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Published: 10 March 2023

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1

Tempini, Nadia. Fortress Europe: EC external trade relations and new protectionism. London: PNL Press, 1990.

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2

The resistible appeal of fortress Europe. London: Trade Policy Unit of the Centre for Policy Studies, 1994.

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3

Hindley, Brian. Helping transition through trade?: EC and US policy towards exports from Eastern and Central Europe. London: European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, 1993.

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4

Csaba, László. The political economy of trade regimes in Central Europe. London: Centre for Economic Policy Research, 1994.

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5

1948-, Sutton John, and Batchelor R. A, eds. Protection and industrial policy in Europe. [London]: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1985.

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6

1946-, Baldassarri Mario, Imbriani Cesare, and Salvatore Dominick, eds. The international system between new integration and neo-protectionism. New York, N.Y: St. Martin's Press in association with Rivista di Politica Economica, SIPI, Rome and CEIS, University 'Tor Vergata', Rome, 1996.

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7

La défense du travail national?: L'incidence du protectionnisme sur l'industrie en Europe, 1870-1914. Paris: Presses de l'Université Paris-Sorbonne, 2009.

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8

Economic nationalism and development: Central and Eastern Europe between the two world wars. Boulder, Colo: Westview Press, 1997.

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9

R, Lignelli Paula, ed. European Union and trade barriers in Europe. New York: Nova Science Publishers, 2008.

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10

International trade in the 1970s: The US, the EC, and the growing pressure of protectionism. London: Bloomsbury, 2013.

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11

Free trade areas, the European experience: What lessons for Canadian-U.S. trade liberalization? Toronto: C.D. Howe Institute, 1987.

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12

Trade protection in the European Community. Chur, Switzerland: Harwood Academic Publishers, 1992.

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13

Measuring the costs of protection in Europe: European commercial policy in the 2000s. Washington, DC: Institute for International Economics, 2001.

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14

Hufbauer, Gary Clyde. Measuring the costs of protection in the United States. Washington, DC: Institute for International Economics, 1994.

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15

United States. Congress. House. Committee on Foreign Affairs. Subcommittee on International Economic Policy and Trade., ed. Europe 1992: Administration views : hearing before the Subcommittees on Europe and the Middle East, and on International Economic Policy and Trade of the Committee on Foreign Affairs, House of Representatives, One Hundred First Congress, second session, February 20, 1990. Washington: U.S. G.P.O., 1990.

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16

Europe 1992: Economic integration plan : hearings before the Subcommittees on Europe and the Middle East, and on International Economic Policy and Trade of the Committee on Foreign Affairs, House of Representatives, One Hundred First Congress, first session, February 23, March 23, April 5, 13, May 10 and 11, 1989. Washington [D.C.]: U.S. G.P.O., 1989.

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17

Die Lokalfertigung als Strategie der Investitionsgüterindustrie: Mit besonderer Berücksichtigung des Protektionismus. Bern: P. Lang, 1985.

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18

Protection for exporters: Power and discrimination in transatlantic trade relations, 1930-2010. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2010.

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19

Company law and economic protectionism. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010.

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20

Engel, Eduardo M. R. A. Poisoned grapes, mad cows and protectionism. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1999.

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21

Escudero, Manuel López. Los obstáculos técnicos al comercio en la Comunidad Económica Europea. Granada: Servicio de Publicaciones de la Universidad de Granada, 1991.

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22

Protectionism to Liberalisation: Ireland and the EEC, 1957 to 1966: Ireland and the EEC, 1957 to 1966. London: Taylor and Francis, 2017.

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23

Droga na skroty: Nacjonalizm gospodarczy w Ameryce Lacinskiej i Europie Srodkowo-Wschodniej w epoce pierwszej globalizacji: kategorie, analiza, kontekst porownawczy. Warszawa: Instytut Studiow Politycznych PAN, 2005.

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24

Mētsos, Achilleas. Hē Hellēnikē viomēchania stē diethnē agora: Kratikē prostasia kai antagōnistikē thesē tēs enchōrias paragōgēs prin kai meta tēn entaxē stēn Eurōpaikē Koinotēta. [Athens]: Themelio, 1989.

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25

Kofman, Jan. Nacjonalizm gospodarczy-szansa czy bariera rozwoju: Przypadek Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej w okresie międzywojennym. Warszawa: Wydawn. Nauk. PWN, 1992.

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26

Goh, Chor-ching. Trade protection and industry wage structure in Poland. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, 2005.

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27

Goh, Chor-ching. Trade protection and industry wage structure in Poland. [Washington, D.C: World Bank, 2005.

