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1
Bigelli, Marco, and Gianluca Ghini. "Eastward enlargement: Privatization in MECC." Corporate Ownership and Control 2, no. 4 (2005): 32–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.22495/cocv2i4p2.
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This paper tries to offer a review of the literature on the main privatisation methods adopted by the Central and East European Countries which have joined European Union in 2004. After having analysed the major advantages and short comes of each privatisation method the paper briefly describes the privatisation processes adopted by each single country.
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Kovacevic, Radovan. "Transition of Central and Eastern European countries into market economy." Privredna izgradnja 45, no. 3-4 (2002): 149–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/priz0203149k.
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This paper analyze economic growth during the transition from centrally planned to market economy in Central and Eastern European and former Soviet Union countries. It provides a descriptive analysis of regional growth performance vis-a-vis countries at similar levels of different factors that have been identified in the cross-country literature as being associated with economic growth. Several points of controversy emerged within the overall stately, particularly over so-called shock therapy, and over sequencing. Rapid policy action was possible in some areas of reform - price and trade liberalization, and inflation stabilization, and perhaps small scale privatization - but in others it was clear that reform would take a long time. The controversies over shock treatment related mainly to macroeconomic stabilization and the pace at which privatization could be attempted, and to a lesser extant, over the pace of trade liberalization for some reason there was less controversy over the pace of trade liberalization. On sequencing the argument was that some reforms were preconditions for others - for instance that privatization would fail unless the right legal framework or financial system or both were in place, or that price decontrol should non take place until macroeconomic stabilization could be assured. After a brief assessment of the extent to which economic growth has been associated with progress on different measures of well being, the paper concludes with a list suggested issues to be investigated in the context of specific country studies.
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Muharremi, Robert. "The Role of the United Nations and the European Union in the Privatization of Kosovo's Socially-Owned Enterprises." German Law Journal 14, no. 7 (July 1, 2013): 889–925. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s2071832200002066.
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The privatization of Kosovo's socially owned property and enterprises differs significantly from privatization programs undertaken in other countries, especially in Eastern and South-Eastern Europe when they transitioned from communism to democracy and free market systems. What is unique about Kosovo's privatization program is that it was designed and implemented under the authority of the United Nations at a time when Kosovo was directly administered by the United Nations. It is perhaps so far the only privatization program that was initiated and implemented by the United Nations under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter. Various other international organizations, such as the European Union, played a significant role in this process as part of their responsibilities in the administration of Kosovo. An obvious question is what the United Nations would have to do with privatization in the context of territorial administration under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter and if the United Nation's authority to administer Kosovo would include the authority to privatize property, the legal nature of which was unclear even when it was developed in former Yugoslavia. The discussion of these and other legal questions and controversies which are related to the privatization process in Kosovo are the main subject of this article, with a focus on the role of the United Nations and the European Union in this process.
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Estrin, Saul. "Competition and Corporate Governance in Transition." Journal of Economic Perspectives 16, no. 1 (February 1, 2002): 101–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/0895330027139.
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This paper examines the elements of institutional development critical to the enhancement of company performance in transition economies. This includes initial conditions, forms of privatization, institutional frameworks and the competitiveness of markets. Comparing empirical evidence, the paper concludes that there is a clear distinction in effectiveness of policies followed and their impact between Central Europe and CIS countries. This divergence is attributed to fundamentally different political attitudes toward reform, the need of CIS governments to gain political support for reform and as a consequence of the desire of Central European countries to join European Union.
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Navarro, Vicente. "The Politics of Health Care Reforms in U.S. Presidential Elections." International Journal of Health Services 38, no. 4 (October 2008): 597–606. http://dx.doi.org/10.2190/hs.38.4.a.
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This article analyzes why people in the United States have major problems in accessing medical care that are due to financial constraints. The author suggests that the cause of these problems is the way in which medical care and elections are funded in the United States, with private sources being the largest component in the funding of both activities. The article includes a comparison of funding of the electoral process in the United States with similar electoral processes in the countries of the European Union, and postulates that privatization of the funding of U.S. elections (primary and general) is responsible for privatization of the funding of medical care—the root of people's problem in paying for their medical care. Privatization of election funding gives undue power to the economic, financial, and professional groups that dominate medicine in the United States.
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Carrasco González, Alexandra. "Tendencias privatizadoras del modelo de financiación de la educación superior en Europa. Propuestas de la Unión Europea y el análisis del acceso asequible." Revista Española de Educación Comparada, no. 37 (December 27, 2020): 211. http://dx.doi.org/10.5944/reec.37.2021.28047.
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The influence exerted by supranational organizations, such as the European Union (EU) in the configuration of educational policies, forces us to include the supranational sphere in the study of educational trends. A growing trend in the field of higher education is the increase in private investment and our objective is to measure its impact in recent years in the European context and if it puts at risk the affordable access to this educational level. To do this, in the first place, we analyze the different actions developed from the European Union on increasing private financing of higher education through various documents and work plans. Second, from the Comparative Education methodology, we compare the variation in the sources of financing for higher education in European countries, over a 13-year trajectory (2002-2016), and its impact on affordable access to education higher, through the analysis of economic rates and student aid systems. The results, on the one hand, indicate that the EU justifies the increase in private financing of universities, as a global strategy to achieve greater competitiveness within the context of the knowledge society. On the other hand, there is a trend towards the privatization of financing models for higher education in European countries, which countries such as Ireland, Spain, Italy and Portugal, put at risk the affordable access to HE.
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Demyen, Suzana, Mirela Minică, and Carmen Năstase. "THE WAGES SYSTEM IN ROMANIA – BETWEEN CONVERGENCE AND DISCRIMINATION. SUSTAINABILITY OR OVER-REGULATION?" Annals of the University of Oradea. Economic Sciences 30, no. 30 (1) (July 2021): 23–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.47535/1991auoes30(1)002.
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Abstract: The wages system in Romania is a subject of great importance. Although, apparently, the situation on the labour market has improved during the last years, compared to the member countries of the European Union there are many problems in Romania, due to an inadequate structure in the national economy, the way in which privatization and economy restructuring were performed, the mass emigration labour market, which have generated imbalances between labour supply and demand. The paper aims at highlighting the changes in the salary system in Romania in the period of post-accession to the European Union. An analysis was conducted, the official statistical data on the evolution of the average net monthly salary were detailed, differentiated by size classes of economic agents, by gender and by sectors of the national economy. Keywords: labour market, discrimination, wages, public sector, private sector
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Lee, Da Yeun. "Hilary Appel and Mitchell A. Orenstein: From Triumph to Crisis: Neoliberal Economic Reform in Postcommunist Countries." Czech Journal of International Relations 54, no. 4 (December 1, 2019): 69–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.32422/mv.1647.
