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Journal articles on the topic 'Protandry'

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Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 20 February 2023

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1

Morbey, Yolanda. "Protandry in Pacific salmon." Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 57, no. 6 (June 1, 2000): 1252–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/f00-064.

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Protandry, the earlier arrival of males to the spawning grounds than females, has been reported in several studies of Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.). However, the reasons for protandry in salmon are poorly understood and little is known about how protandry varies among and within populations. In this study, protandry was quantified in a total of 105 years using gender-specific timing data from seven populations (one for pink salmon (O. gorbuscha), three for coho salmon (O. kisutch), two for sockeye salmon (O. nerka), and one for chinook salmon (O. tshawytscha)). Using a novel statistical procedure, protandry was found to be significant in 90% of the years and in all populations. Protandry may be part of the males' strategy to maximize mating opportunities and may facilitate mate choice by females.

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2

Banik, M. V. "Sharp Differences in the Timing of Male and Female Spring Arrival in the European Stonechat, Saxicola Rubicola, and the Whinchat, S. Rubetra (Passeriformes, Muscicapidae), in North-Eastern Ukraine." Vestnik Zoologii 53, no. 6 (December 1, 2019): 483–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/vzoo-2019-0043.

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Abstract Protandry, or the arrival of males prior to females to the breeding grounds is a widespread phenomenon in migratory birds though rarely examined in related species in which its manifestation can vary. European Stonechat and Whinchat are such a pair studied with use of individual marking in North-Eastern Ukraine in 1993–2008. An apparent protandry was found in Whinchat but not in European Stonechat. The difference between the arrival dates of male and female Whinchats (6 days) was significant. The mean time span between territory establishment by a male and subsequent pair formation was 10.6 days. By contrast, 38% of the first records of European Stonechats in spring were those of already paired birds and the difference between arrival dates of both sexes was non-significant. The proximate cause of protandry in Whinchat and its’ absence in European Stonechat seems to be the differences (or the lack thereof) in the onset of spring migration. The time lapse between the start of migration of male and female Whinchats originates at African wintering grounds and is maintained en route. The absence of the protandry in European Stonechat is probably a relict behaviour from the residency. The protandry in migratory populations of this species is yet to be developed.

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3

Richter, Alexandra, and Ángel A. Luque. "Sex change in two Mediterranean species of Coralliophilidae (Mollusca: Gastropoda: Neogastropoda)." Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom 84, no. 2 (April 2004): 383–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0025315404009324h.

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Sex ratio and size–gender distribution of Coralliophila meyendorffii and Babelomurex cariniferus collected in the field was studied. While sex ratio did not depart from the expected Fisher 1:1 ratio for dioecious species, the size–frequency distributions showed clearly a sexual size dimorphism with males significantly smaller than females. Laboratory monitoring of penis reduction in both species, combined with an anatomical and histological study of the reproductive system of individuals reducing penis revealed the existence of transitional sexual stages, proving the existence of protandry. Penis monitoring also demonstrated a high plasticity in size at sex change, suggesting a socially controlled sex change. In C. meyendorffii, where penis monitoring followed an experimental design based on the assumption that protandry existed and that presence of females influenced sex change, results strongly supported a social control of sex change. Evidences for protandry in other coralliophilids are summarized and protandry as a widespread sexual strategy in Coralliophilidae is postulated.

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4

Aizen, Marcelo A., and Alicia Basilio. "Within and among flower sex-phase distribution in Alstroemeria aurea (Alstroemeriaceae)." Canadian Journal of Botany 73, no. 12 (December 1, 1995): 1986–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/b95-213.