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28

Globalisation vs. sovereignty?: The European response : the 1997 Rede lecture and related speeches. Cambridge, U.K: Cambridge University Press, 1998.

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29

Gerig, Martin. Vollendung des EU-Energiebinnenmarktes vs. nationale Marktabschottungen: Europarechtskonformität mitgliedstaatlicher Fördermassnahmen und Kapazitätsmärkte am Beispiel Deutschlands. Frankfurt am Main: PL Academic Research, 2014.

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30

Olga, Memedović, Kuyvenhoven Arie, Molle Willem, and Workshop on Multilateralism and Regionalism in the Post-Uruguay Round Era: What Role for the EU? (1997 : Rotterdam, Netherlands), eds. Multilateralism and regionalism in the post-Uruguay Round era: What role for the EU? Boston: Kluwer Academic, 1999.

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31

Dormois, Jean-P. Classical Trade Protectionism 1815-1914 Fortress Europe. Routledge, 2006.

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32

Salvatore, Dominick, Mario Baldassarri, and Cesare Imbriani. International System Between New Integration and Neo-Protectionism. Palgrave Macmillan, 1996.

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33

Economic Nationalism and Development: Central and Eastern Europe Between the Two World Wars. Taylor & Francis Group, 2019.

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34

Kofman, Jan. Economic Nationalism and Development: Central and Eastern Europe Between the Two World Wars. Taylor & Francis Group, 2019.

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35

Marsh, Peter T. Bargaining on Europe: Britain and the First Common Market, 1860-1892. Yale University Press, 2000.

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36

Barca, Giuseppe La. International Trade in The 1970s: The US, the EC and the Growing Pressure of Protectionism. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc, 2014.

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37

Kofman, Jan. Economic Nationalism and Development: Central and Eastern Europe Between the Two World Wars. Taylor & Francis Group, 2019.

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38

Epstein, Rachel A. Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198809968.003.0001.

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The paradox of financial control refers to the fact that while most governments resent or resist incursions on national bank ownership or management, European states with high levels of foreign bank ownership paid much lower costs through the recent financial crises than countries that had pursued banking sector protectionism. Europe is an ideal setting in which to investigate this paradox because extreme banking sector openness in the East coincided with banking sector protectionism in many western Eurozone countries. The otherwise homogenous institutional context of the European Union therefore revealed with precision the disparate effects of marketized bank–state ties through foreign bank ownership versus national control over banks via domestic ownership or management. While foreign bank ownership mitigated economic volatility in crises, marketized bank–state ties also limited or threatened to limit economic policy autonomy.
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39

Taylor-Gooby, Peter, Benjamin Leruth, and Heejung Chung. The Context. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198790266.003.0001.

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Welfare states across Europe are changing: the future will not be like the past. This chapter examines the economic, social, and political challenges that have confronted European welfare states during the past fifteen years, including globalization and the post-industrial transformation, population ageing and shifts in family life, the ascendancy of neo-liberalism, and the growth of populist nationalism. It identifies new directions in policy: neo-liberal austerity; individual responsibility; neo-Keynesian interventionism; social investment; predistribution; fightback; and welfare chauvinism or protectionism. It argues that the European welfare state is undergoing radical transformation. Whether the European tradition of state intervention to meet the needs of citizens will survive in all countries is at present unclear.
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40

Epstein, Rachel A. Conclusion. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198809968.003.0006.

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The study’s findings from Europe have implications for other major powers, including that: (1) banking sector protectionism became increasingly costly given other liberalizing trends; (2) foreign-owned bank subsidiaries can provide more stable funding in crises than alternative foreign or even domestic bank activity; (3) foreign domination in finance limited catching up in the global economy, but in fact few states showed the capacity to exploit domestic banks for national goals; and (4) centralized bank governance through European Banking Union weakened bank–state ties in Europe, and elevated the role of markets there. This chapter analyzes the relevance of the findings for the BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa). China is perhaps the clearest case of a country struggling to both liberalize and retain the economic policy autonomy associated with a largely state-controlled financial system. The conclusion specifies the broader transformation in bank–state ties, but also its limits.
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41

Trade Policy, Protectionism and the Third World. Taylor & Francis Group, 2017.

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42

Doe, John. Trade Policy, Protectionism and the Third World. Routledge, 2019.

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43

Nikoletta, Kleftouri. 3 The European Deposit Insurance Framework. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/law/9780198743057.003.0003.