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The postcommunist countries were amongst the most fervent and committed adopters of neoliberal economic reforms. Not only did they manage to overcome the anticipated domestic opposition to 'shock therapy' and Washington Consensus reforms, but many fulfilled the membership requirements of the European Union and even adopted avant-garde neoliberal reforms like the flat tax and pension privatization. Neoliberalism in the postcommunist countries went farther and lasted longer than expected, but why? Unlike pre-existing theories based on domestic political-economic struggles, this book focuses on the imperatives of re-insertion into the international economy. Appel and Orenstein show how countries engaged in 'competitive signaling', enacting reforms in order to attract foreign investment. This signaling process explains the endurance and intensification of neoliberal reform in these countries for almost two decades, from 1989–2008, and its decline thereafter, when inflows of capital into the region suddenly dried up. This book will interest students of political economy and Eastern European and Eurasian politics.
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Jelena, Mladenovic, Ilic Ivana, and Kostic Zorana. "Modeling The Unemployment Rate At The Eu Level By Using Box-Jenkins Methodology." KnE Social Sciences 1, no. 2 (March 19, 2017): 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.18502/kss.v1i2.643.
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<p>Unemployment, as a measure of market conditions, appears as a crucial economic problem and a phenomenon with considerable negative social consequences, and, as such, requires attention and adequate approach to finding solutions. Enormous unemployment rates are a reality not only in developing and transition countries, but also in some developed countries. Inadequately conducted privatization, unsuccessful transfer of workers from the public to the private sector, inefficiency in attracting foreign direct investment, and the world economic crisis of 2008 have made unemployment a universal disease of modern society. The paper presents economic models in which the unemployment rate is the central analyzed phenomenon. In this context, an important task of European economic policy-makers is to project future unemployment rates. <em>Box-Jenkins</em> methodology, i.e. the seasonal ARIMA model, is one approach to the modeling of time series, or, more specifically, for forecasting future values. The subject of this paper is the analysis of the evolution of the unemployment problem on the basis of the values in the period from 2000 to 2015, based on the case of 28 countries of the European Union. Building on the research subject, the purpose of the paper is to create the statistical model for forecasting the values of the monthly unemployment rates in the European Union for the future and establishing its trend.</p>
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Vogelsang, Ingo. "Deregulation and Privatization in Germany." Journal of Public Policy 8, no. 2 (April 1988): 195–212. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0143814x0000698x.
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ABSTRACTPublic enterprises in the Federal Republic of Germany are about average for all nonsocialist countries and markets are more heavily regulated than in the United States. Compared to American deregulation and British privatization, there have been few developments in the Federal Republic. Why? In the last ten years new schools of thought have provided a stronger normative foundation for and a stronger positive explanation against deregulation and privatization in Germany in the near future. The German political debate on deregulation and privatization is characterized by three institutional peculiarities. Major steps to deregulate or privatize economic sectors require legislation, which is influenced by political parties. Trade unions exert a strong influence on the major parties and are opposed to privatization and deregulation. The European Community forces some deregulation upon the Federal Republic in order to liberalize service sectors.
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Boguszyńska, Iwona. "Restrukturyzacja przedsiębiorstw Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej i Azji Centralnej w dobie transformacji." Przedsiębiorczość - Edukacja 8 (January 1, 2012): 373–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.24917/20833296.8.27.
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In 1991 a process of post-socialist transformation has begun together with the collapse of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) in the Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) and Central Asia. This process was chiefly about a transition from centrally planned economy to a free market. Individual countries were introducing economic reforms to a different degree and scope – some countries tried to catch up highly developed countries of the West (mainly the Central European states) more quickly, the others have chosen the path of slow modernization different from the western model of capitalism (the Central Asian states).This article aims to analyse the processes that take place in the corporate sector during the political changes in countries undergoing transitions from centrally planned economy to market economy. The analysis will employ an enterprise reform index (developed by the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development) for the years between 1991–2009. These processes include both changes in ownership (privatization), and changes within a company (restructuring including assets, products, employment).In the analysed countries, restructuring processes were carried out differently – much faster in Central – Eastern Europe countries (Czech Republic, Poland, Slovakia, Estonia, Hungary) than in the countries of Central Asia, where reforms were introduced slowly and on a much smaller scale (such as Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan).
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Lekka, Anastasia Chr. "How Memoranda of Understanding Have Affected EU Democratic Institutions in Southern EU Countries." International Journal of Social Science Research 5, no. 2 (August 10, 2017): 25. http://dx.doi.org/10.5296/ijssr.v5i2.11692.
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The recent recession having emerged in 2007 has been the worst economic downturn since the time of Great Depression of 1929 in USA and spread across the European continent. In many European countries this led to severe sovereign debt crisis beginning in 2010 and was followed by implementation of austerity measures with significant impact on public, social and employment sector. Those tough austerity measures resulted in structural reforms of welfare and labor market especially in Southern EU countries like Greece, Spain, Portugal, Ireland and Italy representing the most prominent examples. These policies were imposed to a large extend through the so called “Troika” which was an interaction between internal EU and external Organizations, like the European Union, the European Central Bank and International Monetary Fund respectively.Citizens realize that their national economic institutions are no longer responsible for the decision making on major social and economic policies, on economic and welfare policies, on privatization and sale of public assets. Consequently, citizens tend to question if this constrained democracy deserves further support. This is enhanced by the fact that National Parliaments no longer develop policies but rather align with policies dictated by the above stated Institutions and are forced to accept such deals without asking the opinion of citizens. Nevertheless the EU intends to promote civil society participation in decision making and program policies applied. This contradiction needs to be analyzed in order to determine if there is a democratic deficit in EU member states.
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Grzymała-Busse, Anna. "The Discreet Charm of Formal Institutions." Comparative Political Studies 39, no. 3 (April 2006): 271–300. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0010414005284216.
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Why do some new democratic political politicians constrain themselves and reduce their discretion to extract resources from the state and the processes of privatization? Postcommunist democracies show surprising variation in the adoption of formal institutions of monitoring and oversight. These institutions regulate markets, empower citizen oversight, and police the use and distribution of state assets. These have arisen rapidly in some countries and with considerable delays in others. Accounts that link institutional creation to European Union imposition, initial bargaining, and parliamentary divisions do not fully explain the variation. Instead, in the nine consolidated democracies and free markets examined here, robust political competition triggered mechanisms of anticipatory institution building and moderation of government behavior.