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Although dichogamy is a prevailing feature of the angiosperms, the simultaneous change from male to female phases among hermaphrodite flowers within a plant (i.e., synchronous protandry) has been reported for only a few families (e.g., Araliaceae, Umbelliferae). Here we present an example of synchronous protandry at the ramet level in the Alstroemeriaceae. Dichogamy was analyzed in clonal Alstroemeria aurea at the flower, ramet, and at the whole flowering patch level. Alstroemeria aurea is self-compatible but totally dependent on biotic agents for pollen transfer. There was evidence of strong inbreeding depression expressed during seed development. Comparisons of seed set in open-pollinated flowers with those obtained after hand selfing and outcrossing resulted in a selfing rate of 0.3. At the flower level protandry was complete. The male phase lasted about 4 days and the female phase lasted about 3 days. Between the female and male phase, there was an approximately 1-day long "neuter" phase. Flowering ramets produce a terminal inflorescence bearing one or more whorls of flowers. Within a ramet, flowers of the same order opened within a period of 1–2 days, and male and female phases of different flowers did not overlap. When inflorescences held two whorls of flowers, the ramet went through two alternating non-overlapping male–female cycles. Using spatial autocorrelation techniques, we found little evidence for pairs of neighboring ramets expressing the same sexual phase beyond random expectations at any scale ranging between 0.25 to 15 m. By ensuring pollen interchange between flowering ramets, synchronized protandry at the ramet level could be an important feature in reducing selfing in A. aurea. Key words: Alstroemeria aurea, dichogamy, synchronous protandry, inbreeding depression.

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5

Zonneveld, C. "Polyandry and protandry in butterflies." Bulletin of Mathematical Biology 54, no. 6 (November 1992): 957–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02460661.

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6

ZONNEVELD, C. "Polyandry and protandry in butterflies." Bulletin of Mathematical Biology 54, no. 6 (November 1992): 957–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0092-8240(05)80090-4.

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7

Zonneveld, C. "Sperm Competition Cannot Eliminate Protandry." Journal of Theoretical Biology 178, no. 1 (January 1996): 105–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/jtbi.1996.0010.

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8

Laubenheimer, Helio, and Andrew L. Rhyne. "Experimental confirmation of protandric simultaneous hermaphroditism in a Caridean shrimp outside of the genus Lysmata." Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom 88, no. 2 (March 2008): 301–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0025315408000702.

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Caridean shrimps display a variety of sexual systems including gonochorism and various forms of protandry but rarely simultaneous hermaphroditism. Protandric simultaneous hermaphroditism (PSH) has thus far only been demonstrated in the genus Lysmata. The first report of simultaneous hermaphroditism in a caridean shrimp was with Exhippolysmata ensirostris. However, this was not confirmed, since this species was also considered to be strictly protandric. Therefore, inconclusive results about this species' true sexual system led us to examine Exhippolysmata oplophoroides. Mating between female phase individuals resulted in successful spawning, embryonic development and hatching of viable larvae. Furthermore, we have confirmed that this species is not capable of self-fertilization. Juveniles reared in the laboratory matured in a similar manner to that of Lysmata. Data were limited due to the loss of all individuals to a Vibrio infection. However, the results obtained in this study conclusively affirm functionally that PSH occurs outside the genus Lysmata, in E. oplophoroides. Theories examining the evolution of PSH within decapods must be re-examined in light of the present data.

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9

MØller, Anders Pape. "Protandry, sexual selection and climate change." Global Change Biology 10, no. 12 (December 2004): 2028–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2004.00874.x.

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10

McDonald, R. S., and J. H. Borden. "Protandry in Delia antiqua (Diptera: Anthomyiidae)." Annals of the Entomological Society of America 88, no. 6 (November 1, 1995): 756–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/aesa/88.6.756.

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11

Mills, Alexander M. "Protogyny in Autumn Migration: Do Male Birds ”Play Chicken”?" Auk 122, no. 1 (January 1, 2005): 71–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/auk/122.1.71.