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The euro’s launch in 1999 accelerated the integration of Europe’s financial markets. Upheavals in the banking sector and debt markets since 2007 have, however, both reinforced (regulatory and supervisory reforms) and halted (government protectionism) this development. The latter ‘renationalization’ process was accentuated by the enormous amounts of state aid that national governments channelled to banks through public loans, capital injections, and guarantees. The European Union consequently faced two equally important and complex challenges—plugging regulatory and supervisory gaps to prevent future crises, while limiting the economic damage of the crisis—which the chapter reviews from a depositor protection perspective. The chapter examines the guiding 1994 Deposit Guarantee Schemes Directive, and identifies relevant regulatory and supervisory reforms that have taken place since 2007, including the 2014 recast Directive and creation of the European Banking Authority. It concludes by offering an overview of the main critiques of these regulatory and supervisory developments.
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44

Fitzgerald, Maurice. Protectionism to Liberalisation : Ireland and the EEC, 1957 to 1966: Ireland and the EEC, 1957 To 1966. Taylor & Francis Group, 2017.

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45

Epstein, Rachel A. High and Low Levels of Foreign Bank Ownership. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198809968.003.0002.

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Global data on foreign bank ownership shows that the advanced industrial and major emerging economies have low levels of foreign bank ownership—a clear rebuke to marketized bank–state ties. Among developing and smaller emerging economies, however, foreign bank ownership levels are significantly higher on average. The chapter explains the divergence, highlighting both perceived advantages of banking sector protectionism, as well as specific pressures brought to bear on weaker states that forced banking market opening in the context of crisis or transition. Mirroring global trends, West European protectionism juxtaposed against East Central European openness appeared to be a case of stronger states exploiting weaker ones. But the consequences were in fact more complicated. West European banking nationalism was a key source of the European debt and currency crisis and financial fragmentation. And while West Europeans were paying trillions to save their banks, East Europeans largely escaped those fiscal burdens.
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46

Taylor-Gooby, Peter, Benjamin Leruth, and Heejung Chung, eds. After Austerity. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198790266.001.0001.

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European welfare states are undergoing profound change, driven by globalisation, technical changes, and population ageing. More immediately the aftermath of the Great Recession and unprecedented levels of immigration have imposed additional pressures. This book examines welfare state transformations across a representative range of European countries and at the EU level, and considers likely new directions in social policy. It reviews the dominant neo-liberal austerity response and discusses social investment, fightback, welfare chauvinism and protectionism. It argues that the class solidarities and cleavages that shaped the development of welfare states are no longer powerful. Tensions surrounding divisions between old and young, women and men, immigrants and denizens, and the winners in a new more competitive world and those who feel left behind are becoming steadily more important. European countries have entered a period of greater political instability and this is reflected in policy directions. Austerity predominates nearly everywhere, but patterns of social investment, protectionism, neo-Keynesian intervention and fightback vary between countries. We identify areas of convergence and difference in European welfare state futures.
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47

Sweet, Alec Stone, and Clare Ryan. Beyond Borders. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198825340.003.0007.

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This chapter charts the growing capacity of the European Court to protect the rights of those who are not citizens of member states of the Council of Europe. The Court’s sustained commitment to robustly enforcing the right to life, the prohibition of torture and inhuman treatment, and the right to a court and judicial remedy facilitated the development of three strains of cosmopolitan jurisprudence. The first operationalizes the Kantian principle of hospitality, covering expulsion, extradition, and the treatment of refugees. The second extends protections to persons whose rights have been violated by states who are not parties to the Convention, or by state parties exercising jurisdiction outside of Convention territory. The third instantiates dialogues with other treaty-based regimes when it comes to overlapping obligations to protect rights. These dialogues suggest that constitutional pluralism is an emergent property of the structure of international law beyond Europe.
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48

Trade Protection in the European Community. Taylor & Francis Group, 2017.

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49

Schuknecht, Ludger. Trade Protection in the European Community. Taylor & Francis Group, 2019.

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50

Craig, Paul, and Gráinne de Búrca. 18. Free Movement of Goods:. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/he/9780198714927.003.0018.

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All books in this flagship series contain carefully selected substantial extracts from key cases, legislation, and academic debate, providing able students with a stand-alone resource. This chapter deals with Member State action that creates barriers to trade. The most obvious form of protectionism occurs through customs duties or charges that have an equivalent effect, with the object of rendering foreign goods more expensive than their domestic counterparts. This is addressed by Articles 28-30 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU). A state may also attempt to benefit domestic goods by taxes that discriminate against imports, which is covered by Articles 110-113 TFEU. These issues are considered within the chapter.
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