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Tang, Donny. "The Determinants Of European Union (EU) Foreign Direct Investments In The EU Countries From Central And Eastern Europe During 1994–2012." Comparative Economic Research. Central and Eastern Europe 20, no. 1 (March 9, 2017): 75–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/cer-2017-0005.
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This study examines whether the CEECs’ financial market development can explain the EU FDI in the CEECs during 1994–2012. The higher bank credit flows had a positive effect on the FDI in 2005–2012. This can be attributed to the major banking sector reforms undertaken before the CEECs’ EU accession. Second, the stock market size had a positive effect in 1997–2004. This is due to the fact that the EU membership announcement facilitated deeper stock market integration. Third, the higher country income, in interaction with a higher bank credit flow, had only a small positive effect in 2005–2012. The higher income CEECs have pursued much deeper bank liberalization through large-scale privatization of state-owned banks. Finally, the higher country income, in interaction with a larger stock market size, had a negative effect in 2005–2012. A possible reason for this is that the EU countries have started to divert their new FDI to the non-EU countries.
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Fayed, Hanaa, and John Westlake. "Globalization of Air Transport: The Challenges of the GATS." Tourism Economics 8, no. 4 (December 2002): 431–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.5367/000000002101298214.
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The impacts of globalization on national and international policy making processes are illustrated by an examination of the effects on air transport industries. Trends towards the liberalization of air transport activities have been noted in many countries, mainly, to date, those of developed or rapidly developing status. Specific demand and supply conditions affect the air transport industries, and a particular regulatory framework has grown up since the 1940s. The study examines trends towards the privatization of airline companies in the context of (a) the development of so-called global ‘alliances’ or ‘partnerships’ and (b) liberalization at regional level and within trade groups such as the European Union. The new challenges of the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) are considered, especially in terms of how developing countries can develop appropriate policies in response to the forces of globalization, increasing liberalization and competition.
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Qejvanaj, Gentian. "International Organizations Lending Policy, are There Strings Attached? A Case Study From the Latest Wave of Reforms in the Albanian Social Security System." SAGE Open 11, no. 3 (July 2021): 215824402110376. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/21582440211037662.
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Pension policy reform in post-communist countries received attention from most international organizations since the early 1990s. Accordingly, Albania has implemented comprehensive liberalization and privatization of the state sector since transitioning to a market economy. This study will look at the impact that the European Union (EU), the World Bank, and the International Monetary Fund had in guiding the Albanian state-run social security system toward principles of decentralization, liberalization and privatization. Specifically, social security reforms between 2009 to 2019 will be examined, along with a focus on the side-effect of the conditions imposed by the three organizations. A mixed-method including literature review and secondary data analysis will empirically evidence growing inequality, with senior citizens poverty rate sharply rising due to reforms in social security. Our conclusions will argue that closer ties with the EU will keep social security in its current form, as the EU does not push for a specific pension system, while the World Bank policy influence will lose ground, thus freeing Albania from periodic social security reforms.
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Ismail, Hosameldin H. "The impact of FDI on foreign trade in Arab countries." International Journal of ADVANCED AND APPLIED SCIENCES 9, no. 4 (April 2022): 97–105. http://dx.doi.org/10.21833/ijaas.2022.04.012.
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This study aims to identify the reality of FDI in Arab countries and analyze the relationship between FDI and foreign trade in Arab countries during the period 2000-2018. Statistical analysis tools such as the correlation coefficient and ANOVA analysis were used to test the significance of the linear regression between the variables, to analyze the relationship between FDI (independent variable) and all of the Arab exports and imports, trade balance, and Arab foreign trade (dependent variable). Despite the rapid liberalization programs of investment systems and the trend towards privatization and liberalization of economic activity and joining the WTO (hence, WTO), and other measures, the flow of foreign investments to Arab countries continues. Only three countries (UAE-Egypt-Oman) accounted for 68.5% of the total FDI coming to Arab countries in 2018. This indicates the weakness of many other Arab countries in attracting FDI. Results showed that the European Union is the leading trading partner of the Arab countries. The UAE and France topped the countries investing in the Arab countries. The statistical analysis results showed that the correlation between FDI (as an independent variable) and Arab foreign trade (as a dependent variable) is a positive, medium-strength. They also proved that (17.8%) of Arab foreign trade could be explained using FDI, while the remaining percentage is attributed to other variables.
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Mercille, Julien, and Enda Murphy. "The Neoliberalization of Irish Higher Education under Austerity." Critical Sociology 43, no. 3 (October 8, 2015): 371–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0896920515607074.
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This paper discusses the transformations that have taken place in Irish higher education under neoliberalism and, in particular, during the period of austerity since 2008. We adopt a critical political economic framework conceptualizing Ireland as a prototypical neoliberal state and maintain that the period of economic crisis since 2008 has witnessed a deepening of neoliberalism. We argue that restructuring in the education sector has been shaped by forces originating from the European Union, global institutions, as well as from the interests of Irish political and economic elites. We examine several aspects of the neoliberalization of the education sector, including privatization, commercialization, labor casualization and the erosion of work conditions. Empirically, the paper synthesizes and conceptualizes available data on neoliberalism and higher education in Ireland. Theoretically, it presents a useful framework to investigate similar cases in other countries.
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Ferrari, Giuseppe Franco. "La complessitŕ dei mercati energetici e la necessitŕ di una regolazione multilivello." ECONOMICS AND POLICY OF ENERGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT, no. 3 (July 2009): 121–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.3280/efe2008-003006.