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AbstractProtandry, the earlier arrival of males than of females on breeding areas, occurs in many taxa, including many migratory birds. Numerous hypotheses have been generated to explain protandry. Using bird-banding records, I show that protogyny, the earlier migration of females, frequently occurs in the autumn, though it is less universal and less dramatic than spring protandry. In one species, it occurs in both hatch-year and adult birds. When (1) spring and autumn, (2) departures and arrivals, and (3) breeding and wintering ground conditions are considered, hypotheses generated only to explain spring protandry can be more thoroughly evaluated. Using that approach, the most parsimonious explanation of differential migration between the sexes explains earlier male arrival in spring and later male departure in autumn through either (1) indirect selection operating on intrasexual male competition for territories or (2) direct selection operating on intersexual relations requiring males to be present on breeding territories when females are present. In autumn-protogynous species, males may ”play chicken,” balancing the benefits of remaining longer than females and protecting territories for subsequent years against the costs of remaining in the north under deteriorating conditions and delaying the acquisition of a good winter territory.Protogynie et migration automnale: Est-ce que les mâles ”jouent les dégonflés”?

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12

Briedis, Martins, Silke Bauer, Peter Adamík, José A. Alves, Joana S. Costa, Tamara Emmenegger, Lars Gustafsson, et al. "A full annual perspective on sex-biased migration timing in long-distance migratory birds." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 286, no. 1897 (February 20, 2019): 20182821. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2018.2821.

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In many taxa, the most common form of sex-biased migration timing is protandry—the earlier arrival of males at breeding areas. Here we test this concept across the annual cycle of long-distance migratory birds. Using more than 350 migration tracks of small-bodied trans-Saharan migrants, we quantify differences in male and female migration schedules and test for proximate determinants of sex-specific timing. In autumn, males started migration about 2 days earlier, but this difference did not carry over to arrival at the non-breeding sites. In spring, males on average departed from the African non-breeding sites about 3 days earlier and reached breeding sitesca4 days ahead of females. A cross-species comparison revealed large variation in the level of protandry and protogyny across the annual cycle. While we found tight links between individual timing of departure and arrival within each migration season, only for males the timing of spring migration was linked to the timing of previous autumn migration. In conclusion, our results demonstrate that protandry is not exclusively a reproductive strategy but rather occurs year-round and the two main proximate determinants for the magnitude of sex-biased arrival times in autumn and spring are sex-specific differences in departure timing and migration duration.

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13

Morbey, Yolanda E. "Protandry models and their application to salmon." Behavioral Ecology 13, no. 3 (May 1, 2002): 337–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/beheco/13.3.337.

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14

Morbey, Yolanda E. "Protandry, sexual size dimorphism, and adaptive growth." Journal of Theoretical Biology 339 (December 2013): 93–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jtbi.2013.05.009.

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15

Webb, C. J. "Protandry, pollination, and self-incompatibility inDiscaria toumatou." New Zealand Journal of Botany 23, no. 2 (April 1985): 331–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0028825x.1985.10425335.

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16

Møller, Anders P., Javier Balbontín, José Javier Cuervo, Ignacio G. Hermosell, and F. de Lope. "Individual differences in protandry, sexual selection, and fitness." Behavioral Ecology 20, no. 2 (November 20, 2008): 433–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/beheco/arn142.

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17

Shitamitsu, Toshiaki, and Tomoki Sunobe. "Protandry of the flathead Suggrundus meerdervoortii (Teleostei: Platycephalidae)." Ichthyological Research 65, no. 4 (July 17, 2018): 507–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10228-018-0651-6.

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18

Shapiro, Douglas Y. "Plasticity of gonadal development and protandry in fishes." Journal of Experimental Zoology 261, no. 2 (February 1, 1992): 194–203. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jez.1402610210.

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19

Godin, Vladimir N., Tatyana V. Arkhipova, Maria A. Vetlova, and Natalia G. Kuranova. "Andromonoecy and Floral Protandry of Oenanthe aquatica (Apiaceae)." Vestnik Tomskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta. Biologiya, no. 58 (2022): 96–112. http://dx.doi.org/10.17223/19988591/58/5.

