those reporting some frequency of discrimination. Race and social support did not modify either effect. These findings may inform development of interventions to promote mental health among American Indian adolescents.
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LIAO, HUNG-CHANG, and YA-HUEI WANG. "THE DEMARGINALIZATION OF FEMALE DISCOURSES: ON THE INTERSECTIONAL DISCRIMINATIONS AGAINST WOMEN IN THE HELP." LINGUISTICA 13, no. 1 (March 3, 2024): 27. http://dx.doi.org/10.24114/jalu.v13i1.56472.
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This paper aimed to examine the unfair treatment and inequality among women by using and assessing the racial, class, and gender perspectives. It also demonstrated the intersectional discrimination against women, and how it brought the oppression and subordination of women in the private and public spheres, which can be characterized as violations of basic human rights and obstacles to the attainment of women’s equality, development, and integrity. In order to further demonstrate the intersectional discrimination against women, the researchers took The Help as a case study to compare various oppressive situations of White middle-class and African-American women and depict how the multiple and overlapped forms of oppression and structural discrimination should be taken into consideration to address the intersectional discriminations against women, particularly African American women. This study adopted latent-content analysis, including primary and secondary resources, as a qualitative method to facilitate analysis of underlying content. The study further concentrated on the diverse perspectives of women to observe various forms of discrimination and examine how the intersectionality of race, class, and gender affects their experiences and conditions of being discriminated. While reflecting upon the discrimination and oppression of the underprivileged genders, races and social classes, readers may manage to deconstruct the “intersectionality” and better empathize with those who are marginalized.
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Howard, Erica. "Race and Racism – Why does European Law have Difficulties with Definitions?" International Journal of Comparative Labour Law and Industrial Relations 24, Issue 1 (March 1, 2008): 5–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/ijcl2008002.
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Abstract: Within Europe, a number of legislative instruments provide protection against racism and race/racial discrimination, but definitions of the terms race and racism are mostly absent from these instruments. This paper examines the different terms used in the different instruments and the definitions given. Particular attention is given to the question as to whether the grounds mentioned can be extended to cover discrimination based on race/racial or ethnic origin, colour, descent, nationality, national origin and religion or belief. Another question discussed is whether common definitions/interpretations of the terms race, racism and racial discrimination should exist in Europe and, if so, from which source these should be drawn.
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Rodríguez-García, Dan. "The Persistence of Racial Constructs in Spain: Bringing Race and Colorblindness into the Debate on Interculturalism." Social Sciences 11, no. 1 (January 2, 2022): 13. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/socsci11010013.
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In this article, I argue that persisting racial constructs in Spain affect conceptions of national belonging and continue to shape and permeate contemporary discriminations. I begin by describing several recent political events that demonstrate the urgent need for a discussion about “race” and racialization in the country. Second, some conceptual foundations are provided concerning constructs of race and the corollary processes of racism and racialization. Third, I present data from various public surveys and also from ethnographic research conducted in Spain on mixedness and multiraciality to demonstrate that social constructs of race remain a significant boundary driving stigmatization and discrimination in Spain, where skin color and other perceived physical traits continue to be important markers for social interaction, perceived social belonging, and differential social treatment. Finally, I bring race into the debate on managing diversity, arguing that a post-racial approach—that is, race-neutral discourse and the adoption of colorblind public policies, both of which are characteristic of the interculturalist perspectives currently preferred by Spain as well as elsewhere in Europe—fails to confront the enduring effects of colonialism and the ongoing realities of structural racism. I conclude by emphasizing the importance of bringing race into national and regional policy discussions on how best to approach issues of diversity, equality, anti-discrimination, and social cohesion.
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Lopez, Acacia, Rachel Scott, Marin Olson, and Danielle Nadorff. "RACIAL TRAUMA IN EMERGING ADULTS RAISED BY GRANDPARENTS: PROTECTING AGAINST DISCRIMINATION." Innovation in Aging 6, Supplement_1 (November 1, 2022): 261. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/geroni/igac059.1034.
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Abstract Experiences of racial trauma are linked with psychopathology, but a strong ethnic identity may serve as a protective factor. Grandparents primarily influence the development of ethnic identity, and BIPOC children are increasingly being raised by grandparents. Secure attachments influence stronger ethnic identities, yet custodial grandchildren are at higher risk of disrupted attachments. The current study investigated whether ethnic identity would mediate the relation between attachment and racial trauma symptoms in emerging adults previously raised by their grandparents and their peers (N = 370; 33% raised by grandparents; 25.6% non-white), with race as a moderator. Across all races, there were group differences in symptoms of racial trauma, with those not raised by grandparents experiencing a direct effect of race on ethnic identity. Attachment was a significant predictor of trauma symptoms of discrimination, moderated by race. Implications may provide support for clinical interventions addressing attachment and ethnic identity to decrease trauma symptoms.
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Farmer, Heather, and Alexis Ambroise. "THE MODERATING ROLE OF PURPOSE IN LIFE IN THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DISCRIMINATION AND COGNITION." Innovation in Aging 7, Supplement_1 (December 1, 2023): 23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/geroni/igad104.0077.
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Abstract Discrimination is a source of chronic stress disproportionately experienced by Black adults that has been associated with worse cognitive outcomes in older adults. Few studies have explored modifiable resilience resources that may protect people from the possible negative impacts of discrimination on cognition. Sense of purpose refers to an individual’s perception of future-oriented goals and direction in life, and is a key resource associated with better cognition. However, no studies have explored whether greater purpose may buffer older adults against the negative impacts of discrimination on cognition or whether there are race differences in the stress-buffering impact of purpose on cognition. We use data from 9,775 Non-Hispanic White and 1,687 Black adults in the 2006 to 2016 waves of the Health and Retirement Study (HRS) to explore whether purpose in life moderates the association between everyday discrimination and cognitive functioning and whether this relationship varies by race. Discrimination was measured using the Everyday Discrimination Scale, which assesses how frequently an individual reports unfair and differential treatment (range, 0-5, where higher scores indicate more frequent discrimination). Multilevel linear regression models revealed that frequent discrimination was associated with worse cognition (b=-0.34, p<.001), controlling for age, gender, race/ethnicity, region, and urbanicity. There was a significant discrimination x purpose interaction (b=0.16, p<.001), suggesting that purpose may buffer the discrimination-cognition association. However, there was a non-significant discrimination x purpose x race interaction. This research suggests a strong sense of purpose can protect people from experiencing worse cognition when faced with frequent discrimination.