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- The energy markets are very complex, because, on the one hand, they imply several different activities and, on the other hand, they involve various levels of govern- 183 ment. The energy market is divided indeed in different segments: supply (generation or purchasing), transmission, distribution and sale, which are allocated at different levels of government, from the international and European level (with reference to the security of energy supply), to the local level (with specific regard to the distribution and sale). This complexity makes the energy sector particularly critical, under the pressure of political interests and economical needs. Another sensitive point is linked with the environmental protection, since the consumption of energy is one of the most polluting human activities, and the demand of energy is growing up together with the economical growth of the developing Countries. This problem is increasingly discussed at the international level, with reference to the climate change issue, in order to plan a sustainable development for the whole globe: because of it, the Kyoto Protocol was issued within the United Nation Framework Convention on Climate Change. It establishes legally binding commitments for the reduction of four greenhouse gases for all the 183 ratifying Countries, according the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities, and provides for the promotion of renewable energy. The European Union ratified the Protocol implementing the relative obligations through, for instance, the creation of the EU Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS). The European Union most of all addressed the competitive issue, since the 70s, in order to achieve the result to create a free energy market in Europe. The last results of the European energy policy were the directives on electricity and natural gas in 2004, that imposed the complete opening of the energy markets in almost all the European Countries (with few exceptions). The implementation of the European directives requires the intervention of the national level, since each Country has to modify its own regulatory framework, in order to comply with the directives. Everywhere in Europe, this process faces with several difficulties, but it is particularly hard in Italy, since the energy sector is traditionally public owned. Indeed, in our Country, the privatization and liberalization processes are strictly linked to another trend: the decentralization of legislative and administrative powers from the State to the Regions and Local Communities. Thus it is evident that the global governance of the energy sector, for its complexity and its sensibility, can only derive from a network of interventions by several levels of government, and different international, national and local actors, which realize a typical case of multilevel governance.Key words: Energy markets, competition, sustainable development, multilevel governance.JEL classifications: K21, K23.Parole chiave: Mercato energetico, concorrenza, sviluppo sostenibile, multilevel Governance.
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Brovina, MSc Ngadhnjim, and MSc Adnan Hoxha. "The potentials for Political and Economic Development of Kosovo." ILIRIA International Review 3, no. 2 (December 31, 2013): 319. http://dx.doi.org/10.21113/iir.v3i2.132.
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It is rather clear that it is mandatory to understand the potentials of growth for any economy to grow. With globalization taking place, countries in general, have intensified their political, economic and social integration. Kosovo, as the youngest state in Europe, is about to transform from a devastated economy into a developing one. It has not yet been able to tap on its natural resources and neither of its potentials for a faster economic growth. Its backbone economic sectors such as agriculture, textile, mining and metal sectors are still on their initial stages of revitalization, while the privatization of the public companies has not met its expectations.Whereas, Kosovo is doing a better job on, as its international presence and subjectivity of its political status (Independence) is strengthened. More and more countries are recognizing it as a sovereign country, while the recent initiation of the Stabilization and Association Agreement with the European Union, Kosovo is undergoing through its structural reforms and alliance with the EU standards and regulations.The future of Kosovo, like of any country, will depend on the way that its human, financial and natural resources are utilized. On this regard, this paper is an attempt to explore the potentials of the economic growth on different political contexts that Kosovo has and is expected to undergo.
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Tiganasu, Ramona, Gabriela Pascariu, and Dan Lupu. "Competitiveness, fiscal policy and corruption: evidence from Central and Eastern European countries." Oeconomia Copernicana 13, no. 3 (September 25, 2022): 667–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.24136/oc.2022.020.
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Research background: The transformations induced by global challenges call for new approaches towards competitiveness and thus require a consistent rethinking of strategies and mechanisms so that they could be better adapted to the constantly changing context. Prior to the European Union (EU) accession, the Central and Eastern European (CEE) states began a broad process of economic reforms, including trade liberalization, mass privatization, exchange rate liberalization, all of which led to a wider opening to new markets, the creation of new opportunities for production and to ensuring the competitiveness of companies on foreign markets. By far, the most important step in the post-communist period was joining the EU, achieved after 2004. Over time, these states have faced, on the one hand, issues related to addressing systemic vulnerabilities, and on the other hand, finding the most appropriate measures to induce competitiveness. The influence of public policies on competitiveness is still an issue that needs to be debated, our study proposing to examine the reaction of external competitiveness to the increase of government spending and corruption. Purpose of the article: The aim of this paper is to analyze the impact of fiscal policies and corruption on the external competitiveness of the eleven countries from Eastern Europe (Bulgaria, Croatia, Czechia, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Slovakia and Slovenia) for the period 1995?2020. The choice of this time interval is to better capture the trinomial relationship between competitiveness, fiscal policy and corruption before and after the process of integration of the CEE states into the EU. Methods: The methodology chosen is based on ARDL (Autoregressive Distributed Lag) with structural breaks, the period taken into account being 1995?2020. The Unit root test of augmented Dickey?Fuller ADF (2016) was used to assess the time series stationarity. The test developed by Bai and Perron (2003) is applied to detect structural breaks, by resorting to the LM test. The tests for the cointegration between the considered variables, using the ARDL model, proposed by Pesaran et al. (2001), were also part of the research. The causality test of Granger et al. (2000) was used to assess the conditionality between the indicators. By applying these methods, it was highlighted that, especially after 2007, in the states under analysis, expansionary fiscal policies have led to internal devaluations of the currency, which ultimately increased external competitiveness, measured as real effective exchange rate. Instead, corruption has a negative impact on competitiveness. Findings & value added: The obtained results point out the relationship between competitiveness, fiscal policy and corruption in CEE countries. In the case of those that have a high competitiveness, even if there are large government expenditures, there is also an economic environment conducive to the implementation of measures that generate added value on a large scale. Conversely, in countries where corruption is high, the impact of government fiscal policies on competitiveness is reduced due to the negative effects caused by this phenomenon. Our study brings at least two contributions to the literature. First of all, the research shows how a growth in public spending affects the competitiveness of CEE economies through the real exchange rate. Secondly, it takes into account the phenomenon of corruption applied to Eastern countries, emphasizing a decrease in the external competitiveness of these economies in response to the manifestation of corruption.
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Stauskas, Vladas. "URBAN GREEN SPACES IN VIEW OF BALANCE BETWEEN SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC INTERESTS." JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURE AND URBANISM 30, no. 1 (March 31, 2006): 15–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.3846/13921630.2006.10697057.
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When discussing the priorities and leverage in urban development, we usually use such concepts as „economic potential“, „financial investment“, „a great quantity of constructions1“, etc. However, the final result should in fact strive for human happiness, health, love for your city, wish to live there. The urban structure of a city always contains a system of open green spaces. These areas are important not only from ecological and aesthetical point of view, but also for social communication as well as raising the economic value of plots. The paper, giving an example of contemporary development of the resort of Palanga, deals with tendencies and problems resulting from the privatization process and great mistakes in locating urbanized plots in the areas of the Lithuanian seaside. The areas, which in the Master Plan are foreseen for new parks, forests and hydroparks, started to be used for construction of private buildings. Generally, in Lithuania not only resort areas, but also any open spaces and even outer wood areas suffer from a bad tendency to treat them exceptionally as potential plots for building construction. In the case of Palanga we meet with the danger of continuous urbanization of the seaside, what consequently means decrease of the quality of the resort as well as fall in land prices in future. Progressive examples from foreign countries and the European Union directives are given, where the quantity of green areas in a city is considered as one of the most important criteria of its modernity and quality. The paper is based on a continuous experience of the author and on the recent work at Institute of Architecture and Contraction on the impact of land privatization on land prices and urban development. Reasonable balance between private and public interests is nesessary, and we still lack it.