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The paper studies the synflorescence structure and flowering biology of the biennial monocarpic wetland plant Oenanthe aquatica. This species has a set of adaptations to prevent self-pollination, including generation of a pseudanthium, andromonoecy, intra- and interfloral protandry, and a specific sequence of flowering within its umbels. The synflorescence of O. aquatica is a panicle of umbels. The size of perfect and male flowers consistently decreases as the order of synflorescence axes grows. The size-related differences between perfect and staminate flowers on axes of the same branching order consist only in the length of their calyx abaxial teeth, corolla diameter, width of abaxial petals, length and width of anthers, and length and height of stylopodium. We have identified two arrangements of staminate flowers in O. aquatica: male flowers are located at the periphery or in the center of the umbellets. The share of staminate flowers in umbels increases as an axis order grows. The female phase of flowers on axes of one order occurs simultaneously within entire synflorescences with the male phase of flowers on axes of the next order, which might mean geitonogamy. Perfect flowers live for five to seven days, while staminate flowers function for no more than one day. The article contains 4 Figures, 2 Tables, 32 References. The Authors declare no conflict of interest.

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20

Buck, Matthias. "Protogyny, protandry, and bimodal emergence patterns in necrophagous Diptera." Canadian Entomologist 133, no. 4 (August 2001): 521–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.4039/ent133521-4.

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AbstractThe emergence patterns of Diptera breeding in small-sized and buried carrion were studied in rearing experiments with field-exposed baits. Development times are reported for 52 species in the families Phoridae, Sphaeroceridae, Sepsidae, Heleomyzidae, Anthomyiidae, Fanniidae, Muscidae, Sarcophagidae, Psychodidae, and Sciaridae. Most species showed a synchronous emergence of males and females. Protandry was detected in Hydrotaea ignava (Harris) (Muscidae), H. palaestrica (Meigen), and Psychoda minuta (Banks) (Psychodidae). Protogyny was found in several species of Phoridae, namely Conicera similis (Haliday), C. schnittmanni Schmitz, Anevrina unispinosa (Zetterstedt), and Triphleba dudai (Schmitz). Conicera schnittmanni and T. dudai showed two discrete emergence periods for each sex, which is due to a delayed emergence of some specimens. Protogyny is a rare phenomenon in Diptera and insects in general, and has never been reported before in Phoridae. The significance of protogyny could not be ascertained in the examined species, because of insufficient information on their mating systems and female receptivity patterns.

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21

HARDER, L. D., and M. A. AIZEN. "The functional significance of synchronous protandry in Alstroemeria aurea." Functional Ecology 18, no. 3 (June 2004): 467–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.0269-8463.2004.00859.x.

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22

Rubolini, D. "Protandry and sexual dimorphism in trans-Saharan migratory birds." Behavioral Ecology 15, no. 4 (July 1, 2004): 592–601. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/beheco/arh048.

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23

Le Quesne, W. J. F., and S. J. Hawkins. "Direct observations of protandrous sex change in the patellid limpet Patella vulgata." Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom 86, no. 1 (January 12, 2006): 161–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0025315406012975.

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Direct observations of sex change were made on Patella vulgata, which has long been considered a protandrous hermaphrodite based on indirect methods. Thirty per cent of the male limpets that were marked during the spawning season in 2003 were female when they were re-examined during the spawning season in 2004. This confirms that protandry does occur within the superfamily Patellidae.

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24

Boyd, David W., and David R. Alverson. "Effects of Temperature and Water Source on Development of Deraeocoris nebulosus (Uhler) (Hemiptera: Miridae), a Predacious Plant Bug1." Journal of Entomological Science 39, no. 2 (April 1, 2004): 202–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.18474/0749-8004-39.2.202.

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The development of Deraeocoris nebulosus (Uhler) was studied in relation to temperature and to water sources additional to food. Development time for D. nebulosus was linear between 20° and 30°C, allowing the use of a linear equation to calculate degree days. The eggs of D. nebulosus required 111.1 degree days over a threshold of 13.9°C to complete development. Nymphal development for males and females of D. nebulosus was about 1.5 times faster at 25°C than at 20°C, 1.5 times faster at 30°C than at 25°C, and almost 2.5 times faster at 30°C than at 20°C. Males developed 2 d faster than females (protandry) at 20°C, but did not develop faster at the other temperatures. This study provides the first record of temperature-regulated protandry in insects. Nymphs of D. nebulosus required 166.7 degree days over a threshold of 12.7°C for males and 15.2°C for females. Preoviposition period was almost 12 d at 20°C and about 6 d at 25° and 30°C. Water source (free water, sugar water, or sweet potato leaf) did not affect the development of D. nebulosus when fed moth eggs.

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25

Gu, Hai-Feng, Jin-Hua Xiao, Derek W. Dunn, Li-Ming Niu, Bo Wang, Ling-Yi Jia, and Da-Wei Huang. "Evidence for the circadian gene period as a proximate mechanism of protandry in a pollinating fig wasp." Biology Letters 10, no. 3 (March 2014): 20130914. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2013.0914.

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Protandry in insects is the tendency for adult males to emerge before females and usually results from intra-sexual selection. However, the genetic basis of this common phenomenon is poorly understood. Pollinating fig wasp (Agaonidae) larvae develop in galled flowers within the enclosed inflorescences (‘figs’) of fig trees. Upon emergence, males locate and mate with the still galled females. After mating, males release females from their galls to enable dispersal. Females cannot exit galls or disperse from a fig without male assistance. We sampled male and female Ceratosolen solmsi (the pollinator of Ficus hispida ) every 3 h over a 24 h emergence period, and then measured the expression of five circadian genes: period ( per ), clock ( clk ), cycle ( cyc ), pigment-dispersing factor ( pdf ) and clockwork orange ( cwo ). We found significant male-biased sexual dimorphism in the expression of all five genes. per showed the greatest divergence between the sexes and was the only gene rhythmically expressed. Expression of per correlated closely with emergence rates at specific time intervals in both male and female wasps. We suggest that this rhythmical expression of per may be a proximate mechanism of protandry in this species.

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26

Huyvaert, Kathryn P., David J. Anderson, and Patricia G. Parker. "Mate Opportunity Hypothesis and Extrapair Paternity in Waved Albatrosses (Phoebastria Irrorata)." Auk 123, no. 2 (April 1, 2006): 524–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/auk/123.2.524.

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Abstract Early arrival at breeding sites can influence reproductive success through enhanced access to critical resources such as nest sites or mates. One hypothesis explaining protandry, or male-first arrival at breeding sites, proposes that males arrive earlier to increase their extrapair copulation (EPC) opportunities, which may, in turn, enhance males' reproductive success through extrapair fertilizations (EPFs) (“mate opportunity hypothesis”). Extrapair behavior is unexpected in long-lived birds, in which the male is expected to abandon a brood of uncertain paternity, because his probability of future reproduction is high. A previous study of the Waved Albatross (Phoebastria irrorata), a long-lived, socially monogamous seabird, showed evidence of EPFs in 4 of 16 (25%) families. Here, we combined behavioral observations of copulations with additional molecular genetic evidence of EPFs in Waved Albatross families to investigate the fitness consequences of protandry under the mate opportunity hypothesis. During three breeding seasons, we documented 3,661 attempted copulations between birds of known identity; >60% of copulations that involved at least one breeding bird were classified as EPCs. Protandry was pronounced in all three study years: 76.3–96.6% of males arrived before (typically, 6–10 days before) their social mates. Early arrival was associated with increased opportunities for copulations: individual EPC frequencies were higher for breeding males than for breeding females, and males that arrived earlier than their social mates engaged in the most EPCs. Extrapair fertilizations were also regular in our study population; social fathers were excluded as the genetic sire in 14–21% of families. Egg laying dates of EPFs tended to be earlier in the season than those of within-pair fertilizations (WPFs). However, earlier arrival by a male did not translate into a higher probability of siring either within-pair or extrapair offspring, nor did cuckolding males have enhanced reproductive success. Although the fitness consequences of early arrival remain unclear, these findings suggest alternative advantages of early arrival for male Waved Albatrosses. La Hipótesis de Oportunidad de Apareamiento y Paternidad Extra-pareja en Phoebastria irrorata

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27

Webb, C. J., and Jan Littleton. "Flower Longevity and Protandry in Two Species of Gentiana (Gentianaceae)." Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 74, no. 1 (1987): 51. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2399261.