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Malik, Vipin. "Disinvestments in India: Needed Change in Mindset." Vikalpa: The Journal for Decision Makers 28, no. 3 (July 2003): 57–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0256090920030305.
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In the nineties, India's budgeting, fiscal deficits, and balance of payments problems kick started the government's urge to unlock the huge investments chained in the state-owned enterprises (SOEs). The blueprint was the successful global model of privatization/divestment which was initiated by Margaret Thatcher in the eighties in the UK and implemented by other countries including Unified Germany, former USSR, the erstwhile socialist countries, Western Europe, Canada, Japan, and even China. The developed nations attained a high level of success followed by the developing and the least developed countries. While developed and OECD countries opted for Initial Public Offerings (IPOs), Russia adopted a system of vouchers for buying shares of public sector companies at auctions, and smaller states in the former Soviet Union and East European countries opted for trade and negotiated sales. Developing countries like Brazil and Chile made principal divestments of significantly large government stakes with no reservations to pass on control to foreign investors. Greece and Korea opted for convertible bonds. Considering that the debate on the need for disinvestments is very old, the question is: is there anything new and is there a game plan? Also, why is the media hesitant in presenting analysis of the decision-makers' mindset? It leads to the inference that the implementers have perhaps little commitment to disinvestments which is in contrast to what Hungary and China have achieved by their professional approach. Fortunately, the efforts to pursue reforms have not openly been reversed or given up by any government of the day. The Four Ps of disinvestment – Policy, Promise, Prognosis, and Performance – look grim. In the recent past, we have been witnessing a lot of debate on the disinvestments scenario suggesting dynamic movement. In reality, the sale of equity of only 49 companies has so far been accomplished (a few only privatized). In comparison, Hungary identified 1,288 SOEs, transformed them into companies for privatization, and in 2002, only 79 companies were left for privatization. Against a target of Rs 100 billion, the financial year 2000–2001 closed with a collection of Rs 18.70 billion. Against a target of Rs 120 billion, the financial year 2001–2002 closed with a collection of Rs 56 billion inclusive of special dividend of VSNL at Rs 18.87 billion and Rs 11.54 billion of IBP bought by another public sector undertaking (PSU). Against a target of Rs 120 billion, the financial year 2002-2003 closed with a collection of Rs 33 billion. The target for financial year 2003-04 is Rs 132 billion (US$ 2.87 billion). To set things on the recovery path, introspection on what aberrations have entered the system is necessary. In the words of the President to the Joint Session of Parliament in February 2002, “... The prolonged fiscal haemorrhage from the majority of these enterprises cannot be sustained any longer...” How do we ensure that the disinvestment process is on track? The following five-point agenda would be useful for policy-makers: Trust the homegrown expert for implementation. Place administrative control in the hands of the Finance Minister. Hand over companies that are a burden on the government to the employees. Do not involve a PSU/SOE in the bidding process. Manage revivals professionally.
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Onatsky, M. Y. "Socio-Economic Transformations in Estonia in the Post-Soviet Period: The Experience of Modernization Changes." Business Inform 12, no. 515 (2020): 72–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.32983/2222-4459-2020-12-72-81.
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The article considers the peculiarities of socio-economic transformation in Estonia in the post-Soviet period. The specifics of the transition to a market model of the economy in the country are highlighted. It is specified that the first steps towards market transformations were liberalization of both pricing policy and economic activity; introduction of a special regime of the credit and monetary policy – the currency council, which provided for the free exchange of national currency at a clearly fixed rate; reorganization of the mechanism of management of Estonia’s banking system. It was found out that the nature of market transformations that took place in the Republic of Estonia was largely determined by the country’s foreign policy course towards Euro-Atlantic integration. The author discloses peculiarities of the privatization process in Estonia, the main difference of which was its clear legislative regulation, which helped to avoid numerous financial pyramids and voucher auctions, as it was in other countries of the post-Soviet space. The specifics of socio-economic development of the Republic of Estonia after accession to the European Union and NATO are shown. Tax reform as an important component of creating a favorable investment and business climate in the country is analyzed. The process of modernization of the Estonian energy sector from the point of view of ensuring energy independence and improving the energy efficiency of the State economy has been studied. This was possible due to the implementation of the program of modernization of the energy sector, one of the components of which was the widespread introduction of energy-saving technologies, including the use of alternative energy sources. It has been proven that the implementation of market transformations in accordance with European requirements has accelerated the process of Estonia’s integration into the EU and NATO, as well as strengthened the country’s ties with its Western partners.
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Khalatur, Svitlana, Lesia Kriuchko, and Anna Sirko. "WORLD EXPERIENCE ADAPTATION OF ANTI-CRISIS MANAGEMENT OF ENTERPRISES IN THE CONDITIONS OF NATIONAL ECONOMY’S TRANSFORMATION." Baltic Journal of Economic Studies 6, no. 3 (August 5, 2020): 171–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.30525/2256-0742/2020-6-3-171-182.