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28

JERSÁKOVÁ, J., and S. D. JOHNSON. "Protandry promotes male pollination success in a moth-pollinated orchid." Functional Ecology 21, no. 3 (June 2007): 496–504. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2435.2007.01256.x.

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29

Morbey, Y. E., and P. A. Abrams. "The interaction between reproductive lifespan and protandry in seasonal breeders." Journal of Evolutionary Biology 17, no. 4 (July 2004): 768–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1420-9101.2004.00731.x.

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30

Canal, David, Roger Jovani, and Jaime Potti. "Multiple mating opportunities boost protandry in a pied flycatcher population." Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 66, no. 1 (September 6, 2011): 67–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00265-011-1253-8.

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31

GRIBBEN, P. E., and R. G. CREESE. "Protandry in the New Zealand geoduck,Panopea zelandica(Mollusca, Bivalvia)." Invertebrate Reproduction & Development 44, no. 2-3 (September 2003): 119–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07924259.2003.9652562.

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32

Gunnarsson, Bengt, Jörgen Johnsson, and Jorgen Johnsson. "Protandry and Moulting to Maturity in the Spider Pityohyphantes phrygianus." Oikos 59, no. 2 (November 1990): 205. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3545536.

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33

Imbert, Fiona M., and Jennifer H. Richards. "PROTANDRY, INCOMPATIBILITY, AND SECONDARY POLLEN PRESENTATION IN CEPHALANTHUS OCCIDENTALS (RUBIACEAE)." American Journal of Botany 80, no. 4 (April 1993): 395–404. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/j.1537-2197.1993.tb13818.x.

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34

Breedveld, Merel C., and Patrick S. Fitze. "Experimental evidence that sperm maturation drives protandry in an ectotherm." Oecologia 182, no. 1 (June 3, 2016): 129–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00442-016-3668-4.

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35

Bauer, Raymond T., and Sara Laporte Conner. "Gonochoric sexual system in the caridean shrimps Processa riveroi and P. bermudensis (Decapoda: Processidae) inhabiting a tropical seagrass meadow." Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom 92, no. 3 (May 31, 2011): 521–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0025315411000622.

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The sexual system of two caridean shrimps (Processa riveroi and P. bermudensis) was investigated, stimulated by reports of male to female sex change (protandry) in Processa edulis from European waters. Shrimps used in the study were obtained from monthly samples taken from March 1982 to February 1983 in a Thalassia–Syringodium seagrass meadow in Puerto Rico. Observations on size, sex, and reproductive condition were used to construct monthly size–frequency distributions and sex-ratios by size-class (SC). Males were smaller than reproductive females, but there was extensive overlap in size between males and immature females. A sex-ratio (SR) analysis by SC of the overall year-long population sample showed an equal or female-biased SR in the smallest SC, a male-biased SR in 1–3 intermediate SC, with larger SC dominated by females incubating embryos. Such a population structure might result from slower growth in males than females and higher mortality in larger males. Observations on and allometric analysis of sexual characters failed to identify transitional individuals (sex-changers) intermediate in reproductive morphology between males and females. Thus, a hypothesis of protandry is rejected, and that of gonochory (separate sexes) is accepted in these two Processa species, revealing possible variation in sexual systems among Processa species.

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36

Lobello, G., M. Fambrini, R. Baraldi, B. Lercari, and C. Pugliesi. "Hormonal influence on photocontrol of the protandry in the genus Helianthus." Journal of Experimental Botany 51, no. 349 (August 2000): 1403–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jexbot/51.349.1403.

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37

Webb, C. J., and P. E. Pearson. "The evolution of approach herkogamy from protandry in New ZealandGentiana (Gentianaceae)." Plant Systematics and Evolution 186, no. 3-4 (1993): 187–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf00940797.

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38

Ramsey, M., and G. Vaughton. "Self-Incompatibility, Protandry, Pollen Production and Pollen Longevity in Banksia menziesii." Australian Journal of Botany 39, no. 5 (1991): 497. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/bt9910497.

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Controlled self- and cross-pollination indicated that a natural population of Banksia menziesii (Proteaceae) was self-incompatible. Flowers were protandrous. Deposition of pollen into the stigmatic cavity was regulated by opening of the stigmatic groove. Stigmatic grooves opened 24-48 h after the flowers opened. Pollen production was high and the pollen:ovule ratio was approximately 10000. Over 90% of pollen grains were viable when flowers first opened. Viability decreased rapidly with time and most pollen was inviable within 24 h. These results indicate that B. menziesii requires pollen vectors to produce seed and suggest that pollinators may have influenced the evolution of the reproductive traits that were examined.

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Lobello, G., M. Fambrini, R. Baraldi, B. Lercari, and C. Pugliesi. "Hormonal influence on photocontrol of the protandry in the genus Helianthus." Journal of Experimental Botany 51, no. 349 (August 2000): 1403–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jxb/51.349.1403.

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Morbey, Yolanda E. "Pair formation, pre-spawning waiting, and protandry in kokanee, Oncorhynchus nerka." Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 54, no. 2 (April 23, 2003): 127–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00265-003-0606-3.

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Coppack, Timothy, Anders P. Tøttrup, and Claire Spottiswoode. "Degree of protandry reflects level of extrapair paternity in migratory songbirds." Journal of Ornithology 147, no. 2 (March 3, 2006): 260–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10336-006-0067-3.

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Zonneveld, C., and J. A. J. Metz. "Models on butterfly protandry: Virgin females are at risk to die." Theoretical Population Biology 40, no. 3 (December 1991): 308–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0040-5809(91)90058-n.

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Kleckner, Cheryl A., William A. Hawley, William E. Bradshaw, Christina M. Holzapfel, and Ian J. Fisher. "Protandry in Aedes Sierrensis: The Significance of Temporal Variation in Female Fecundity." Ecology 76, no. 4 (June 1995): 1242–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1940931.

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Bauböck, Lisa, Abraham J. Miller-Rushing, Richard B. Primack, Trevor L. Lloyd Evans, and Fred E. Wasserman. "Climate Change Does Not Affect Protandry in Seven Passerines in North America." Wilson Journal of Ornithology 124, no. 2 (June 2012): 208–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1676/11-087.1.

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Rainio, K., AP Tøttrup, E. Lehikoinen, and T. Coppack. "Effects of climate change on the degree of protandry in migratory songbirds." Climate Research 35 (December 31, 2007): 107–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.3354/cr00717.

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Sewell, M. A. "Small Size, Brooding, and Protandry in the Apodid Sea Cucumber Leptosynapta clarki." Biological Bulletin 187, no. 1 (August 1994): 112–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1542170.

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Forsberg, J., and C. Wiklund. "Protandry in the Green-Veined White Butterfly, Pieris napi L. (Lepidoptera; Pieridae)." Functional Ecology 2, no. 1 (1988): 81. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2389464.

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Schmaljohann, Heiko, Christoph Meier, Debora Arlt, Franz Bairlein, Herman van Oosten, Yolanda E. Morbey, Susanne Åkesson, et al. "Proximate causes of avian protandry differ between subspecies with contrasting migration challenges." Behavioral Ecology 27, no. 1 (September 28, 2015): 321–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/beheco/arv160.

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Forrest, Jessica R. K. "Plant Size, Sexual Selection, and the Evolution of Protandry in Dioecious Plants." American Naturalist 184, no. 3 (September 2014): 338–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/677295.

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Trigwell, Jacqueline A., and G. B. J. Dussart. "Functional protandry in Biomphalaria glabrata (Gastropoda: Pulmonata), an intermediate host of Schistosoma." Journal of Molluscan Studies 64, no. 2 (1998): 253–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/mollus/64.2.253.

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