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The purpose of the article is to systematize and generalize the experience of leading countries to form and implement an effective crisis management system; to clarify the role of the state in the formation and implementation of anti-crisis regulation strategy of the real sector of the economy, as well as to substantiate the main methodological provisions of its formation. The subject-matter of the study is the methodological and conceptual foundations of the process of the effective crisis management system of the USA, China, Japan, the EU and Ukraine. Methodology. The research is based on the set of well-known general scientific and special methods of research in economics. In particular, the dialectical method, the method of scientific abstraction, the method of systematic analysis, economic and mathematical modeling has been used in the article. Conclusion. The world experience of solving the problems of enterprise bankruptcy is generalized. The experience of the USA, Japan, China, the countries of the European Union is considered. The econometric model taking into account the heteroskedasticity of the residues shows that an increase of 1% Central government debt, bank capital to assets ratio, expense, exports of goods and services, foreign direct investment, net inflows will increase GDP by 2.41%, 1.53%, 1.23%, 2.03%, and 1.19% respectively in the studied countries. Examining the experience in the field of crisis management, it should be noted that in Europe there is a selective approach aimed at stimulating the activities of specific companies; public sector priorities are education, health care, pensions, and the labor market. In addition, in some countries in order to find innovative structures of enterprises, increase their competitiveness and efficiency, out of the crisis, the development of privatization programs is used, which in each country have their own characteristics. World experience shows that the models of anti-crisis management constructed in different countries of the world provide various potential opportunities for progressive socio-economic changes. However, none of them can be used in its pure form in the formation of anti-crisis management policy in Ukraine. This is due to the conditions of accumulation of this experience by countries, the formation of mechanisms and institutions in a balanced economy, differences in the construction of financial and credit mechanisms, and so on. The use of positive experience should be the first step towards reforming the crisis management system.
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MacNaughton, Gillian, and Diane Frey. "Teaching the Transformative Agenda of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights." Radical Teacher 103 (October 27, 2015): 17–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.5195/rt.2015.232.
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Neoliberalism has dominated the world for over three decades and now permeates our laws, policies and practices at the international, national and local levels. The International Monetary Fund, the World Trade Organization, the European Union, the United States and China all support trade liberalization, privatization of public services and the primacy of markets over people. Indeed, neoliberalism has become so ingrained that it has become invisible and many of us no longer notice when new agendas conflict with international human rights laws and principles to which almost all countries in the world have committed themselves. Adopted in 1948, immediately after World War II, to implement one of the four goals of the new United Nations Organization, the norms and aspirations elaborated in the UDHR provide a framework for a radically different world than the one we have today. In this article, we revisit the content of the UDHR, beginning with the right to a social and international order in which everyone’s rights can be realized, and consider other key provisions that conflict with neoliberalism, including the rights to the benefits of science, to full employment and decent work, to progressive realization of free higher education, to nondiscrimination on the grounds of economic status and to solidarity. We also share some activities that we use in the classroom and online to make the transformative agenda of the UDHR visible to students and demonstrate how far we have strayed from the aspiration of a world in which everyone enjoys their human rights. The article concludes that teaching a holistic vision of the UDHR in a neoliberal world is a radical human rights curriculum.
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Ropret, Marko, Aleksander Aristovnik, and Polonca Kovač. "A Content Analysis of the Rule of Law within Public Governance Models: Old vs. New EU Member States." NISPAcee Journal of Public Administration and Policy 11, no. 2 (December 1, 2018): 129–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/nispa-2018-0016.
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Abstract This paper aims to analyze the development of the rule of law and its key characteristics as a principle within public governance model (PGM) research. In the study, we analyzed two main EU cultural and geographical subgroups, selected old and new EU member states, in order to identify the main convergences and differences characteristic of the respective clusters. With the accession to the European Union, these acceding countries were to transfer EU law into national law and reform their governance models accordingly. The aim of the research was achieved by following an original methodology, encompassing 431 relevant scientific papers from the Scopus database. Th e known QDA Miner 5.0.11 soft ware package was selected as the main tool for the analysis. Th e research questions were aimed at covering: (i) the role of the rule of law as one of the key governance principles in relation to the countries’ historical legacy and different governance models, (ii) the relationship between the rule of law and other governance principles and (iii) opportunities for further research within the two selected geographical subgroups. The results, concerning the first research question, reveal a greater frequency of papers per year about the relevant PGM studies focusing on the old EU member states. Likely, due to a broader socio-administrative tradition within these countries, law-related topics are better covered. As regards the relationship between the rule of law and other governance principles, we have shown that the rule of law as a principle is importantly related to effective governance and PA reforms and must not be taken as an antipode to efficiency. In new EU MS, i.e. Central and East Europe (CEE), in particular the rule of law in administrative relations is also one of the salient elements of the on-going transitional development compared to the old Western democracies. However, within the processes of privatization, globalization and marketization, the rule of law is challenged; even with PAR that might undermine the core principles of democratic governance. While demanding further research, encompassing specific socio-economic needs of individual public administrations and an evaluation of legal and related highly important reform preconditions proves vital for tomorrow’s public administration, more effectively and efficiently coping with the needs of the modern society.
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PIKH, Oleh. "Polish-Belarusian relations in 2005–2015." Ukraine-Poland: Historical Heritage and Public Consciousness 11 (2018): 140–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.33402/up.2018-11-140-153.
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The article highlights the multilateral aspects of the Polish-Belarusian relations in 2005–2015. It is noted that having achieved the most important goals of foreign policy, becoming a full member of the EU and NATO, Poland decided to develop and deepen the Eastern vector. Relations with Belarus in the previous period, unlike the relations with Ukraine and Russia, remained at the low political level. At the same time, after Poland joined the EU in 2014, its foreign policy was consistent with the general policy of the European Union towards Belarus. It was established that the main reason for the negative tendencies in the Polish-Belarusian relations was the Belarusian authorities' interference with the activities of the Polish minority and organizations that represented it, as well as the strengthening of the authoritarian government in the internal political life of Belarus. The Polish authorities consistently supported their own minority, as well as the opposition forces and civil society in Belarus, which usually caused dissatisfaction of the official Minsk. Relations between Belarus and the West, and Poland in particular, were changeable, depending on its relationship with the Kremlin. Russia's support, supplemented by the accelerated process of privatization of the Belarusian economy with the participation of Russian capital, led to the financial-economic and military-political dependence of Belarus, which over the years, not only decreased, but deepened. It was noted that the policy of isolation and diplomatic pressure on the Belarusian political elites narrowed the space for the maneuvering of Polish authorities, and they lost the opportunity to influence the political processes in Belarus. Therefore, Poland was trying to use the Russian-Belarusian conflicts in order to draw the Belarusian leadership closer to the western world and depart it from Moscow. In particular, this was to be facilitated by the European Eastern Partnership program, which, however, did not produce significant results for Belarus. The Belarusian authorities continued the policy of authoritarian rule, persecution of the opposition and falsification of elections. At the same time, under the influence of the Russian-Ukrainian conflict, the leadership of Belarus cautiously took a course on improving relations with the Western countries and a more balanced foreign policy. Keywords Republic of Belarus, Republic of Poland, Russian Federation, foreign policy, sanctions.
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Plingen, Christian, Stephan Hobe, and Katharina Irmen. "Privatization of German and Other European Air Navigation Service Providers and the Single European Sky Regulations." Air and Space Law 32, Issue 3 (June 1, 2007): 168–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/aila2007023.
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For a number of years there has been a tendency towards the privatization of Air Navigation Service Providers (ANSPs), particularly in Europe. In this article a definition of the term ‘privatization’ will be outlined. Furthermore, the authors provide a review of the history of the English, French and German ANSPs in order to illustrate the differences in the development of European ANSPs. Thereafter, arguments for and against privatization will be summarized. During the last decade the European Union has strengthened its efforts in air law, as demonstrated by the issuance of the Single European Sky Regulations. Therefore, it is necessary to review the status of existing European ANSPs and their compliance with EU laws. Subsequently, the authors demonstrate that there is a trend towards commercialization, even though no mandatory rules are prescribed for the privatization of the core functions of ANSPs.
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Indjic, Trivo. "Water policy of Serbia and the European Union." Zbornik Matice srpske za drustvene nauke, no. 143 (2013): 235–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/zmsdn1343235i.
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The paper provides a critical view of the state of water and water policy in Serbia. It points out the slow acceptance of technical and legal standards of the EU, whose member Serbia aspires to become. The author offers some critical remarks of the EU Water Framework Directives and the EU policy of commercialization and privatization of water as a capital natural resource.
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Bilohur, Vlada, and Roman Oleksenko. "THE EUROPEAN SPORT MODELS MANAGEMENT IN THE EUROPEAN UNION COUNTRIES EUROPEAN UNION." HUMANITIES STUDIES 90, no. 13 (2022): 59–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.26661/hst-2022-13-90-07.
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Backhaus, Jürgen G. "Mass privatization in Central and East European countries." Journal of Economic Studies 30, no. 3/4 (June 2003): 196–204. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/01443580310483547.
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Adam, Jan. "Mass privatization in Central and East European countries." MOCT-MOST: Economic Policy in Transitional Economies 4, no. 1 (1994): 87–100. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf00997897.
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Stec, Małgorzata. "Innovation in European Union Countries." Gospodarka Narodowa 236, no. 11-12 (December 31, 2009): 45–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.33119/gn/101233.
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Rodríguez-Gulías, María Jesús, Vítor Manuel de Sousa Gabriel, and David Rodeiro-Pazos. "Effects of governance on entrepreneurship: European Union vs non-European Union." Competitiveness Review: An International Business Journal 28, no. 1 (January 15, 2018): 43–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/cr-06-2016-0035.
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Purpose The purpose of this paper is to analyse the effect of six governance indicators on the rate of creation of new companies between countries that are members of the European Union (EU) and those that are not. H1 states that the various dimensions of governance help to explain the immediate creation of new businesses in European and non-European countries. H2 states that the various dimensions of governance help to explain the deferred creation of new businesses in European and non-European countries. Design/methodology/approach The paper uses two types of analyses: firstly, univariate analysis, which is a descriptive statistics of the dependent, independent and control variables, and the results of a t-test; and secondly, multivariate analysis, which estimates using the fixed-effects estimator under the specifications previously raised for the subsample of 28 EU countries and for the subsample of 103 non-EU countries during the period 2004-2014. Findings The results show that the variables of governance are not significantly higher in the EU, although the density of the enterprises is. Within the governance indicators, government effectiveness is significant in the EU. The results obtained for the EU confirmed H1and H2, with a significant positive effect of government effectiveness on entrepreneurship, while the other governance variables were not significant in the EU subsample. The results obtained for non-EU countries suggest no significant immediate effects (H1) and a slightly significant delayed effect of rule of law on the entrepreneurship (H2) concerned. Research limitations/implications Future research in this area could consider introducing another regional division or other types of methodology as variables affect models. Practical implications Governance can be defined as the ability of a government and its public institutions to provide services and design, and implement rules, which is a factor that affects the creation of new companies. However, the effect of governance could differ depending on the country and its economic environment. This paper analyses the effect of six governance indicators on the rate of creation of new companies considering two different geographic regions as countries are presumably heterogeneous. Therefore, these results indicate that the effect of governance variables on entrepreneurship differs according to the region. Social implications The effect of governance variables on entrepreneurship according to the region is also known. Originality/value This study applied panel data analysis to two samples of countries during the period 2004-2014, one formed by 28 countries of the EU and the other by 103 non-EU countries. No other paper considers this number of countries for this period. To assess the impact of governance on the creation of new companies, this paper considered the existence of immediate and deferred effects of governance on entrepreneurship.
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SUZUKI, Kuninori. "Privatization and Liberalization of Postal Systems in the European Union." EU Studies in Japan 2004, no. 24 (2004): 168–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.5135/eusj1997.2004.168.
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Joumard, Isabelle. "Tax systems in European Union countries." OECD Economic Studies 2002, no. 1 (May 7, 2003): 91–151. http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/eco_studies-v2002-art4-en.
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Hsieh, Jin-chi, Ching-cheng Lu, Ying Li, Yung-ho Chiu, and Ya-sue Xu. "Environmental Assessment of European Union Countries." Energies 12, no. 2 (January 18, 2019): 295. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en12020295.
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This study utilizes the dynamic data envelopment analysis (DEA) model by considering time to measure the energy environmental efficiency of 28 countries in the European Union (EU) during the period 2006–2013. There are three kinds of variables: input, output, and carry-over. The inputs are labor, capital, and energy consumption (EC). The undesirable outputs are greenhouse gas emissions (GHE) and sulfur oxide (SOx) emissions, and the desirable output variable is gross domestic product (GDP). The carry-over variable is gross capital formation (GCF). The empirical results show that first the dynamic DEA model can measure environment efficiency and provide optimum improvement for inefficient countries, as more than half of the EU countries should improve their environmental efficiency. Second, the average overall scores of the EU countries point out that the better period of performance is from 2009 to 2012. Third, the output variables of GHE, SOx, and GDP exhibit a significant impact on environmental efficiency. Finally, the average value of others is significantly better than high renewable energy utilization (HRE) with the Wilcoxon test. Thus, the EU’s strategy for environmental energy improvement should be to pay attention to the benefits of renewable energy (RE) utilization, reducing greenhouse gas emissions (GHE), and enhancing the development of RE utilization to help achieve the goal of lower GHE.
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Gajos, Edyta, Sylwia Małażewska, and Konrad Prandecki. "EMISSION EFFICIENCY OF EUROPEAN UNION COUNTRIES." Annals of the Polish Association of Agricultural and Agribusiness Economists XX, no. 6 (December 10, 2018): 55–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0012.7732.
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The aim of the study was to compare the total greenhouse gas emissions in the European Union countries and their emission efficiency. Emission efficiency was calculated as the ratio of emission volume and value to gross value added generated by the economy of a given country (size of the economy). The necessary statistical data was obtained from Eurostat. It was found that in 2015 most of greenhouse gases were emitted by: Germany, United Kingdom, Poland, France and Italy. At the same time, France and the United Kingdom were characterized by one of the best emission efficiency in the European Union, Germany and Italy obtained average results, while Poland was in the group of countries with the lowest emission efficiency. Therefore, it can be concluded, that the volume of emissions is significantly affected by the size of the economy. Some large emitters have economies based on relatively “clean” technologies and thus their potential to further reduction is not very high. The reverse is true for some low-emission countries, such as Estonia and Bulgaria. This indicates the need for a more comprehensive look at the problem of reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
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Szabó, Erika. "Land regulation in the European Union and Hungary." Applied Studies in Agribusiness and Commerce 1, no. 1 (December 31, 2007): 57–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.19041/apstract/2007/1/8.
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Land, as it constitutes one of the bases of agricultural production, has a special position in the economic-judiciary surroundings of states. In Hungarian history, land ownership has undergone many radical transitions. The decade starting from the political and land regulation reform is a short time in land tenure. In spite of it, there have been several important changes in land ownership structure. In the 1970s and 80s, large agricultural firms, especially co-operatives and state farms, were common in Hungary. State hegemony was typical of land ownership and use, with rather small, privately owned parcels. Since privatization began after 1989, this tendency has changed, with land owned by farmers. In the following article, I am going to review the laws regulating land ownership and land use in Hungary and in the European Union.
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Kraemer, R. Andreas. "Privatization in the Water Industry." Public Works Management & Policy 3, no. 2 (October 1998): 104–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1087724x9800300202.
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Throughout the world, privatization of water supply and the sewerage services is a controversial topic of political debate. Any nationalization, privatization, municipalization, or alteration in the regulatory regime constitutes a significant change of the institutional mechanism of water management. This article, based on a comparative analysis of water management institutions in selected member states of the European Union, addresses water supply and sewerage services in conurbations with centralized supplies. A brief characterization of water services and the water industry is provided in the context of global water policy developments. Three typical regulatory models are described: the British, based on centralized public policy and surrogate competition by statistical comparison; the French, based on competition for temporary monopolies; and the German or middle-European, based on competition for goods and services and control of limited operational monopolies. A typology of privatization is also presented. This article does not seek to argue that one model is better than another.
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Gerlak, Andrea K. "Human Rights and Privatization of Water in the European Union and Beyond." International Studies Review 13, no. 3 (September 2011): 529–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2486.2011.01056.x.
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Kraciuk, Jakub. "FOOD SECURITY OF THE EUROPEAN UNION COUNTRIES." Annals of the Polish Association of Agricultural and Agribusiness Economists XIX, no. 3 (August 22, 2017): 150–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0010.3238.
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The aim of the study was to show the state of food security in European Union countries and defines the basic factors determining the level of this security. There is a large disproportion in the state of food security between individual European Union countries, especially between old and new EU countries. It was determined that in the analyzed years average prices of products and their quality deteriorated in the countries of the European Union. The unfavorable changes that have taken place were not too great. On the other hand, the average indicator for the analyzed countries regarding access to food has clearly improved.
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Grabowska, Barbara. "Education of teachers in European Union countries." Osvitolohiya, no. 3 (2014): 40–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.28925/2226-3012.2014.3.4045.
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Gajewski, Paweł. "Public Finance Sustainability in European Union Countries." Gospodarka Narodowa 251, no. 10 (October 31, 2011): 21–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.33119/gn/101072.
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Elbashir, Rania. "LIBYA'S FOREIGN TRADE WITH EUROPEAN UNION COUNTRIES." MEST Journal 10, no. 2 (July 15, 2022): 64–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.12709/mest.10.10.02.07.
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The subject of this empirical and theoretical work is the exchange of foreign trade in Libya with the countries of the European Union. The scientific objective of the research is to make a scientific classification of the volume of foreign trade between Libya and the European Union countries and to discover the factors that hinder foreign trade and explain them scientifically. European countries also support this cooperation and contribute significantly to the formulation of future cooperation policies with Libya in various social, political, and economic fields. However, this cooperation takes place in light of objective difficulties arising from the conflicting interests of Western countries in North Africa and Libya. Since these relations are burdened with many problems of different nature, we started this paper from two assumptions: The first premise is that in the trade relations between Libya and the European Union, there are common interests for foreign trade that are more feasible. The second premise is that more encouragement and protection for investments by the countries of the European Union helps in new qualitative development and economic growth in Libya, which will significantly improve trade relations between Libya and the countries of the European Union.
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Kavelaars, Peter. "The foreign countries of the European Union." EC Tax Review 16, Issue 6 (December 1, 2007): 268–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/ecta2007044.
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Szymańska, Agata. "Tax revenues in the European Union countries." Wiadomości Statystyczne. The Polish Statistician 62, no. 5 (May 26, 2017): 79–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0014.0921.
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The aim of this paper is to analyse tax revenues and examine similarities of selected tax revenues (mainly VAT, CIT, PIT and excise duty) in the European Union countries. The analysis of the EU members concerns the period between 2003 (i.e. the year preceding the biggest enlargement of the EU) and 2012 (due to data completeness). Tax rates and the structure of tax revenues in the EU countries were compared and then the cluster analysis was applied to assess the similarity of tax revenues. The analysis suggests that the process of tax harmonization, which took place in the period considered, did not exert a significant impact on the similarity of the structure of tax revenues in the EU countries. The structure seems to be still determined by e.g. social, economic or historical factors, which influenced the tax systems creation in particular EU countries.
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Brozo, William G., E. Sutton Flynt, Gerry Shiel, Ulla-Britt Persson, Christine Garbe, and Lydia Dachkova. "Content Reading in Four European Union Countries." Reading Teacher 63, no. 2 (October 2009): 170–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1598/rt.63.2.10.
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MUFTAKHOVA, A. N. "TERRITORIAL MOBILITY IN THE EUROPEAN UNION COUNTRIES." Central Russian Journal of Social Sciences 14, no. 1 (2019): 145–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.22394/2071-2367-2019-14-1-145-160.
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